1) The document presents a new four-phase model for formulating ill-structured problems, with problem generation and formulation preceding problem solving and solution implementation.
2) It describes a relatively new heuristic called the "why-what's stopping" analysis, which is a systematic thinking process that combines analytical precision with structured imagination.
3) The heuristic aims to overcome behavioral deficiencies that can hinder problem formulation, by developing skills like deferring judgment, actively diverging, and actively converging.
Management decision making involves a process and various methods. The document discusses classical, behavioral, and modern management theories. It also outlines the decision making process as identifying a problem, searching for alternatives, evaluating options, choosing an alternative, taking action, and reviewing results. Methods of decision making discussed include simulation and Markov analysis. Examples of using simulation and Markov chains to model real-life scenarios like customer brand selection are provided. Future applications of simulation in design and innovation are also discussed.
SWK3026 thinking philosophically about collaborative change
This document discusses complex problems and collaborative social change. It introduces concepts like wicked problems, which are difficult to solve because they have no clear formulation or solution. The document suggests using systems thinking approaches like rich pictures and soft systems methodology to understand complex problems. Rich pictures are non-judgmental diagrams that can display the relationships within a problematic situation. The document provides an example rich picture and references for further reading on systems thinking concepts.
Action research is a qualitative research method that combines theory and practice through cycles of intervention and reflection with practitioners in real-world situations. It aims to solve practical problems while expanding theoretical knowledge. The document advocates for wider adoption of action research in information systems research, as it allows researchers to collaborate directly with practitioners to develop and refine frameworks in real organizational contexts over multiple iterations. While gaining acceptance, action research remains underutilized in mainstream information systems journals.
This document provides an introduction to regression discontinuity (RD) designs, which estimate treatment effects when treatment is determined by whether an observed variable exceeds a known cutoff. The document discusses how RD designs were developed in the 1960s but gained popularity in economics in the late 1990s. It notes that recent work has shown RD designs require weaker assumptions than other non-experimental methods and can be used in a variety of contexts. The document aims to comprehensively summarize understanding of when RD designs are valid or invalid, their strengths and weaknesses, and how to implement them in practice.
CHAPTER SIXNeeds Assessment A Lighthouse BeaconCatherine M. .docx
CHAPTER SIX
Needs Assessment: A Lighthouse Beacon*
Catherine M. Sleezer
Darlene Russ-Eft
Those who captain ships at sea rely on a lighthouse beacon to mark a safe path to the journey’s end. The bright, flashing light mounted on a tall tower that is visible over the horizon also reveals underwater areas that are too risky, too shallow, or too dangerous for safe passage. The lighthouse beacon for human learning, training, and performance improvement initiatives—whether labeled as needs analysis, needs assessment, or some other term—is a type of evaluation that lights the path for completing an initiative and reveals places that are too risky, dangerous, or shallow for safe passage. Such analysis takes more time and planning than simply moving forward to implement solutions; it does, however, avoid costly mistakes and greatly increases the likelihood of an initiative’s success.
Indeed, evaluation expertise applied at the beginning of a project to assess needs (predictive analysis) may provide a higher return on investment than the evaluation expertise that is applied after a project is completed (summative evaluation) (Bahlis, 2008; Sleezer, 1990). Such analysis can link learning and performance improvement expertise to an organization’s strategic needs, its mission and goals, and the perceived issues. For a useful visual of this linkage, see the Pershing Performance Analysis Model (Haig & Addison, 2008).
In this chapter, we set the stage by first defining the term needs assessment and describing some needs assessment models and approaches. Then we discuss evaluation standards and principles that are especially important when planning, implementing, or evaluating a needs assessment, and we show how the standards and principles can be applied.
WHAT IS NEEDS ASSESSMENT?
Needs assessment is a diagnostic process for determining the important learning and performance needs in the situation and how to best address them. A “need” is the gap between the current condition and the desired condition. The indicators that a needs assessment should be implemented include dissatisfaction and growing concerns with a current learning, training, or performance situation; a sense that there are gaps in accomplishments, processes, or capacity; and the willingness to expend resources to improve the situation. Sometimes, a needs assessment targets a subset of gaps (for example, critical incident analysis, audience analysis, technology analysis, situational analysis, media analysis, and cost analysis).
Needs assessments are implemented in situations that are dynamic, where some information is unknown and where key players may disagree about the information that is known. Moreover, a needs assessment either supports or challenges the current power structure. In such situations, sound evaluation practices keep a needs assessment grounded and assure the integrity of the process and results.
Implementing a needs assessment involves data collection and analysis and collabo ...
Operations research is a quantitative approach to decision making based on the scientific method. It originated in World War II and is now used widely in business and industry. Operations research uses techniques like linear programming, transportation modeling, and simulation to identify problems, develop mathematical models, obtain optimal solutions, test models, and implement solutions. The goal is to provide organizations with more complete data, consider all options, carefully predict outcomes, and use the latest decision tools to optimize processes and solve problems effectively.
1. The document outlines the key steps in a research process including finding a problem, formulating hypotheses to solve the problem, testing hypotheses through theoretical or empirical analysis, and returning to find new solutions if testing is unsuccessful.
2. It discusses Jim Gray's criteria for high-impact research including having clear benefit, a simple statement, no obvious solution, testable progress, and the ability to break problems into smaller steps.
3. Common research methods like the research matrix method and carrying out experiments, statistical analysis, and domain explanations are explained. The role of researchers and differences between theoretical and empirical research are also summarized.
The document defines operations research and discusses its history and applications. It originated during World War II to optimize limited military resources. Operations research uses mathematical modeling to aid decision making. It defines problems, formulates models, derives solutions, and implements recommendations. Some key applications include allocating scarce resources optimally and minimizing costs and wait times.
The document discusses grand challenges that organizations face in addressing large, unresolved social problems. It identifies three key facets of grand challenges:
1) They are complex, involving many interacting parts and nonlinear dynamics that are difficult to comprehend fully.
2) They involve radical uncertainty, as the problems and potential solutions are difficult to predict for organizations.
3) They are evaluative, cutting across boundaries and implicating multiple values and criteria for assessing progress.
The document argues that to effectively address these large problems, organizations need approaches that can link distributed action to generating novel solutions, and it proposes a framework drawing from pragmatism and the concept of "robust action."
Operations research is a scientific method that provides executive departments with a quantitative basis for decision making regarding their operations. The operations research approach involves three phases: the judgement phase where the problem is identified and a model is formulated; the research phase where data is collected, hypotheses are tested, and results are analyzed and generalized; and the action phase where recommendations are made, resources are allocated, and the decision is implemented. Overall, the process involves observing the problem, defining it, constructing a model, finding a solution, and implementing the solution.
The document discusses the case method approach to teaching and learning. It describes case method as using real business situations to help students develop analytical skills like problem identification, solution development, and decision making. The case method involves studying a case, identifying problems, investigating issues, analyzing solutions, and making recommendations. It aims to teach independent and cooperative thinking, introduce realism, demonstrate business issues, teach research and decision making. Analyzing cases strengthens various skills like understanding, deduction, evaluating consequences, and presenting conclusions. The steps outlined for case analysis include multiple readings to identify key facts and problems, defining the problem, setting objectives, outlining alternatives, evaluating pros and cons of options, and recommending and planning a decision.
Development of conceptual framework in Nursing ResearchDhara Vyas
This document discusses the development of a conceptual framework for research. It begins with an outline of key topics to be covered, including the differences between theories, models, frameworks and conceptual models. It then provides examples of different types of theories and how conceptual frameworks fit within the research process. The document discusses how to develop a conceptual framework, including identifying concepts and relationships. It provides examples of different forms a conceptual framework can take, such as flow charts, diagrams and mind maps. Finally, it includes examples of conceptual frameworks developed for specific studies.
CHAPTER 10 MIXED METHODS PROCEDURESHow would you write a mixed mEstelaJeffery653
CHAPTER 10 MIXED METHODS PROCEDURES
How would you write a mixed methods procedure section for your proposal or study? Up until this point, we have considered collected quantitative data and qualitative data. We have not discussed “mixing” or combining the two forms of data in a study. We can start with the assumption that both forms of data provide different types of information (open-ended data in the case of qualitative and closed-ended data in the case of quantitative). If we further assume that each type of data collection has both limitations and strengths, we can consider how the strengths can be combined to develop a stronger understanding of the research problem or questions (and, as well, overcome the limitations of each). In a sense, more insight into a problem is to be gained from mixing or integration of the quantitative and qualitative data. This “mixing” or integrating of data, it can be argued, provides a stronger understanding of the problem or question than either by itself. Mixed methods research, therefore, is simply “mining” the databases more by integrating them. This idea is at the core of a new methodology called “mixed methods research.”
Conveying the nature of mixed methods research and its essential characteristics needs to begin a good mixed methods procedure. Start with the assumption that mixed methods is a methodology in research and that the readers need to be educated as to the basic intent and definition of the design, the reasons for choosing the procedure, and the value it will lend to a study. Then, decide on a mixed methods design to use. There are several from which to choose; consider the different possibilities and decide which one is best for your proposed study. With this choice in hand, discuss the data collection, the data analysis, and the data interpretation, discussion, and validation procedures within the context of the design. Finally, end with a discussion of potential ethical issues that need to be anticipated in the study, and suggest an outline for writing the final study. These are all standard methods procedures, and they are framed in this chapter as they apply to mixed methods research. Table 10.1 shows a checklist of the mixed methods procedures addressed in this chapter.
COMPONENTS OF MIXED METHODS PROCEDURES
Mixed methods research has evolved into a set of procedures that proposal developers and study designers can use in planning a mixed methods study. In 2003, the Handbook of Mixed Methods in the Social and Behavior Sciences (Tashakkori & Teddlie, 2003) was published (and later added to in a second edition, see Tashakkori & Teddlie, 2010), providing a comprehensive overview of this approach. Now several journals emphasize mixed methods research, such as the Journal of Mixed Methods Research, Quality and Quantity, Field Methods, and the International Journal of Multiple Research Approaches. Additional journals actively encourage this form of inquiry (e.g., International Journal of ...
Management decision making involves a process and various methods. The document discusses classical, behavioral, and modern management theories. It also outlines the decision making process as identifying a problem, searching for alternatives, evaluating options, choosing an alternative, taking action, and reviewing results. Methods of decision making discussed include simulation and Markov analysis. Examples of using simulation and Markov chains to model real-life scenarios like customer brand selection are provided. Future applications of simulation in design and innovation are also discussed.
SWK3026 thinking philosophically about collaborative changeTim Curtis
This document discusses complex problems and collaborative social change. It introduces concepts like wicked problems, which are difficult to solve because they have no clear formulation or solution. The document suggests using systems thinking approaches like rich pictures and soft systems methodology to understand complex problems. Rich pictures are non-judgmental diagrams that can display the relationships within a problematic situation. The document provides an example rich picture and references for further reading on systems thinking concepts.
Action research is a qualitative research method that combines theory and practice through cycles of intervention and reflection with practitioners in real-world situations. It aims to solve practical problems while expanding theoretical knowledge. The document advocates for wider adoption of action research in information systems research, as it allows researchers to collaborate directly with practitioners to develop and refine frameworks in real organizational contexts over multiple iterations. While gaining acceptance, action research remains underutilized in mainstream information systems journals.
This document provides an introduction to regression discontinuity (RD) designs, which estimate treatment effects when treatment is determined by whether an observed variable exceeds a known cutoff. The document discusses how RD designs were developed in the 1960s but gained popularity in economics in the late 1990s. It notes that recent work has shown RD designs require weaker assumptions than other non-experimental methods and can be used in a variety of contexts. The document aims to comprehensively summarize understanding of when RD designs are valid or invalid, their strengths and weaknesses, and how to implement them in practice.
CHAPTER SIXNeeds Assessment A Lighthouse BeaconCatherine M. .docxmccormicknadine86
CHAPTER SIX
Needs Assessment: A Lighthouse Beacon*
Catherine M. Sleezer
Darlene Russ-Eft
Those who captain ships at sea rely on a lighthouse beacon to mark a safe path to the journey’s end. The bright, flashing light mounted on a tall tower that is visible over the horizon also reveals underwater areas that are too risky, too shallow, or too dangerous for safe passage. The lighthouse beacon for human learning, training, and performance improvement initiatives—whether labeled as needs analysis, needs assessment, or some other term—is a type of evaluation that lights the path for completing an initiative and reveals places that are too risky, dangerous, or shallow for safe passage. Such analysis takes more time and planning than simply moving forward to implement solutions; it does, however, avoid costly mistakes and greatly increases the likelihood of an initiative’s success.
Indeed, evaluation expertise applied at the beginning of a project to assess needs (predictive analysis) may provide a higher return on investment than the evaluation expertise that is applied after a project is completed (summative evaluation) (Bahlis, 2008; Sleezer, 1990). Such analysis can link learning and performance improvement expertise to an organization’s strategic needs, its mission and goals, and the perceived issues. For a useful visual of this linkage, see the Pershing Performance Analysis Model (Haig & Addison, 2008).
In this chapter, we set the stage by first defining the term needs assessment and describing some needs assessment models and approaches. Then we discuss evaluation standards and principles that are especially important when planning, implementing, or evaluating a needs assessment, and we show how the standards and principles can be applied.
WHAT IS NEEDS ASSESSMENT?
Needs assessment is a diagnostic process for determining the important learning and performance needs in the situation and how to best address them. A “need” is the gap between the current condition and the desired condition. The indicators that a needs assessment should be implemented include dissatisfaction and growing concerns with a current learning, training, or performance situation; a sense that there are gaps in accomplishments, processes, or capacity; and the willingness to expend resources to improve the situation. Sometimes, a needs assessment targets a subset of gaps (for example, critical incident analysis, audience analysis, technology analysis, situational analysis, media analysis, and cost analysis).
Needs assessments are implemented in situations that are dynamic, where some information is unknown and where key players may disagree about the information that is known. Moreover, a needs assessment either supports or challenges the current power structure. In such situations, sound evaluation practices keep a needs assessment grounded and assure the integrity of the process and results.
Implementing a needs assessment involves data collection and analysis and collabo ...
Chapter-1 Course Material OR (1) (1).pdfAnoopVasudev1
Operations research is a quantitative approach to decision making based on the scientific method. It originated in World War II and is now used widely in business and industry. Operations research uses techniques like linear programming, transportation modeling, and simulation to identify problems, develop mathematical models, obtain optimal solutions, test models, and implement solutions. The goal is to provide organizations with more complete data, consider all options, carefully predict outcomes, and use the latest decision tools to optimize processes and solve problems effectively.
1. The document outlines the key steps in a research process including finding a problem, formulating hypotheses to solve the problem, testing hypotheses through theoretical or empirical analysis, and returning to find new solutions if testing is unsuccessful.
2. It discusses Jim Gray's criteria for high-impact research including having clear benefit, a simple statement, no obvious solution, testable progress, and the ability to break problems into smaller steps.
3. Common research methods like the research matrix method and carrying out experiments, statistical analysis, and domain explanations are explained. The role of researchers and differences between theoretical and empirical research are also summarized.
The document defines operations research and discusses its history and applications. It originated during World War II to optimize limited military resources. Operations research uses mathematical modeling to aid decision making. It defines problems, formulates models, derives solutions, and implements recommendations. Some key applications include allocating scarce resources optimally and minimizing costs and wait times.
The document discusses grand challenges that organizations face in addressing large, unresolved social problems. It identifies three key facets of grand challenges:
1) They are complex, involving many interacting parts and nonlinear dynamics that are difficult to comprehend fully.
2) They involve radical uncertainty, as the problems and potential solutions are difficult to predict for organizations.
3) They are evaluative, cutting across boundaries and implicating multiple values and criteria for assessing progress.
The document argues that to effectively address these large problems, organizations need approaches that can link distributed action to generating novel solutions, and it proposes a framework drawing from pragmatism and the concept of "robust action."
Operations research is a scientific method that provides executive departments with a quantitative basis for decision making regarding their operations. The operations research approach involves three phases: the judgement phase where the problem is identified and a model is formulated; the research phase where data is collected, hypotheses are tested, and results are analyzed and generalized; and the action phase where recommendations are made, resources are allocated, and the decision is implemented. Overall, the process involves observing the problem, defining it, constructing a model, finding a solution, and implementing the solution.
This document provides an overview of addressing large, complex, unstructured problems. It discusses literature from various disciplines on problem solving processes and considerations. Key phases in the problem solving process are identified along with keeping an open mind to different tools and techniques. Psychology research is discussed related to problem solving styles, decision making, and reducing complex problems. Addressing large problems requires combining statistical and qualitative approaches.
This document provides an overview of Bloom's Taxonomy, which classifies learning objectives into six levels: Knowledge, Comprehension, Application, Analysis, Synthesis, and Evaluation. It defines each level and provides examples of learning objectives for each. It also discusses using Bloom's Taxonomy to design classroom lectures and assessments that target different cognitive levels and ensure students achieve various levels of learning.
ANALYTIC METHOD IMPLEMENTATION WITH A TRIGONOMETRY PROBLEM SOLVERCourtney Esco
This document describes research into implementing an analytic teaching method within an intelligent tutoring system for solving trigonometry problems.
The researchers developed a protocol for communication between a trigonometry problem solver agent (TRIPS) and a teaching expert agent (TET) within an ITS. TET can apply different teaching methods, including the analytic method, to solutions provided by TRIPS.
The document provides details on how the analytic method was conceptualized for use in this ITS, including: developing analytical reasoning tests based on problem solutions; generating wrong answers to test student understanding; and evaluating student responses. It also discusses the contributions of this work and opportunities for future refinement.
This document discusses the importance of management research and outlines the typical stages of a research project. It begins by noting that research facilitates effective management decision-making by reducing uncertainty. The typical stages of a research project are then described, including determining objectives and hypotheses, selecting a research design, developing measurement instruments, testing feasibility, planning data analysis, and preparing instructions. Evaluating social programs and describing key elements of research like variables, samples, and sampling techniques are also discussed.
Business Project Management (600542)2019-20Session 1.docxjasoninnes20
This document provides an overview of a business project management module, including details about the module content, assessment, and two approaches to project management that will be covered - systems approach and traditional approach. It introduces the two lecturers, Gavin Betts and Jeremy Wilcock, who will support learning during the module. The module will cover both approaches in detail and require students to choose one for their final assignment based on two provided scenarios.
Similar to A New Methodology For Formulating Ill-Structured Problems (20)
Strong College Essays Admissions Essay, CollegMichelle Shaw
The document discusses the steps to get writing assistance from HelpWriting.net, including creating an account, completing an order form with instructions and deadline, and reviewing writer bids before selecting one and placing a deposit to start the assignment. Clients can then review the completed paper and request revisions if needed, with HelpWriting.net providing a refund if the paper is plagiarized. The process aims to ensure clients get original, high-quality content that meets their needs and satisfaction.
The document provides instructions for requesting writing assistance from an online service. It outlines a 5-step process: 1) Create an account with valid email and password. 2) Complete a 10-minute order form providing instructions, sources, and deadline. 3) Review bids from writers and choose one based on qualifications. 4) Review the completed paper and authorize payment if satisfied. 5) Request revisions until fully satisfied, with a refund option for plagiarized work.
The document provides instructions for using the HelpWriting.net custom writing service in 5 steps:
1. Create an account with a password and email.
2. Complete a 10-minute order form with instructions, sources, and deadline. Attach sample work.
3. Review bids from writers and choose one based on qualifications and feedback. Place a deposit.
4. Ensure the paper meets expectations and authorize payment. Free revisions are provided.
5. Request multiple revisions to ensure satisfaction. Plagiarized work results in a full refund.
Writing Letter Essay Transcript Vacation, PNG,Michelle Shaw
The document discusses the benefits of participating in policy debate. It explains that policy debate allows high school and college students to discuss ideas for solving societal problems. Many students are drawn to debate because they hope to learn skills that can help them enact real change. The document suggests that being part of the policy debate community can strengthen one's motivation to address issues in the world and give them experience thinking of solutions to problems.
Best College Essay Help What Are The Study Level AMichelle Shaw
The document discusses the different types of robots categorized based on their functions and
locomotion abilities. It describes stationary robots that do not move, wheeled robots that use wheels to
change positions, legged robots that move using legs and arms in complex ways, and vehicle robots
that can cover long distances using locomotive components. Examples provided include surgical
robots, military robots, household robots, and humanoid robots.
Modle Article Scientifique Word. Online assignment writing service.Michelle Shaw
The Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact of 1939 had significant consequences for the outbreak of WWII in Europe. Both Germany and Soviet Russia had strategic motivations for signing the pact, which gave them freedom to invade Poland and other countries. The pact was one of several factors that enabled the war, including the failed policy of appeasement and the inability of the League of Nations to ensure collective security.
Article Summary Example Ruang. Online assignment writing service.Michelle Shaw
The document provides instructions for requesting and obtaining writing assistance from HelpWriting.net. It outlines a 5-step process: 1) Create an account with a password and email. 2) Complete a 10-minute order form providing instructions, sources, and deadline. 3) Review bids from writers and select one based on qualifications. 4) Review the completed paper and authorize payment if satisfied. 5) Request revisions to ensure satisfaction, with the option of a full refund for plagiarized work.
Best Essay Website By Aiz. Online assignment writing service.Michelle Shaw
The document provides instructions for requesting and obtaining writing assistance from the website HelpWriting.net. It outlines a 5-step process: 1) Create an account with an email and password. 2) Complete a 10-minute order form providing instructions, sources, and deadline. 3) Review bids from writers and choose one based on qualifications. 4) Review the completed paper and authorize payment if satisfied. 5) Request revisions to ensure satisfaction, and the company offers refunds for plagiarized work. The summary aims to concisely outline the key steps involved in the writing assistance process according to the document.
006 Examples Of Introductory Paragraphs FMichelle Shaw
The document discusses ethics and its branches. The main branches covered are normative ethics, meta ethics, applied ethics, and descriptive ethics. Normative ethics examines how people ought to act morally. Meta ethics analyzes the meaning of right and wrong. Applied ethics focuses on applying moral knowledge to practice. Descriptive ethics describes what people view as right. The document also briefly discusses computer ethics, which examines ethical decision making for computing professionals.
Pin By Ariela On W R I T I N G Introductory Paragraph, EssaMichelle Shaw
This document provides instructions for requesting writing assistance from the website HelpWriting.net. It outlines a 5-step process: 1) Create an account with a password and email. 2) Complete a 10-minute order form providing instructions, sources, and deadline. 3) Review bids from writers and choose one based on qualifications. 4) Review the completed paper and authorize payment if satisfied. 5) Request revisions until fully satisfied, with the option of a full refund for plagiarized work.
The document discusses how to request writing assistance from HelpWriting.net, including creating an account, submitting a request form with instructions and sources, reviewing writer bids and choosing one to complete the assignment, revising the paper if needed, and being able to request revisions until fully satisfied with the work. The process aims to match clients with qualified writers and provide original, high-quality content through revisions or a refund if plagiarized.
Hilarious College Application Essay College Application EssayMichelle Shaw
This document provides instructions for using the HelpWriting.net service to have essays and assignments written. It outlines a 5-step process: 1) Create an account with a password and email. 2) Complete an order form providing instructions, sources, and deadline. 3) Review bids from writers and select one. 4) Receive the paper and authorize payment if satisfied. 5) Request revisions until satisfied, with a refund option for plagiarized work. The service aims to provide original, high-quality content through a bidding system and revision process.
Halloween Spooky Writing Paper Abcteach. Online assignment writing service.Michelle Shaw
The document provides instructions for creating an account on the website HelpWriting.net in order to request that a writer complete an assignment paper. It explains that the request will be sent to multiple writers who will bid on the project, and the client can then select a writer and pay a deposit to begin the assignment. The client will then receive the completed paper and can request revisions until satisfied before authorizing full payment.
The Literary Analysis Essay A TeacherS Guide Mud And Ink TeMichelle Shaw
The document provides a 5-step process for requesting an assignment to be written by the HelpWriting.net service:
1. Create an account with a password and valid email.
2. Complete a 10-minute order form providing instructions, sources, deadline, and attaching a sample if wanting the writer to imitate style.
3. Review bids from writers based on qualifications, history, and feedback, then place a deposit to start the assignment.
4. Ensure the paper meets expectations and authorize final payment if pleased. Revisions are free.
5. Multiple revisions can be requested to ensure satisfaction, and plagiarized work results in a full refund.
Top Writing Services Paper Writing Service, Writing ServicMichelle Shaw
The document discusses the process for getting writing help from the website HelpWriting.net. It involves 5 steps: 1) Creating an account with an email and password. 2) Completing an order form providing instructions, sources, and deadline. 3) Reviewing bids from writers and choosing one. 4) Reviewing the completed paper and authorizing payment. 5) Requesting revisions until satisfied, with a refund offered for plagiarized work. The service aims to provide original, high-quality content to meet customer needs.
How To Make A Review Paper. How To Format YouMichelle Shaw
The document provides instructions for creating an account on HelpWriting.net in order to request paper writing assistance. It outlines a 5-step process: 1) Create an account with email and password; 2) Complete an order form with instructions, sources, and deadline; 3) Review writer bids and choose one; 4) Review the paper and authorize payment; 5) Request revisions until satisfied. The service uses a bidding system and promises original, high-quality content with refunds for plagiarism.
Writing Papers In The Biological Sciences, 4 Th EMichelle Shaw
The document discusses Robert Nozick's theory of distributive justice, which argues that just holdings arise from just acquisition and transfer. However, the author argues that Nozick's theory should be rejected for two reasons. Specifically, the theory fails to adequately address issues of inequality that can arise from just transfers of holdings and does not sufficiently account for the need to rectify injustices.
Sample High School Essays. Online assignment writing service.Michelle Shaw
Total compensation, which includes both monetary and nonmonetary rewards, can positively or negatively impact an organization's effectiveness. Positively, linking pay to performance can motivate employees to increase productivity. Offering competitive total compensation can help attract and retain top talent. However, total compensation must align with employee needs and business goals. If not balanced properly, it can negatively impact employee attraction, motivation, and retention, preventing the organization from being effective.
Essay About Global Warming. Online assignment writing service.Michelle Shaw
The document provides instructions for creating an account and submitting an assignment request on the HelpWriting.net website in 5 steps: register with an email and password, complete an order form with instructions and deadline, choose a writer based on their bid, qualifications and reviews, place a deposit to start the assignment, and authorize final payment upon approval of the completed paper which can be revised for free.
How to Install Theme in the Odoo 17 ERPCeline George
With Odoo, we can select from a wide selection of attractive themes. Many excellent ones are free to use, while some require payment. Putting an Odoo theme in the Odoo module directory on our server, downloading the theme, and then installing it is a simple process.
Understanding and Interpreting Teachers’ TPACK for Teaching Multimodalities i...Neny Isharyanti
Presented as a plenary session in iTELL 2024 in Salatiga on 4 July 2024.
The plenary focuses on understanding and intepreting relevant TPACK competence for teachers to be adept in teaching multimodality in the digital age. It juxtaposes the results of research on multimodality with its contextual implementation in the teaching of English subject in the Indonesian Emancipated Curriculum.
Front Desk Management in the Odoo 17 ERPCeline George
Front desk officers are responsible for taking care of guests and customers. Their work mainly involves interacting with customers and business partners, either in person or through phone calls.
How to Store Data on the Odoo 17 WebsiteCeline George
Here we are going to discuss how to store data in Odoo 17 Website.
It includes defining a model with few fields in it. Add demo data into the model using data directory. Also using a controller, pass the values into the template while rendering it and display the values in the website.
Lecture_Notes_Unit4_Chapter_8_9_10_RDBMS for the students affiliated by alaga...Murugan Solaiyappan
Title: Relational Database Management System Concepts(RDBMS)
Description:
Welcome to the comprehensive guide on Relational Database Management System (RDBMS) concepts, tailored for final year B.Sc. Computer Science students affiliated with Alagappa University. This document covers fundamental principles and advanced topics in RDBMS, offering a structured approach to understanding databases in the context of modern computing. PDF content is prepared from the text book Learn Oracle 8I by JOSE A RAMALHO.
Key Topics Covered:
Main Topic : DATA INTEGRITY, CREATING AND MAINTAINING A TABLE AND INDEX
Sub-Topic :
Data Integrity,Types of Integrity, Integrity Constraints, Primary Key, Foreign key, unique key, self referential integrity,
creating and maintain a table, Modifying a table, alter a table, Deleting a table
Create an Index, Alter Index, Drop Index, Function based index, obtaining information about index, Difference between ROWID and ROWNUM
Target Audience:
Final year B.Sc. Computer Science students at Alagappa University seeking a solid foundation in RDBMS principles for academic and practical applications.
About the Author:
Dr. S. Murugan is Associate Professor at Alagappa Government Arts College, Karaikudi. With 23 years of teaching experience in the field of Computer Science, Dr. S. Murugan has a passion for simplifying complex concepts in database management.
Disclaimer:
This document is intended for educational purposes only. The content presented here reflects the author’s understanding in the field of RDBMS as of 2024.
Feedback and Contact Information:
Your feedback is valuable! For any queries or suggestions, please contact muruganjit@agacollege.in
No, it's not a robot: prompt writing for investigative journalismPaul Bradshaw
How to use generative AI tools like ChatGPT and Gemini to generate story ideas for investigations, identify potential sources, and help with coding and writing.
A talk from the Centre for Investigative Journalism Summer School, July 2024
Ardra Nakshatra (आर्द्रा): Understanding its Effects and RemediesAstro Pathshala
Ardra Nakshatra, the sixth Nakshatra in Vedic astrology, spans from 6°40' to 20° in the Gemini zodiac sign. Governed by Rahu, the north lunar node, Ardra translates to "the moist one" or "the star of sorrow." Symbolized by a teardrop, it represents the transformational power of storms, bringing both destruction and renewal.
About Astro Pathshala
Astro Pathshala is a renowned astrology institute offering comprehensive astrology courses and personalized astrological consultations for over 20 years. Founded by Gurudev Sunil Vashist ji, Astro Pathshala has been a beacon of knowledge and guidance in the field of Vedic astrology. With a team of experienced astrologers, the institute provides in-depth courses that cover various aspects of astrology, including Nakshatras, planetary influences, and remedies. Whether you are a beginner seeking to learn astrology or someone looking for expert astrological advice, Astro Pathshala is dedicated to helping you navigate life's challenges and unlock your full potential through the ancient wisdom of Vedic astrology.
For more information about their courses and consultations, visit Astro Pathshala.
Is Email Marketing Really Effective In 2024?Rakesh Jalan
Slide 1
Is Email Marketing Really Effective in 2024?
Yes, Email Marketing is still a great method for direct marketing.
Slide 2
In this article we will cover:
- What is Email Marketing?
- Pros and cons of Email Marketing.
- Tools available for Email Marketing.
- Ways to make Email Marketing effective.
Slide 3
What Is Email Marketing?
Using email to contact customers is called Email Marketing. It's a quiet and effective communication method. Mastering it can significantly boost business. In digital marketing, two long-term assets are your website and your email list. Social media apps may change, but your website and email list remain constant.
Slide 4
Types of Email Marketing:
1. Welcome Emails
2. Information Emails
3. Transactional Emails
4. Newsletter Emails
5. Lead Nurturing Emails
6. Sponsorship Emails
7. Sales Letter Emails
8. Re-Engagement Emails
9. Brand Story Emails
10. Review Request Emails
Slide 5
Advantages Of Email Marketing
1. Cost-Effective: Cheaper than other methods.
2. Easy: Simple to learn and use.
3. Targeted Audience: Reach your exact audience.
4. Detailed Messages: Convey clear, detailed messages.
5. Non-Disturbing: Less intrusive than social media.
6. Non-Irritating: Customers are less likely to get annoyed.
7. Long Format: Use detailed text, photos, and videos.
8. Easy to Unsubscribe: Customers can easily opt out.
9. Easy Tracking: Track delivery, open rates, and clicks.
10. Professional: Seen as more professional; customers read carefully.
Slide 6
Disadvantages Of Email Marketing:
1. Irrelevant Emails: Costs can rise with irrelevant emails.
2. Poor Content: Boring emails can lead to disengagement.
3. Easy Unsubscribe: Customers can easily leave your list.
Slide 7
Email Marketing Tools
Choosing a good tool involves considering:
1. Deliverability: Email delivery rate.
2. Inbox Placement: Reaching inbox, not spam or promotions.
3. Ease of Use: Simplicity of use.
4. Cost: Affordability.
5. List Maintenance: Keeping the list clean.
6. Features: Regular features like Broadcast and Sequence.
7. Automation: Better with automation.
Slide 8
Top 5 Email Marketing Tools:
1. ConvertKit
2. Get Response
3. Mailchimp
4. Active Campaign
5. Aweber
Slide 9
Email Marketing Strategy
To get good results, consider:
1. Build your own list.
2. Never buy leads.
3. Respect your customers.
4. Always provide value.
5. Don’t email just to sell.
6. Write heartfelt emails.
7. Stick to a schedule.
8. Use photos and videos.
9. Segment your list.
10. Personalize emails.
11. Ensure mobile-friendliness.
12. Optimize timing.
13. Keep designs clean.
14. Remove cold leads.
Slide 10
Uses of Email Marketing:
1. Affiliate Marketing
2. Blogging
3. Customer Relationship Management (CRM)
4. Newsletter Circulation
5. Transaction Notifications
6. Information Dissemination
7. Gathering Feedback
8. Selling Courses
9. Selling Products/Services
Read Full Article:
https://digitalsamaaj.com/is-email-marketing-effective-in-2024/
Beyond the Advance Presentation for By the Book 9John Rodzvilla
In June 2020, L.L. McKinney, a Black author of young adult novels, began the #publishingpaidme hashtag to create a discussion on how the publishing industry treats Black authors: “what they’re paid. What the marketing is. How the books are treated. How one Black book not reaching its parameters casts a shadow on all Black books and all Black authors, and that’s not the same for our white counterparts.” (Grady 2020) McKinney’s call resulted in an online discussion across 65,000 tweets between authors of all races and the creation of a Google spreadsheet that collected information on over 2,000 titles.
While the conversation was originally meant to discuss the ethical value of book publishing, it became an economic assessment by authors of how publishers treated authors of color and women authors without a full analysis of the data collected. This paper would present the data collected from relevant tweets and the Google database to show not only the range of advances among participating authors split out by their race, gender, sexual orientation and the genre of their work, but also the publishers’ treatment of their titles in terms of deal announcements and pre-pub attention in industry publications. The paper is based on a multi-year project of cleaning and evaluating the collected data to assess what it reveals about the habits and strategies of American publishers in acquiring and promoting titles from a diverse group of authors across the literary, non-fiction, children’s, mystery, romance, and SFF genres.
Split Shifts From Gantt View in the Odoo 17Celine George
Odoo allows users to split long shifts into multiple segments directly from the Gantt view.Each segment retains details of the original shift, such as employee assignment, start time, end time, and specific tasks or descriptions.
The membership Module in the Odoo 17 ERPCeline George
Some business organizations give membership to their customers to ensure the long term relationship with those customers. If the customer is a member of the business then they get special offers and other benefits. The membership module in odoo 17 is helpful to manage everything related to the membership of multiple customers.
Join educators from the US and worldwide at this year’s conference, themed “Strategies for Proficiency & Acquisition,” to learn from top experts in world language teaching.
Conducting exciting academic research in Computer Science
A New Methodology For Formulating Ill-Structured Problems
1. ~ P
e
r
g
a
m
o
n
Omega,Int.J. MgmtSci.Vol. 22, No. 6, pp. 627-645, 1994
Copyright !!~ 1994Elsevier Science Ltd
0305-0483(94)00045-X Printed in Great Britain. All rights reserved
0305-0483/94 $7.00+ 0.00
A New Methodology for Formulating
Ill-structured Problems
M BASADUR
McMaster University, Canada
SJ ELLSPERMANN
GW EVANS
University of Louisville, USA
(Received September 1992;acceptedafter revision August 1994)
A four phase model is presented in which problem generation and problem formulation precede problem
solving and solution implementation. A relatively new heuristic for formulating ili-strnctured problems
is described. The methodology is a systematic thinking process which combines analytical precision
with structured imagination, and is called the 'why-what's stopping' analysis. Current techniques for
defining problems are positioned as inadequate because they do not always fit the problems faced in
day to day work and because they ignore human behavioral deficiencies. Deferral of judgment, active
divergence and active convergence are identified as three behavioral skills which underly the successful
application of the 'why-what's stopping' analysis. Several examples of the application of this process
in real world situations are provided. Directions for future research are discussed.
Key words--problem definition, ill-structured problems, problem solving, creativity, problem
structuring
INTRODUCTION
ALBERT EINSTEIN was once asked if he had
one hour to save the world, how would he spend
the hour? He is reputed to have said, "I would
spend 55 minutes defining the problem and then
only five minutes solving it." He believed that
the best problem solvers were those who were
able to formulate problems in new ways.
John Dewey's famous quote is: "A problem
well-stated is half solved" [13].
Problem-solving involves more than simply
applying a methodology for identifying an
optimal solution to an already well-defined
problem. Normative processes suggest there are
several phases. Activities preceding the problem
solving phase have been identified variously as
intelligence by Simon [36], problem-finding by
Leavitt [25], definition by Evans [16], problem
identification by Mintzberg et al. [29] and defin-
ing the problem by Dewey [13]. These early
activities have been grouped by researchers into
different components including problem recog-
nition and diagnosis by Schwenk and Thomas
[35]; decision recognition and diagnosis by
Mintzberg [28]; and sensing and anticipating
problems, fact-finding and problem definition
by Basadur et al. [9].
Problem sensing and anticipating and fact
finding are similar to Simon's opportunistic
surveillance [36] and are grouped into an initial
phase called problem generation by Basadur
et al. [5], who also separate out a second phase
which occurs after a problem has been generated.
627
2. 628 Basadur et al.--Formulating lll-structured Problems
This second phase is called problem formulation.
Here the problem is defined, conceptualized and
structured. Problem structuring has been defined
by Pitz et al. [31]as the activity of identifyingthe
relevant variables in a problem situation and the
important relationships among those variables.
Problem formulation is "the process of formu-
lating the present set of conditions, symptoms,
causes and triggering events into a problem or
set of problems sufficiently well specified so that
the risk of using analytic procedures to solve
the wrong problem has been minimized" [35].
The third and fourth phases are called problem
solving (developing solutions and implementa-
tion plans) and solution implementation (gain-
ing acceptance for and implementing solutions
and plans).
Problem formulation has been noted by many
as difficult. Ackoff [2] suggests that researchers
do not usually encounter well-defined problems,
rather they encounter 'messes'. Watson [40]
identified several categories of difficulties en-
countered: failure to recognize the existence of
a problem; failure to define the correct problem
(Type III error); failure to use all available
information; and failure to recognize or ques-
tion assumptions. Tversky and Kahneman [38]
found that the 'framing' of the problem affected
the decision maker's ability to make rational
choices.
Some of these difficulties result directly from
the type of problem to be solved. Basadur [8]
described a continuum from easy to define to
difficult to define. Simon [36] identified three
types of problems: well structured, semi-
structured, and ill-structured. Well structured
problems come with complete information, are
usually repetitive and routine, and can be
solved with established solution techniques.
Ill-structured problems are 'fuzzy'; i.e. there are
no data, too few data or too many data avail-
able. Some of the data may also be difficult to
perceive or quantify [4]. These problems tend to
be complex, non-routine and difficult to define.
Semi-structured problems include both well
structured and ill-structured characteristics;
portions of the problem appear to be well
structured, while other aspects are quite messy
and difficult to understand.
Ill-structured problems are the most difficult
to define. In fact, there often is not a single
correct definition, but some formulations are
better in the sense that they provide an angle on
the problem which, when defined in that way,
can be solved effectively. The definition, there-
fore, rests on the point of view of the stake-
holder(s). For this reason, aids to assist stake-
holders in defining ill-structured problems are
important. Over recent years, several methods
have been developed with this in mind (see for
example [33] which covers a number of such).
The purpose of this paper is to describe a
new heuristic for formulating ill-structured (and
semi-structured) problems. The methodology
combines analytical precision with skills in struc-
tured imagination, which overcome attitudinal,
perceptual and cognitive shortcomings in indi-
vidual and group stakeholders. This method-
ology, called the 'why-what's stopping' analysis,
has been applied since the mid 1970s to numer-
ous business and technical problems in North
America. This paper provides the theoretical
grounding for the methodology, as well as a
thorough explanation of how to execute the
methodology. Future implications and research
are discussed.
PROBLEM DEFINITION FROM A
MANAGERIAL PERSPECTIVE
Analysts and researchers in the field of
management science have devoted relatively
little effort to the study of problem definition.
This can be observed through a perusal of the
management science literature, where relatively
few publications in the area of problem definition
exist.
From the perspective of the OR/MS (oper-
ations research/management science) academic
community (at least over the last 20 years), most
problems have involved two types of issues:
(1) Formulation of a mathematical model
from a well-defined problem situation,
and
(2) Development/use of an algorithm for
solving a mathematical model.
Practitioners, however, deal with a much
broader class of problems. This includes dealing
with ill-structured problem situations. Case
studies have documented situations where a
project involving management science failed,
not because of lack of expertise or effort in the
area of mathematical modelling, but because the
problem was not defined correctly. A classic
example is the one involving 'slow elevators', in
3. Omega, Vol. 22, No. 6 629
which the more accurate problem definition was
not that the riders were waiting too long for the
elevators, but that they perceived themselves to
be waiting too long [19]. Additional examples
can be found in such journals as Interfaces and
Omega.
Evans [16] notes that in OR/MS the word
problem can be defined as a gap between the
present and some desired state of affairs. Similar
definitions have been proposed by others. A gap
can carry a positive, negative or unknown con-
notation, providing three different views of the
word problem. A positive gap exists when a fine
opportunity is sensed for an innovative product
or procedure which will move the state of affairs
upward, higher than the present baseline even
when the present baseline is satisfactory or the
best seemingly possible. For example, Land [24]
attributed his polaroid camera invention to his
ability to discover and define a problem where
seemingly no problem existed. A negative gap
exists when there has been a drop in perform-
ance below a baseline that needs to be corrected.
An unknown gap exists when our base state of
affairs has been or soon will be wiped out by
environmental changes beyond our control.
Within this definition based on different states
of affairs there is the notion that some obtain-
able, identifiable set of values exists for these
performance variables which is more desirable
than the current set of values (i.e. current state).
Hence, in order to define a problem fully, we
must discover a relevant set of performance
measures, as well as the important stakeholder(s)
or decision maker(s) for a problem. The stake-
holders of a problem must be intimately involved
in determining the performance measures and
establishing preference structures over the
multiple performance measures.
Determining a relevant set of performance
measures is more of an art than a science.
MacCrimmon [26] suggests that the structur-
ing of value systems can be accomplished in
three ways: (1) an examination of the relevant
literature, (2) analytical study (e.g. through the
development of a model of the situation), and
(3) causal empiricism (e.g. by talking to the
problem's stakeholders).
Buede [12], Saaty [34], and Keeney and Raiffa
[21] suggest that relevant problem criteria are
best structured in a hierarchy. The criteria
toward the top of the hierarchy are more general
(e.g. optimize the well being of society) than
those towards the bottom of the hierarchy (e.g.
minimize CO2 emissions).
Manheim and Hall [27] suggest two
approaches for determining a hierarchy: specifi-
cation and means-end. VanGundy [39] presents
a discussion of the 5W's method for determining
goals. Buede [12] suggests that the specification
(or objective-driven) method is more appropri-
ate for problems which are strategic in nature,
and that the means-end (or alternative-driven)
method is more appropriate for problems of a
tactical nature.
Of the three connotations of 'problem', the
tendency has been to consider mostly the
second (negative) and only more recently, the
third (unknown). The Kepner and Tregoe (K-T)
Method [22] for problem defining explicitly
recognizes the concept of a 'gap' as a deviation
or drop from a formerly satisfactory level of
performance. It provides a methodology for
determining the root cause of this deviation and
the person or persons associated with the root
cause. One typical technique for determining
root cause is to use a cause and effect diagram
in which potential causes of a deviation are
brainstormed within predetermined categories.
Another approach is stairstepping which involves
determining the cause of a situation and then
the cause of the cause, and repeating until the
lowest, most basic cause has been reached [20].
Brightman [10] extends these approaches by
involving groups to explore different possible
causes for a problem. Called the Alternative
Worldview Method for problem diagnosis, each
subgroup must gather data to support their
problem causes. Following this the subgroups
meet to develop a synthesized viewpoint. Of
course, one of the advantages of the Alternative
Worldview Method is that the subgroups can
develop their causes in a relatively independent
fashion. Also, as noted by Brightman [10], their
method is successful "because it helps us do
what we naturally do best--seek causes".
Each of the techniques described above are
reasonable to use to define problems. Brightman
et al. [I 1] noted that few of these are actually
used by managers, however. One of the reasons
is that these tools do not always fit the problems
faced by people in day-to-day work. Only a
small proportion of the problems require find-
ing the root cause to enable returning to a well
defined baseline performance level. Further-
more, people sometimes waste time determining
4. 630 Basadur et al.--Formulating Ill-structured Problems
the root cause of a problem that is entirely the
wrong problem to be considered. Finding the
root cause of slow elevators is a waste of time
when the real objective is to find a way to help
people enjoy their waiting time more. A larger
proportion of everyday problems require setting
higher goals above the baseline performance
level or inventing new products with new base
levels or, finding entirely new goals in new
directions to take advantage of environmental
change. These types are less structured and do
not lend themselves to strictly sequential, logical
reasoning from a predetermined base point.
A second reason for lack of use of these
techniques is that there are human behavioral
deficiencies that prevent people from following
such systematic procedures even for problems
that call for them. Managers' propensity to
spend most of their time acting in haste to
correct situations rather than taking the time
to think them through is well-documented by
Mintzberg [28]. The following section describes
problem definition from a behavioral perspective
taking into account these human deficiencies.
These behavioral deficiencies can be perceptual,
attitudinal or cognitive in nature.
solve rather than take the initiative to seek them
out. Important problems that cross organiz-
ational, functional and departmental lines are
often avoided: "That's not our problem." People
often make the premature assumption that
"it can't be done". Too much knowledge of
the particular field causes them to experience
'tunnel vision' and to lose childlike inquiry and
challenging of custom. Unsubstantiated assump-
tions are accepted as facts. People are unwilling
to take the time to discover the real facts, which
might lead them to refreshing new ways to
define the problem. They emphasize problem
solutions rather than problem definitions, believ-
ing that "I already know what the problem is."
Failure to observe and consider trivia and to
investigate the obvious prevents individuals
from finding a balance between narrowing the
problem too much (missing the 'big picture') and
broadening the problem too much (not breaking
it down into small enough subproblems). This
shortcoming can be further fuelled by people's
inability to sufficiently use imagination to
connect seemingly unrelated matters.
HARNESSING THE IMAGINATION
PROBLEM DEFINITION FROM A
BEHAVIORAL PERSPECTIVE
Elbing [15] identifies the following perceptual
biases that interfere with problem analysis and
that often cause managers and other organiz-
ational members to act hastily and to handle
problems ineffectively. They tend to: evaluate
before investigating, thus precluding inquiry
and a fuller understanding of the situation;
equate new and old experiences, searching for
the familiar rather than the unique in a new
problem; approach problems at face value,
rather than ask questions to unearth reasons
underlying the problem's more obvious aspects;
direct decisions toward a single goal, not
recognizing that most problems really involve
multiple goals that need simultaneous handling;
confuse symptoms and problems; overlook
'unsolvable' problems and concentrate instead
on simpler concerns; and respond automatically
or act before thinking (sometimes called the
'knee jerk' effect).
Basadur [3] identifies the following attitudinal,
perceptual and cognitive shortcomings. People
wait for others to find problems for them to
The methodology for problem formulation
provided in this paper encourages the use of
a systematic thinking process that overcomes
such perceptual, attitudinal and cognitive
inadequacies. This process incorporates logic,
sequencing and imagination.
One of the keys to imagination is often
expressed as divergent thinking [18]. Another
key is deferral of judgment. Divergent thinking
is the nonevaluative generation of information
from a given source with an emphasis on variety
[32]. The imagination is used to generate multiple
alternatives while deferringjudgment (i.e. evalu-
ative thinking) until this generative thinking is
completed. In the earlier elevator example, the
imaginative problem definition statement "How
might we make the people enjoy their waiting
time more?" served as an alternative to "How
might we make the elevators go faster?" A third
key, convergent thinking, is important in choos-
ing and focusing in on important and leverage-
able issues, facts and problem formulations.
Basadur and Finkbeiner [7] identify deferral of
judgment, active divergence and active converg-
ence as three separate behavioral skills required
to harness the imagination in organizations.
5. Omega, Vol. 22, No. 6 631
Diverge
Problem
Generating
Converge
Diverge
Problem
Formulating
Converge
Diverge
Problem
Solving
Converge
Diverge
Solution
Implementation
Converge
PHASEI
PHASE II
PHASE III
PHASE IV
Divergent thinking consists of two parts,
deferral of judgment and active divergence.
Deferral of judgment is the skill of separating
divergent thinking from convergent thinking.
By resisting the tendency to prematurely evalu-
ate options, deferral of judgment sets the stage
for active divergence. Active divergence is the
skill of aggressively thinking of a wide range of
options no matter how 'wacky'; appreciating
new, different points of view and thoughts not
only as possible endpoints but as building blocks
to create more new thoughts; and believing that
generating novel options is not a mysterious
process confined to a few unusual, 'offbeat'
people but a normal process that should involve
everyone in the organization.
While deferral of judgment and active diverg-
ence are necessary, they are less than sufficient
for harnessing the imagination. Active con-
vergence is a skill that resists the tendency to
loiter in divergent thinking. Active convergence
decisively selects and acts upon good options
and leads to the ultimate implementation of
change.
The four-stage problem solving framework
proposed in Fig. I is a systematic thinking
process for problem definition and problem solv-
ing. Its stages of problem generation, problem
formulation, problem solving, and implement-
ation constitute a complete process. (What is
meant by a complete process is that (i) there are
multiple stages; (ii) within each stage judgment
is deferred and divergent and convergent think-
ing are oscillated to generate multiple ideas and
assess their relevancy; (iii) there are feedback
loops among all stages to permit a return to
earlier stages and leapfrogging to later stages as
environmental changes occur and new insights
are revealed as the process and events unfold.)
Problem generation consists of sensing and
anticipating problems, and fact finding. Skills in
problem sensing and anticipating include defer-
ring judgment while actively diverging to collect
many problems, changes and opportunities that
might be relevant to the organization, then
screening them (converging) to select a smaller
number for further exploration. The skills
include tolerating these problems, changes and
opportunities as ambiguous fuzzy situations
Fig. 1. Problemsolvingas a 4-stageprocessemphasizing
deferral of judgment,divergentthinking and convergent
thinkingin each stage.
6. 632 Basadur et al.--Formulating Ill-structured Problems
Table 1. Behavioral skill in deferral of judgment in problem formulation
• Avoid making premature negative judgments of fledgling thoughts (both when working alone and with others)
*Visibly value, appreciate and welcome other points of view as opportunities to strengthen thinking, rather than as a threat to one's ego
• Patiently maintain an awareness that some facts are more difficult to perceive (more invisible) than others
• Question assumptions for validity and search out hidden, unconscious assumptions which may be unwarranted
• Tackle problems with an optimistic "can-do' attitude rather than prematurely concluding that it "cannot be done' because "I can't see how"
• Tend not to jump prematurely to a conclusion as to what the "real problem is' in a situation
• Avoid attaching negative connotations to problems; such prejudgment may bias fact finding efforts
• Visibly stay open-minded to others" versions of the facts
• Often pause deliberately to try an unusual approach to define a problem instead of automatically relying on an old approach
• React positively to new radical thoughts as opportunities to build fresh new thinking
Table 2. Behavioral skill in active divergence in problem formulation
• Search out many different facts and points of view before attempting to define a problem
• Define problems in multiple and novel ways to get a variety of insights
• Clarify problems by breaking them down into smaller, more specific subproblems and also by opening them up into broader, less limiting
challenges
• Deliberately extend effort to create additional unusual, thought provoking potential ways of defining a problem
• Give credit for divergent thinking by others; praise others for alternative viewpoints and try to build upon and strengthen such alternatives
to increase variety of choice
• Turn premature, negative evaluations of ideas into positive challenges to keep the creative process flowing; that is, change negative "We
can't because ..." thoughts into positive "'How might we? ..." thoughts
• Share information and ideas freely with other people and departments hoping to build understanding of problems
• Get teams to formulate problems in ways which transcend individual and departmental considerations
that are ill-defined but that represent 'tips of the
iceberg'. Research by Getzels [17] showed that
tolerating such fuzzy situations leads to effective
and often inventive solutions. Fact finding skill
consists of actively gathering information that
might relate to a fuzzy situation while deferring
judgment. Evaluation and analysis are suspended
and all points of view and versions of the facts
accepted. Establishing what is not known is as
important as what is known or is thought to be
known. Only during convergence are the most
relevant and worthwhile facts identified. A
skilled fact finder avoids unwarranted assump-
tions and examines a given situation from a
wide variety of viewpoints; listens well to other
versions of the facts and accepts them; extends
effort to 'dig out' further information even when
it seems that all facts have already been un-
earthed; and asks fact finding questions in the
simplest, most childlike way, never being too
embarrassed to ask questions to increase under-
standing. After gathering such information, this
person can converge upon a small number of
facts believed to be especially relevant.
Problem formulation consists of problem de-
fining, conceptualizing and structuring. Skilful
problem formulation yields a wide variety of
insightful challenges created from a few key
facts. The problem is broadened and narrowed
so that both 'the forest and the trees' become
clearly and refreshingly portrayed. Large prob-
lems are broken down into smaller components,
and the group or individual can see the bigger
picture into which the components fit. Con-
vergence is deferred while optional ways of
formulating the problem are imagined until a
clearly superior 'angle' on the problem has been
developed. This 'angle' or 'set of angles' then
becomes the target for phase 3, solution finding.
Tables 1, 2 and 3 summarize how the three
thinking skills overcome behavioral deficiencies
in problem formulation. A model for training
the process of developing these skills in organiz-
ations was developed by Basadur [6]. Basadur
et al. [9] showed that this training improved
research engineers' problem defining skills.
Smith [37] proposed a four-phase prescriptive
framework for problem definition that correlates
closely with the problem solving framework
in Fig. 1. This framework is based on cognitive,
behavioral and attitudinal deficiencies of indi-
viduals and an extensive review of researchers'
Table 3. Behavioral skill in active convergence in problem formulation
• Take the time to select, clarify and focus upon the most significant facts available prior to attempting to define a problem
• Recognize and accept the critical few best problem definition options in terms of'broadness' vs "narrowness' of focus and insight provided
oOpen-mindedly develop and use multiple, unbiased criteria for selecting from among problem formulation options, rather than letting
preconceptions or hidden motives sway decisions
*Take the risk of failing or being criticized for being different for selecting novel problem definitions
• Be willing to accept and participate in consensus decisions about problem formulation and move on decisively in the problem solving process
• Do not wait for the "perfect" option to emerge; instead take reasonable risks to finish the problem formulation stage
7. Omega, Vol. 22, No. 6 633
RECOGNITION:
State and legitimize the problem
presented
DEVELOPMENT:
Elaborate on the problem situation
EXPLORATION
Identify possible directions for
analysis
o.
~5
Fig.2. Smith'sprescriptiveframeworkforproblemdefinition.
approaches to problem solving. Figure 2 dis-
plays Smith's prescriptive framework including
recognition, development, exploration and
redefinition stages.
The first phase, recognition, is stating and
iegitimizing the problem. This includes sharing
evidence of the problem, questioning assump-
tions, and differentiating between facts and
opinions. Smith suggests that the problem's
existence be vigorously challenged. The second
phase, development, includes identifying stake-
holders, generating alternative perspectives,
learning about the problem, and creating a
working definition of the problem. This involves
the development of a broader perspective of
the problem situation. In exploration, the
individual or group considers the problem from
various levels of breadth and various angles,
decomposes the problem into subproblems,
identifies difficulties in solving the problem, and
explores possible causes of the problem. The
redefinition phase occurs concurrently with
the first three as depicted in Fig. 2. As new
information is uncovered, definitional mistakes
are discovered and the inadequacy of the cur-
rent definition noted. Smith [37] recommends
reframing, strategy switching, generalizing,
and making problems more specific to aid in
redefinition.
These stages are ordered to reduce the risk of
error by promoting the generation of data that
helps to redefine the problem in its situational
context early in the process. The stages of de-
composing and exploring causes of the problem
are not completed until the last phase, explor-
ation. In addition, problem redefinition is
Basadur Problem Solving
Process
Smith's Prescriptive
Framework
Diverge
Problem
Generating
Diverge
Problem
Formulating
RECOGNITION:
Share evidence of the problem.
Question assumptions.
Clarify facts and opinions.
Challenge existence of the problem.
REDEFINITION*
DEVELOPMENT:
Identify stakeholders
Generate alternativeperspectives on
the problem.
Develop a working definition of the
problem.
EXPLORATION:
Explore levels of generality
Decompose problem into subproblems.
Generate possible means.
REDEFINITION*.
Fig. 3. How Smith'sprescriptiveframework is embeddedin problemgeneratingand problem
formulating. *Note: REDEFINITION occurs throughout problem generatingand problem
formulating,as prescribedby Smith.
8. 634 Basadur et al.--Formulating Ill-structured Problems
viewed as an ongoing process that occurs during
all phases, not at a single decision point. Smith
promotes the use of both analytical and creative
methods for defining problems.
Figure 3 synthesizes Smith's framework with
the model of Fig. I. It depicts the key elements
of Smith's framework, which are embedded in
the problem definition stages of the framework
of Fig. I. Smith's recognition phase is almost
analogous with the problem generating stage.
Development and exploration are aligned with
the problem formulating stage. Redefinition
occurs throughout both stages as new inform-
ation and insights are gained into the problem.
Redefinition appears to be strongly related to
active convergence.
The focal point of this paper is a systematic
process for the development, exploration and
redefinition phases of Smith's model and the
second stage of the model in Fig. l, problem
formulating.
THE 'WHY-WHAT'S STOPPING' ANALYSIS
The systematic process for problem formula-
tion discussed above is called the 'why-what's
stopping' (WWS) analysis. There are three
important aspects to this process. First, all
problem definitions are stated in a challenge form
beginning with the phrase "How might I..." or
"How might we ..." depending on the number
of stakeholders. When a problem is formulated
beginning with these words, it automatically
invites the imagination to be used to provide
solutions. The word might signals a non-
evaluative reception to all options made in
response to the challenge. Secondly, the positive,
optimistic tone permits the stakeholder to frame
the problem in such a way that he/she/they
does not lose his/her/their rationality. Tversky
and Kahneman [38] found that pessimism in
problem formulation causes stakeholders to lose
rationality.
The second aspect of this process is based on
two basic principles: Asking 'why?' of a par-
ticular challenge necessarily identifies a broader
challenge while asking 'what's stopping you?' of
a particular challenge necessarily identifies a
narrower subproblem. These two concepts com-
bined provide the tools to develop a hierarchy
of the problem. As discussed further below, the
hierarchy becomes a two-dimensional 'map'
when the two questions are augmented with the
word 'else' (i.e. why else ...? and what else is
stopping...?).
The third key aspect of this process is that
when a problem is first sensed it is considered
a fuzzy situation rather than a well-formulated
problem. In addition, the problem sensed or
anticipated is not taken necessarily as anything
bad. It may be an opportunity, change, trend
or other such occurrence. Also divergent and
convergent thinking are separated and used in
sequence for factfinding [3]. Finally, the WWS
analysis is employed using deferral of judgment
and divergent and convergent thinking in
sequence again to create imaginative, optional
problem definitions all beginning with the
challenging phrase, 'how might we?' ... into a
WWS 'map' or hierarchy. The goal of the WWS
analysis is not to give the problem definition
to the stakeholder(s). Rather, it provides a
meaningful aid to assist the stakeholder(s) in
developing the most meaningful, leveragable
problem statements for them, as well as provid-
ing them with a visual representation of the 'big
picture'. The WWS analysis 'layers' problems
and subproblems from broad to narrow, as
well as provides a mechanism for relating the
problems and subproblems. In a group this inter-
active methodology encourages different points
of view to be melded into succinct challenges
leading to a more complete understanding of
the problem by all stakeholders. Therefore, the
WWS analysis is quite effective even in highly
adversarial situations (see Example 3) because
all stakeholders' various points of view are
captured no matter how different or contrasting
to those of other stakeholders and incorporated
into the problem definition map. The more
highly skilled the individuals in the group in
the processes of divergent thinking, deferral of
judgment, and convergent thinking, the more
effective the WWS analysis. The resulting prob-
lem definition map reconciles all the diverse
challenges, recognizing the value of each one in
describing the overall picture. Virtually always,
a skilled group can create and converge upon
carefully conceptualized problem definitions
that are satisfactory for all stakeholders and
provide ample room for creative solutions.
The WWS analysis employs a three-step
thinking process as follows:
(I) Ask 'Why' or What's Stopping us ...'
from the problem formulation. For
9. Omega, Vol. 22, No. 6 635
(2)
(3)
example, if the challenge is "How might
we decrease the number of defects in
Product X?", the 'why' question then
becomes "Why would we want to
decrease the number of defects in
Product X?" The 'What's stopping'
question becomes "What is stopping us
from decreasing the number of defects
in Product X?"
Answer the question in a complete
sentence. The answer to the 'why'
question might be that "We have too
many returns of Product X from our
customers." An answer to the 'what's
stopping' question might be "We re-
ward employees only for high quantity
of output, not high quality". Optional
answers are produced in one of two
ways, either by simple extended effort
or by deliberate use of the word 'else'
as in "Why else would we want to
decrease the number of defects in
Product X?" and "What else is stop-
ping us from reducing the number of
defects in Product X?"
The answer to the question is then
transformed imaginatively into another
problem formulation. For example, the
answer to the 'why' question above
might become transformed into "How
might we reduce the number of Product
X returns from customers?" or "How
might we make our customers more
satisfied with the Product X they are
receiving?" The answer to the 'what's
stopping' question might become trans-
formed into "How might we get our
employees excited about improving the
quality of Product X?" or "How might
we reward our employees for reducing
the number of defects in Product X?"
or "How might we get our employees
to give high attention to both quantity
and quality when making Product X?"
Each new challenge is placed according to
the question it answers. Figure 4 shows the
theoretical placement of the problem statements.
The placement can be checked by reversing
the question to the newly formulated challenge.
For instance, in the example above, the answer
to "What is stopping us from decreasing the
number of defects in Product X?" is that "We
Ask Broader problem
"Why .,. ?" statement
(to broaden)
t 1"
Beginning problem
s atement
$ t
Narrower problem
Ask s atement
"What's stopping , ?"
(to narrow)
Fig. 4. Placingof problemstatements.
reward employees only for high quantity of
output, not high quality" resulting in a new
problem statement of "How might we reward
our employees for reducing the number of de-
fects in Product X?" To check if this problem
statement meets the 'why-what's stopping' logic,
we can reverse it by asking, "Why would we
want to reward our employees for reducing the
number of defects in Product X?" If one answer
is "We want to decrease the number of defects
in Product X" we can see that we can easily
transform this fact into the original problem
statement "How might we decrease the number
of defects in Product X?"
Once the new statement is checked via the
reversal question, an arrow is drawn from the
lower challenge to the higher challenge. Optional
problem definitions are placed side-by-side and
checked in the same way with arrows always
connecting the lower challenge, a subproblem,
to the higher challenge, a broader problem.
Figure 5 shows a step-by-step visual example.
If the new problem statement does not
'fit' when the reversal question is asked, it is
recommended that the card be placed to the side
temporarily and go back to step 1 in the 3-step
process. It is likely that the fact or problem
formulation was not well-stated as discussed in
the next section.
Avoiding vagueness
It is vital to provide answers to the 'why' and
'what's stopping' questions which are simple,
clear and specific. Suppose the original starting
point challenge was "How might we decrease
the number of defects in Product X?" (as in
Fig. 5) and the question "why else (would we
want to reduce the number of Product X
defects)?" were asked. If one knew another
accurate answer to be "our employees feel
badly about so many rejects being made" but
10. 636 Basadur et al.--Formulating Ill-structured Problems
Why?
1
What's
Stopping
Me/Us?
** 3. How might we reduce the
number of Product X
returns from our customers?
T
** 2. How might we make our
customers more satisfied
with the Product X they
are receiving?
T
* 1. How might we decrease
the number of defects
in Product X?
-....
*** 5. How might we reward
our employees for
reducing the number
of defects in
Product X?
Fig. 5. Visual example of how the three-step thinking process works. *Starting point challenge.
**Optional challenges created by asking 'why?' of starting point challenge. ***Optional challenges
created by asking 'what's stopping us?' of starting point challenge.
one chose to answer more vaguely instead that
"morale is low", this could result in the new
challenge "How might we improve morale?"
W~?
$
What's
Stopping
Me/Us?
** How might we improve
morale?
T
How might we decrease the
number of defects in Product X?
T
*** How might we improve
morale?
Fig. 6. What happens when answers to why? and what's
stopping? are stated too vaguely. *Starting point challenge.
**Optional challenge created by asking "why?' of the start-
ing point challenge but answering vaguely ('morale is low').
***Optional challenge created by 'what's stopping us?' of
the starting point ehallenge but answering vaguely ('morale
is low').
being placed above the original challenge. Now
suppose the question "what else is stopping us?"
were offered to the same original challenge. If
one knew another accurate answer to be "people
are not paying much attention to quality" but
chose instead to answer more vaguely, "morale
is low", this would result in the new challenge
"How might we improve morale?" below the
original challenge. Then the same challenge
would appear both above and below the original
as shown in Fig. 6. Such circularity violates the
rule that 'why?' broadens the problem and
'what's stopping?' narrows it.
If the more specific, clear and simple answer
had been provided instead, the three challenges
could be ordered hierarchically without
ambiguity with the broadest at the top and
the narrowest at the bottom as in Fig. 7. Such
vagueness is often introduced unconsciously by
stakeholders either because they would prefer
to ignore the real underlying issues [14, 23] or
because they do not try hard enough or lack the
11. Omega, Vol. 22, No. 6 637
Why?
*** 5.
w* 3.
** 2.
* 1.
****7,
***4.
How might we reward our
employees for reducing the
number of defects in
Product X?
How might we
reduce the number
of Product X
returns from our
customers?
1
How might we make
our customers more satis-
fied with the Product X
they are receiving?
'I
How might we decrease
the number of defects
in Product X?
t
How might we get our
employees to pay more
attention to quality
on Product X? (NOT
how might we improve
morale?)
How might we get
our employees
excited about
improving the
quality of
Product X?
****8. HOW might we help our
employees feel better
about themselves in
their jobs? (NOT
how might we
improve morale?)
J
-....
*** 6. HOW might we get our
employees to give high
attention to both quantity
and quality when making
Product )(.9
What's
Stopping
Me/Us?
Fig. 7. Expansion of the visual example of how the three-step thinking process works. * ** ***
See Fig. 3. ****Additional optional challenges created by asking 'why?' and 'what's stopping?" of
starting point challenge and avoiding vagueness.
skill to articulate the answers clearly, simply and
specifically. Further examples of how problem
definition maps are built using the 'why-what's
stopping' analysis follow below.
Completing the map
The extent of a problem definition map is
limited by two considerations: 'Happiness and
Bliss' and 'Do it'. 'Happiness and Bliss' is the
theoretically broadest challenge. In a business
this might equate to "How might we increase
the profitability of our Company?" 'Do it' occurs
when, by asking 'what's stopping' takes us so
low on the hierarchy that the problem statement
is so well defined it is an idea which can be easily
executed, thus, 'do it'.
It is not necessary to reach these limits on
maps developed. The intent of the map is to
develop a better problem formulation, that is,
understand how different problems and sub-
problems relate to one another and to help the
stakeholder(s) choose the best problem defin-
ition or angle on the problem. The following
heuristic is recommended in the development of
the map:
(1) Ask 'why' and 'why else' of the original
problem statement until all slightly
broader problem statements are un-
covered. This will usually result in 2-5
broader problem statements.
(2) Ask 'what's stopping' and 'what else
is stopping' of the original problem
statement until all subproblems are
uncovered. This will usually result in
1-10 subproblems.
OME 22 6,--H
12. 638 Basadur et al.--Formulating Ill-structured Problems
HM.W. FINDHAPPINESS& BLISS?
HMW ETC. HMW ETC HMW k'TC H MW k'l'C HMW ~'TC
H M W F~NI~ )4 M W REDUCENUM~II H M W R ~ WI~LFAR~ H M W ENSUREOUR H MW MAINTAINOUR
TAX~ OFORPt4A~ CO~T? RE-ELECT[(]N
? REPUTATION
~.S
HMW PRIE~k'~IV~ HMW ~/010INJURIES
AT HURRICANE
AT ~ ~ TIME?
J
HM.W ~ NEW H.MW ~ ~ H M.W.ENSURE
~ MEI21~I. ~BI ~ ~ iS SHELNRED
HMW RAL.~E
MONEY HMW GETPEtE )4MW REDUCE
NEWEMERGENCY TOTAI~~4ELTER PEOPLE'SANXIETY
MC~ICM,. SYSTEMS'~ LNTIME?" ATHURRICANE
TIME?
°+.M l,MWM0,.,E )4--E+E 1
ETC ~'OPLETO AVAILABILITY TO~ iN TIML~ UNDEI~I'A,MDTHE THEY'LLKNOW
WHAT
TOCO?
TAXESHEL~R~
l
OFSHELTERS?
T
HMW(~'~RMINE
MOT~ATI~ ~ I~I..E? SHE.'I--/P.F6
NEEDED? MUP~tP-,ANI~i
gClONIg~'
I I I
H+M+WETC. HM.W L~C, HMW. ETC
MESS~E?
T J
H M W (]11GANIZE
HMV~CREATEA FRACTICE
~ILLS"~
U N ~ I
w ~ SIGNAL
UNCIERS'T(~O
BYAU. DI,'~-C~?
I
HMW ETC HMW ETC
0THERHMW
UC
WHAT'S5"tOPlen~ MF.AJ~
•ImTW.FW)gLEMWdqNmON
Fig. 8. More fully expanded why-whars stopping problem definition map. "The Hurricane
Problem'.
(3) Review the map for challenges the
stakeholder(s) wish to explore further:
to break subproblems down even fur-
ther or to explore broader 'purposes'.
Do not forget to check for "what else
is stopping ..." or "why else ...".
(4) Have stakeholder(s) review the map for
'points of maximum leverage', i.e. the
problem statement(s) they believe best
define their problem. If this converg-
ence cannot be achieved, return to step
3 to explore the map further on those
challenges the stakeholder(s) believes
have most merit.
Figure 8 shows a completed 'why-what's
stopping' map for a hypothetical example of a
government of a tropical country mapping out
13. Omega, Vol. 22, No. 6 639
Why?
EVEN
etc.
, T
BROADPROBLEM I
THE BROADEST PROBLEM
OF THEM ALL
"HMI fred eternal
happiness and
bliu ?"
T
BROADER PROBLEM
it
ii
BROADER PROBLEM
T
I BROAD
PROBLEM
~retc
etc.
What's
Sto~ng
Me/Us?
Fig. 9. Complex problem definition--big picture.
its challenges related to people getting injured
and killed in hurricane season. The challenges
range from "How might we determine the
number of shelters needed?" and "How might
we detect hurricanes sooner?" to "How might
we preserve lives at hurricane time?", "How
might we reduce chaos when hurricanes come?",
and "How might we ensure our re-election?"
Figure 9 portrays a generalization of a com-
pleted map. The examples below show insights
experienced when applying this methodology to
real business and technical situations.
Example 1. The cracked tiles: a micro-example
of 'why'
This example concerns a group of field oper-
ations managers (FOMs) acting as consultants
to manufacturing plants in a food and beverage
company. One of the duties of the FOMs was to
perform a plant evaluation yearly on each plant.
The plant evaluation was based on a 'policeman
approach' whereby specific criteria were
checked off as to whether or not they were met.
A new plant evaluation system was introduced
14. 640 Basadur et al.--Formulating Ill-structured Problems
to the FOMs whereby they would act less as
policemen and more as facilitators to the plant
and the plant would take ownership for wanting
to meet standards of health and cleanliness.
The 'why-what's stopping' analysis was used to
train the FOMs in understanding that the new
plant evaluation system was based on intents of
indicators rather than the indicators themselves.
For example, in the old system, plants were
judged on cleanliness by the number of cracked
tiles in their flooring, and thus, the FOMs were
forcing the plants to contend with the challenge
"How might we keep cracked tiles out of the
plant?" The FOMs were trained in the new
methodology to ask themselves and the plant
management "why would we want to keep
cracked tiles out?" The answer was "Cracked
tiles are likely to harbor germs and dirt". The
new challenge was restated as "How might we
keep tiles clean and germ-free?" This represents
a broader, more leveragable challenge closer
to the real intent of the indicator. It is not so
important to keep cracked tiles out as to keep
tiles clean and germ-free. If one asks "What's
stopping us from keeping tiles clean and germ-
free", one answer is that "We have cracked tiles
that can harbor germs and dirt" which leads to
'How might we keep out cracked tiles?" How-
ever, another answer is that 'We don't service
our cracked tiles (or any of our tiles) frequently
enough". This leads to a new challenge 'How
might we service our cracked tiles more often?"
In summary, then, asking the why question
broadened the problem definition to the real
intent and opened up room for additional routes
to achieving the true intent. Broadening it
offered an expanded view of the problem and
more flexibility in solving it. It also offered the
FOMs an expansion of their consulting skills
by helping them lead the plant to focus on the "**
intent of the requirement and thereby take
ownership of meeting the intent in the plant's
own preferred way. By getting a freer hand in ,
how they would change, the plant was much
more willing to make a change. Figure 10 is the
completed map.
Example 2. Four boilers from eight: an example
of 'what's stopping'
The 'why-what's stopping' analysis was also
used to help a manufacturing engineer to
narrow his focus. He had worked his way
through factfinding and had preliminarily
** 2. How might we keep
tiles clean and germ-
free?
T
3. How might we * 1. How might we keep
service our cracked tiles out of the
cracked tiles plant?
more often ?
Fig. 10. Example No. I. A micro example of "Why?/What's
Stopping?' the cracked tiles example. *Starting point
challenge as initially perceived. **First new challenge
created by asking the 'why?' question of the starting point
challenge. ***Second new challenge created by asking "what
else is stopping us?" of the first new challenge.
converged on the following problem definition:
"How might I get my plant to go from eight
boilers down to four?" He was stuck at this
point because, as he put it, "I already know how
to make the plant work on four boilers. It's been
done already in another plant that is similar to
ours. So, I guess I don't really have a problem.
But I still seem to be stuck". The group of
which he was a member began to question him
as follows; "What's stopping you from going
to four boilers from eight?" He had difficulty
replying and continued to say "Nothing is
stopping me, I already know how to do it."
However, the point was obvious that he had not
yet done it and was feeling stuck so the group
continued to probe: "If you know how to do it,
what is stopping you from going to four boilers
from eight in your plant?" He continued to
think and finally responded "The plant manager
is not very interested in energy conservation".
This answer was then restated into a new, more
focused challenge, "How might I get the plant
manager more interested in conserving energy
3. How might I get energy usage reduced in my
plant?
1"
How might I get my plant to go from eight boilers
down to four?
1"
2. How might I get the plant manager more
interested in conserving energy and listening to
my idea?
Fig. 1I. Example No. 2. "Four Boilers from Eight'. *Starting
point challenge as originally perceived. **New challenge
providing new insight created by asking 'what's stopping
you?' repeatedly of the stakeholder with respect to the
original challenge. ***Additional challenge created by
asking 'why?' of original challenge.
15. Omega, Vol. 22, No. 6 641
and listening to my idea?" The completed map
is in Fig. 11.
In this case the engineer had a flash of insight
when he contemplated what was stopping him
from going from eight boilers to four. He knew
technically how to do it. The key fact that his
plant manager was not interested in energy
conservation was the big eye-opener. This fact
was formerly not visible to him. The 'what's
stopping' question helped him perceive this
new fact and therefore, the new, more fruitful
challenge.
Example 3. The strategic collaboration process
A third example which shows the structuring
of a problem by using both the 'why' and
'what's stopping' questions concerns a strategic
planning session of a major corporation. This
major corporation is comprised of approx. 50%
company-owned facilities and 50% independent
franchise-owned facilities. There is considerable
mistrust between the groups and considerable
lack of efficiency in operations due to this
mistrust. The independent franchisees believe
they know the business better because they are
closer to the customer; they tend to believe the
company has sinister motives to ultimately buy
them out and not respect their franchise rights.
The company believes the franchisees are old-
fashioned and unwilling to listen to modern
methods of manufacturing and merchandising.
A group of twelve, six high ranking people from
each side, was assembled. They were trained in
deferral of judgment and divergent-convergent
thinking skills and in the WWS analysis. They
confronted the fuzzy situation as "How might
we work better together?", generated a large
number of facts and picked the most important.
From these they generated 45 challenges and
selected the most important few. These few were
then subjected to the 'why-what's stopping'
questions and arranged into a hierarchy. As
the hierarchy was developed, new challenges
emerged. The first challenge selected to begin
the map was somewhat arbitrarily chosen as
(1) "how might we agree on mutual goals?"
and was placed in the center of a large 4' × 4'
paper. When the question 'why' was asked
leading to the following three broader challenges:
(2) "How might we be more effective with our
customers?", (3) "How might we impove oper-
ating profitability?" and (4) "How might we
help our franchisees to focus more on winning
in the future than protecting themselves from
losing?" When the question was asked "What's
stopping us from agreeing on mutual goals?"
the answer was "We do not have enough trust
between us to let us agree upon mutual goals".
Another answer was "We do not have a long
term strategy for the company". These two
answers were transformed into the more focused
challenges, (5) "How might we build two-way
trust in order to come up with mutually agreed
goals?" and (6) "How might we get a long term
strategy for the company?" When the 'what's
stopping us' question was asked of the "How
might we build two-way trust in order to come
up with mutually agreed upon goals?", four
separate answers lead to the following challenges
one level lower in the hierarchy: (7) "How might
we keep the franchisees better informed of
the macro business trends in the industry?",
(8) "How might we get all franchisees believing
the President's franchise acquisition message?"
(The franchisees at this meeting had heard the
president say, and believed him, that the com-
pany was not interested in purchasing fran-
chises.) (9) "How might we maintain reliable
processes for communicating and coordinating
throughout the system?" and (10) "How might
we minimize funding procedures to the fran-
chisees from corporate headquarters as a trust
issue?" Two other challenges that resulted to
fill out the map are (l 1) "How might we make
the system more flexible to deal with industry
change?" and (12) "How might we put the
franchise legal rights fears to bed?" (i.e. eliminate
them). The entire map is shown in Fig. 12. As
indicated in Fig. 12, the team converged and
prioritized the three most important challenges
to solve.
Example 4. Plant purpose and corporate oneness
The senior management group of a medium-
sized industrial firm was meeting to establish
future direction. A major issue, the two plant
managers believed, was that they needed to better
define the unique purposes of the Canadian
and US plants, i.e. which products each would
make. However, when the group tried to move
on into solving this problem, it was obvious that
there was not true consensus and other issues
were surfacing. By asking "Why would we want
to define the purpose of the Canadian and US
plants?" two higher level objectives emerged,
First, there was significant competitiveness
16. 642 Basadur et aL--Formulating Ill-structured Problems
3, HMWhelp each other
improveoperating profitability?
,,....
2. HMWbe moreeffective ~ 4. HMWget our franchisees
withour customers? / to focus on winningin
the futurevs. losing?
11. HMWmakethe system * 1, HMWagree
flexibleto deal with on mutual
industrychange? goals?
~ ~ ~ : ~ a ~ y ~ ] ;r ~ng term
*~' 7. ~,t,8. *** 9. *** 10.
HMWkeep HMWget all HMW maintain HMWminimize
franchisees franchisees reliable funding asa
well informed believing
the processes trust issue?
on the macro president's for communication (Priority3)
trends acquisition & coordination?
message?
(Priority2)
Fig. 12. Example No. 3. The strategic collaboration process. *Starting point challenge. **More
focused challenges created by asking the "what's stopping us?' question of the starting point
challenge. ***Even more focused challenges created by asking the 'what's stopping us?' question
of challenge No. 5.
between the plants for products. A second fact
was that barriers had developed between the
two plants. These facts generated two new
challenges: "How might we minimize competi-
tiveness between the plants for products?" and
"How might we individually contribute to
breaking down barriers?"
Asking "Why would we want to minimize
competitiveness between plants for products?"
led to the fact that this would allow the
Canadian plant to feel a part of the US
organization, as opposed to being a separate
company. This fact led to a major 'aha' to the
group that their broader problem to solve was
"How might we improve oneness with the
Canadian plant?"
The team next looked at what was stopping
them from improving oneness with the Canadian
plant. As can be viewed in Fig. 13, four
additional subproblems were uncovered. These
subproblems were broken down further using
the 'What's stopping us..." question and
resulted in an extensive map of relationships of
problems and subproblems. This map became
their strategic planning tool from which three
subproblems were chosen to work further in
corporate teams. Secondly, the WWS map served
as a method of sharing with other managers
the relationship of the problems they were
experiencing and allowed them to understand
how, by solving some of the tactical prob-
lems (narrower), they were helping the
company address some broader (more strategic)
issues.
17. Omega, Vol. 22, No. 6 643
HMWimprovethe oneness
withinour company?
HMW improveonenesswith
Canadianplant?
~ ° u r l ~
HWMhavemoredirect HMWreduceperceptions HMWminimizecompati-
contact betweenplants? that Canadianand U.S. tivenessbetweenplants
plantsaredifferent? for products?
I //
HMWtele- HMWfind HMWincrease HMWexplain HWM share * HMWdefine Hk'WVincrease
conference moreways participation to people the business? the purpose the cooperative
more to communi- in crossplant why there are of each effortsIoatween
between cateacross teams? differences facility? plants?
HMWreduce **HMWconvince HMWunderstand **HMWimprove HMWconvince
travelcosts managers
to the differences the cost/ ourselvesthat
oI people empower in our policies profit shanngthe
going people? and procedures? measurements business
is
between inthe worththe short
plants? company? termhurtfor
synergism?
Fig. 13. Example No. 4. Plant purpose and corporate oneness. *Starting challenge on the map.
**Ending challenges chosen after considering the problem definition map as a whole. Note: This
map continued to be utilized over several months at several strategic planning meetings as other
challenges were addressed from it.
DISCUSSION
The construction of the 'why-what's stopping'
analysis is a combined creative and analytical
exercise. Divergent thinking is required to
generate both the multiple 'why else' and 'what
else is stopping' problem statements. In addi-
tion, divergent thinking is required to transform
the answers into meaningful new challenges.
Analytically, the methodology requires a disci-
plined approach using 'why' to broaden and
'what's stopping' to narrow so that problem
statements 'fit' into a logical hierarchy.
The process of mapping often leads the stake-
holder(s) to an 'aha' experience. If, for instance,
the stakeholder originally defined as a symptom
as the problem, upon asking 'what's stopping?'
the 'real problem' will emerge. In addition, some
stakeholders narrow the problem too much in
the beginning (they cannot see the forest for the
trees), so that by broadening the problem, they
gain a perspective and a better, more leverag-
able problem definition. Or, the stakehoider's
try to 'eat the elephant' instead of breaking the
problem down into 'bite size chunks'.
Problem definition is particularly difficult on
ill-structured problems. Stakeholders do not
know when they initially try to define the prob-
lem whether they have a 'good' problem state-
ment or not. The 'why-what's stopping' analysis
does not choose the correct problem statement
for the stakeholder(s). It does create a meaning-
ful visual representation of the problem so
that the stakeholder(s) can consider how to
strategically approach the ill-structured 'mess'.
The stakeholders must then consider which
problem definition(s) they believe will best lead
to an improvement of the 'mess'.
18. 644 Basadur et al.--Formulating Ill-structured Problems
There are many implications suggested for
this analysis. It is currently being utilized in
industry as a strategic planning tool to link
strategic goals with operational objectives where
the stakeholders ask "what's stopping us from
attaining (goal)?" In production facilities, this
tool assists direct employees and technicians
in understanding how their tasks and projects
'fit' into the bigger picture in their company.
In research and development, it helps identify
the correct objectives to be pursued to create a
new product. By asking 'why?', the real intent
of a new product initiative is often revealed,
opening up room for novel solutions. Import-
antly, this tool also assists multifunctional
teams in understanding the complete 'mess',
not just their portion and helps these teams
choose more leveragable problem definitions
to solve.
A significant implication is that the map,
once constructed, can become an ongoing tool
in addressing and solving large problems. Some
organizations post the 'why-what's stopping'
analysis on a conference room wall with checks
by the subproblems solved and names/dates by
other subproblems which others are in the midst
of solving.
Possibly the most significant implication of
the 'why-what's stopping' analysis is its impact
on building problem defining skills. Evans [16],
Watson [40], and others suggest that individuals
are poor at problem defining. Abualsamh et al.
[i] recognized that individuals rarely use decision
aids in problem defining and, thus, studied the
results of two basic problem structuring heur-
istics. They found lower satisfaction with the
process and a lower confidence with the results
when forced to use a heuristic. An alternative
explanation for this finding is that the subjects,
along with being placed under time constraints,
were not trained in using the heuristics and
were not using the 'expansion' and 'reduction'
heuristic at the same time. Research is under-
way to consider the problem defining per-
formance, confidence, and skills built using the
'why-what's stopping' analysis. These findings
will help validate and refine the theoretical
models explored earlier, identify situations
where the 'why-what's stopping' analysis is
most effective and develop training for
improving problem defining performance on
ill-structured problems in the workplace and
homeplace.
REFERENCES
1. Abualsamh RA, Carlin B and McDaniel RRJ (1990)
Problem structuring heuristics in strategic decision
making. Org. Behav. Hum. Dec. Process. 45, 159-174.
2. Ackoff RL (1979) The future of operational research is
past. J. Opl Res. Soc. 30, 93-104.
3. Basadur MS (1994) Managing the creative process in
organizations. In Problem Finding, Problem Solving, and
Creativity (Edited by Runco MJ). Ablex, Norwood,
N.J. In press.
4. Basadur MS and Paton BR (1993) Creativity boosts
profits in recessionary times--broadening the playing
field. Ind. Mgmt 14-19.
5. Basadur MS, Graen GB and Wakabayashi M (1990)
Identifying individual differences in creative problem
solving style. J. Creative Behav. 24, 111-131.
6. Basadur MS (1987) Needed research in creativity for
business and industrial applications. In Frontiers of
Creativity Research: Beyond the Basics (Edited by
Isaksen SG), pp. 390-416. Bearly, New York.
7. Basadur MS and Finkbeiner CT (1985) Measuring
preference for ideation in creative problem solving
training. J. appl. Behav. Sci. 21, 37-49.
8. Basadur MS (1982) Research in creative problem
solving training in business and industry. Proceedings
of Creativity Week 4. Center for Creative Leadership,
Greensboro, N.C.
9. Basadur MS, Graen GB and Green SG (1982) Training
in creative problem solving: effects on ideation and
problem finding and solving in an industrial research
organization. Org. Behav. Hum. Perf. 30, 41-70.
10. Brightman HJ (1988) Group Problem Solving: An
Improved Managerial Approach. Business Publishing
Division, College of Business Administration, Georgia
State University, Atlanta, Ga.
II. Brightman HJ, Elrod R and Ramakrishma H (1988)
Matching problem diagnostic tools to manager's de-
cision styles: a contingency approach. Omega 16, 1-10.
12. Buede DM (1986) Structuring value attributes.
Interfaces 16, No. 2, 52 62.
13. Dewey J (1933) How We Think (new edition). Heath,
Boston.
14. Eisenberg EM and Witten MG (1987) Reconsidering
openness in organizational communication. Acad. Mgmt
Rev. July, 418-426.
15. Elbing A (1978) Behavioral Decisions in Organizations.
Scott Foresman, Glenview, I11.
16. Evans JR (1991) Creative Thinking in the Decision and
Management Sciences. South-Western Publishing Co.,
Cincinnati, Ohio.
17. Getzels JW (1975) Problem-finding and the inventive-
ness of solutions. J. Creative Behav. 9, 12-18.
18. Guilford JP (1967) The Nature of Human Intelligence.
McGraw-Hill, New York.
19. Hesse R and Woolsey G (1980) Applied Management
Science. Science Research Associates. Chicago.
20. Huge EC (1990) Total Quality: An Executive Guidefor
the 1990's. Business One. Irwin, Homewood, Ilk
21. Keeney RL and Raiffa H (1976) Decisions with Multiple
Objectives: Preferences and Value Trade-offs. Wiley,
New York.
22. Kepner C and Tregoe B (1965) The Rational Manager.
McGraw-Hill, New York.
23. Kursh CO (1971) The benefits of poor communication.
Psychoanal. Rev. Summer-Fall, 418-426.
24. Land E (1972) From Sean Callahan's article Dr Land's
magic camera. Life Mag. 27 October, 42.
25. Leavitt HJ (1975) Beyond the analytic manager. Cal(/~
Mgmt Rev. 17, No. 3, 5-12.
19. Omega, Vol. 22, No. 6 645
26. MacCrimmon KR (1969) Improving the system design
and evaluation process by the use of trade-off inform-
ation: an application to northeast corridor transporta-
tion planning. RM-5877-DOT. The Rand Corp., Santa
Monica, Calif.
27. Manheim ML and Hall F (1967) Abstract representa-
tion of goals: a method for making decisions in complex
problems. In Transportation: A Service Proceedings
of the Sesquicentennial Forum. New York Academy of
Sciences-American Society of Mechanical Engineers,
New York.
28. Mintzberg H (1973) The Nature of Managerial Work.
Harper & Row, New York.
29. Mintzberg H, Raisinghani D and Theoret A (1976)
The structure of "unstructured" decision processes.
Admve Sci. Q. 21, 246-275.
30. Parnes SJ, Noller RB and Biondi AM (1977) Guide to
Creative Action. Scribner's, New York.
31. Pitz GF, Sachs NJ and Heerborth J (1980) Procedures
for eliciting choices in the analysis of individual decision.
Org. Behav. Hum. Perf. 26, 396-408.
32. Roe A (1976) Psychological approaches to creativity
in science. In The Creativity Question (Edited by
Rothenberg A and Hausman CR). Duke University,
Durham, N.C.
33. Rosenhead J (Ed) (1989) Rational Analysis .lor u
Problematic WorM. Wiley, Chichester.
34. Saaty TL (1980) The Analytic Hierarchy Process.
McGraw-Hill, New York.
35. Schwenk C and Thomas H (1983) Formulating the
mess: the role of decision aids in problem formulation.
Omega 11, 239-262.
36. Simon HA (1960) The New Science of Management
Decision. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N.J.
37. Smith GF (1989) Defining managerial problems: a
framework for prescriptive theorizing. Mgmt Sci. 35,
No. 8.
38. Tversky A and Kahneman D (1974) Judgment under
uncertainty: heuristics and biases. Science 185, 1124-
1131.
39. Van Gundy AB (1981) Techniques of Structured
Problem Solving. Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York.
40. Watson CE (1976) The problems of problem solving.
Bus. Horizons 19, 88-94.
ADDRESSFOR CORRESPONDENCE: Dr Min Basadur, Human
Resources and Labour Relations Area, Michael G DeGroote
School of Business, McMaster University, 1280 Main Street
West, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada LSS 4M4.