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Amplifiers

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Srinivasa Rao
Srinivasa Rao

An amplifier raises the level of a weak signal without changing its wave shape or frequency. Amplification is needed because signals from transducers like microphones are very weak and must be amplified before being fed to speakers. There are three main configurations for transistor amplifiers: common base, common emitter, and common collector. The common emitter configuration is commonly used as an amplifier because it has suitable input/output impedances and offers current, voltage, and power gain. Proper biasing of the transistor is also important to ensure it operates in the active region and allows faithful amplification of input signals without distortion of the output.

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AEI302.16 1 • Amplifier raises the level of a weak signal. • No change in the wave shape. • No change in the frequency of the input signal What is an amplifier?
AEI302.16 2 • The signal is generally the o/p of a transducer like microphone, thermo couple. • It is very weak. • It must be amplified before feeding to the loud speaker etc. Why we need Amplification?
AEI302.16 3 Block diagram of an Amplifier
AEI302.16 4 • Common Base Configuration • Common Emitter Configuration • Common Collector Configuration Different Configurations of Transistor
AEI302.16 5 In how many regions a transistor can be operated? 1. Cut off region 2. Active region 3. Saturation region
AEI302.16 6 Cutoff region Emitter junction & Collector junction are in Reverse Biased Active region Emitter junction Forward Biased & Collector junction Reverse Biased Saturation region Emitter junction & Collector Junction are in Forward Biased
AEI302.17 7 CIRCUIT OF C.E.AMPLIFIER
AEI302.17 8 Working of C.E.Amplifier • Base emitter junction is forward biased by VBB. • Collector base junction is reverse biased by VCC. • During positive half cycle of signal forward bias is increased. • Hence base current IB is increased. • So Ic increases and ICRC drop increases. • The output VCE decreases as VCE = VCC - ICRC • There is a phase shift of 180º between input and output.
AEI302.17 9 Output Signal Input Signal Wave Forms of Input and Output Signals
AEI302.17 10 Salient points of C.E.Amplifier • Moderately low input resistance(1 k to 2 k). • Moderately high output resistance(50 k). • High current gain. • Very high voltage gain. • Very high power gain. • Input and output signals are 180° out of phase.
AEI302.17 11 Comparison Of Amplifier Configurations NoYesNoPhase Reversal6. LowHighVery HighOutput Impedance 5. Very HighHighLowInput Impedance4. LowHighHighPower Gain3. Nearly UnityVery HighHighVoltage Gain2. Very HighHighNearly UnityCurrent Gain1. C.B C.E C.C ParticularsS.No
AEI302.17 12 WHICH CONFIGURATION IS BEST SUITED AS AN AMPLIFIER ? C.E.CONFIGURATION
AEI302.17 13 • its input and output impedances are suitable in many applications. • it offers current gain,voltage gain,power gain. Why C.E.Configuration Is Commonly Used?
AEI302.18 14 The operating conditions of a transistor are determined by • VCE collector to emitter voltage • IC collector current Concept of DC Load Line
AEI302.18 15 The value of IC for a given VCE can be known • From output characteristics of a transistor. • From D.C.Load Line .
AEI302.18 16 Which one is convenient ? • D.C. Load Line
AEI302.18 17 • It is a graph drawn between collector current IC and collector to emitter voltage VCE for a given VCC and RC. What is a D.C.Load Line ?
AEI302.18 18 • VCE is taken on X-axis • IC is taken on Y-axis To draw the d.c.Load Line of a transistor
AEI302.18 19 • Only two points cut-off point and saturation point are required. • Line joining these two points is known as load line. How we can draw the D.C.Load Line?
AEI302.18 20 Determination of cut-off point The output equation of a transistor in C.E.mode is VCC = VCE + ICRC When transistor is cut-off IC = 0 So VCC = VCE Hence cut-off point = (VCE, 0)
AEI302.18 21 Determination of Saturation point: In Saturation VCE of a transistor is zero. Hence VCC = ICRC Ic = VCC / RC Hence Saturation point = (0,VCC / RC)
AEI302.18 22 Cut-off point Saturation point(0 ,VCC / RC) (VCE,0 )D.C.Load Line VCE IC Active region
AEI302.18 23 • D.C.Load line represents all possible DC operating points of a transistor for a specified values of Vcc & Rc
AEI302.18 24 • The lower end of the D.C.Load Line is called cut-off point. • The upper end of D.C.Load Line is saturation point. • The entire region between these two points indicates active region.
AEI302.18 25 In a C.E. Configuration the Vcc = 12v, Rc = 3k Find D.C.Load Line ? Problem
AEI302.18 26 SOLUTION The output equation of a transistor is VCC = VCE + ICRC 12 = VCE + 3 * IC When IC = 0; VCE = 12 v The Coordinates of cut off point are (12v , 0) When VCE = 0 IC = VCC / RC = 12 v / 3 kΩ = 4 mA The Coordinates of saturation point are (0, 4mA)
AEI302.18 27 (12,0) (0,4m A) D.C.Load Line Cut-off point Saturation point VCE IC
AEI-302.19 28 What is the difference between D.C & A.C load lines?
AEI-302.19 29 A.C LOAD LINE • A.C Load Line gives the values of ic and vce when an A.C signal is applied.
AEI-302.19 30 Circuit of a C.E .Amplifier RE
AEI-302.19 31 For A.C analysis • All capacitors in the circuit may be considered as short circuits. • The collector resistance Rc comes parallel with load Resistor RL and forms the A.C load resistance. • Effective Load for A.C signal is Rac = Rc || RL = RcRL / Rc+RL
AEI-302.19 32 • When signal is applied “Q”point swings along ac load line.
AEI-302.19 33 Drawing an A.C load line • The output equation of transistor is Vce + ic Rc = 0 (1) Ic = -Vce / Rac (2) A.C collector voltage is Vce = vCE – vCEQ (3) Substituting these values in equation (1) vCE – VCEQ + (ic-ICQ)Rac = 0 Ic = ICQ + VCEQ / Rac – vCE / Rac
AEI-302.19 34 Determination of Cut-off & Saturation points • In saturation vCE = 0 • Hence ic(sat) = ICQ + VCEQ/Rac • ic(sat) = a.c saturation current • ICQ =d.c Collector current • VCEQ = DC collector - Emitter voltage . • Rac = a.c load resistance Saturation point
AEI-302.19 35 Cut-off point • When transistor is cut-off ic equals to zero • ICQ +vCEQ / Rac - vCE(cutoff) / Rac = 0 • vCE(cutoff) = vCEQ + I CQ Rac.
AEI-302.19 36 Line joining these two points is called A.C Load Line • The maximum possible positive signal swing is ICQRac. • The maximum possible negative signal swing is vCEQ. It represents all possible a.c operating points.
AEI-302.19 37
AEI-302.19 38 PROBLEM 1. Draw the dc & ac load line for the C.E circuit shown in figure.
AEI-302.19 39 SOLUTION • D.C OPERATING POINT • Vce(cutoff) = Vcc = 20 v (Represents point B) • I c(saturation) = Vcc / Rc+RE = 20 / (3+2)K =4 mA (Represents point A) • Line AB represents dc load line.
AEI-302.19 40 ICQ =4 mA / 2 = 2mA (Taking “Q”at the centre of dc load line) VCEQ = Vcc - ICQ(Rc+RE) = 20 – 2 (3+2) = 10 v A.C Load resistance = RC || RL = 3 || 12 = (3*12) / (3+12) = 2.4 K CALCULATION OF AC LOAD LINE
AEI-302.19 41 Ic (sat) = ICQ + VCEQ / Rac = 2 X 10-3+ 10 / 2.4 = 6.17 mA Hence saturation point = ( 0 , 6.17mA) VCE(cut off) = VCEQ + ICEQ * RE = 10 + 2 X 10-3 * 2 X 103 = 14.8 v Hence cut off point = ( 14.8 v , 0). Line joining CD is ac load line. This line passes through “Q” point.
AEI-302.19 42 (20 v,) 0 B A (0, 4 mA) D (14.8 v, 0) C (0, 6.17mA) A.C.Load line D.C.Load line VCE IC Fig. 4
AEI302.20 43 Need for biasing • For normal operation of a transistor amplifier circuit, the transistor must be biased so that it operates in the active region (linear) of it’s characteristics. That means • Forward bias on the emitter-base junction • Reverse bias on the collector-base junction
AEI302.20 44 For achieving faithful amplification the following conditions should be satisfied • 1. Proper Zero signal collector current IC. • 2. Proper Base-Emitter voltage VBE at any instant . • 3. Proper Collector-Emitter voltage VCE at any instant.
AEI302.20 45 What is meant by Zero signal collector current? • The current following through a transistor in the absence of A.C signal is known as Zero signal collector current IC.
AEI302.20 46 Condition 1 • Zero signal collector current IC should be equal to the maximum collector current due to signal alone.
AEI302.20 47 For Example: • An input signal causes a peek collector current of 1mA; Then Zero signal collector current can be either 1mA or more than 1mA.
AEI302.20 48 IC > Maximum current due to A.C.Signal Here IC= 1mA • The maximum collector current due to signal is 0.5mA. • So the total collector current varies between 1.5mA to 0.5mA. 1m A 1.5m A
AEI302.20 49 When IC = Maximum current due to A.C.Signal Here IC= 1mA Maximum current due to A.C.Signal is 1mA.So total current varies between 2 mA and 0 mA 0m A 1m A 2m A
AEI302.20 50 When IC< Maximum current due to A.C.Signal Here IC= 0.5mA Maximum current due to A.C.Signal is 1mA Collector current IC becomes –ve during some part of input signal. • It means output waveform is clipped during that part. • Hence there is distortion in output. - 0.5m A 0.5m A0.m A 1.5m A
AEI302.20 51 We can conclude that: • For faithful amplification Zero signal collector current IC  maximum collector current due to signal alone
AEI302.20 52 Condition - 2 Minimum proper Base -Emitter voltage . • The Base – Emitter voltage VEBshould not fall below • 0.3v for Germanium transistors. • 0.7v for Silicon transistors.
AEI302.20 53 • If VBE falls below these values during any part of the signal, that part will be amplified to a smaller extent and faithful amplification is not possible.
AEI302.20 54 The conditions 1 & 2 ensures • Emitter-Base junction remains properly forward biased during all parts of input signal.
AEI302.20 55 Condition - 3 Minimum proper Collector-Emitter voltage should not fall below knee voltage. • 0.5v for Germanium Transistors. • 1.0v for Silicon Transistors.
AEI302.20 56 • If VCEis less than knee voltage • Collector Base junction is not properly reverse biased. • Amplification is not uniform. • Causes distortion in o/p waveform.
AEI302.20 57 The condition 3 ensures • The Collector-Base junction remains properly reverse biased during all parts of input signal.
AEI302.20 58 • The proper flow of zero signal collector current and maintenance of proper colletor - emitter voltage during the passage of signal is called TRANSISTOR BIASING
AEI302.20 59 A Transistor can be biased • With the help of a battery. • Associating a circuit with the Transistor.
AEI302.20 60 The second method is more efficient: • The circuit used for Transistor biasing is called BIASING CIRCUIT.
AEI302.20 61 • Transistor Biasing is very essential for proper operation of a Transistor.
AEI302.20 62 PROBLEM Find the maximum input current permissible for faithful amplification of a silicon transistor having RC = 4 kΏ and V = 10 v. The knee voltage = 1 v. β = 50.
AEI302.20 63 SOLUTION The output equation of transistor is VCC =VCE + IC RC 10 = 1 + 4*103 * IC Ic = (10-1)/ (4*103) = 2.25 mA IB = IC / β = 2.25 mA / 50
AEI-302.21 64 OPERATING POINT o VCE Dc Load line Ac Load Line I c Vcc R c
AEI-302.21 65 • It is a point on the DC load line which specifies collector current IC and collector emitter voltage VCE that exist when no signal is applied. • The operating point is also known as “Quiescent point” or “Q” point. OPERATING POINT
AEI-302.21 66 • When an input signal is applied, base current varies according to the input signal. • This causes collector current IC and out put voltage VCE to vary. • For faithful amplification selection of operating point is very important. OPERATING POINT
AEI-302.21 67 A transistor should be biased to operate within the maximum limits of the following. • Maximum Collector Current ICmax) • Maximum Collector voltage VC(max) • Maximum Collector dissipation PC(max) • Maximum Emitter –Base voltage VBE(max)
AEI-302.21 68 VCE IC Q 2 Q Q 1 Output characteristic s DC Load Line DC Load line is drawn on output characteristics Fig 1
AEI-302.21 69 As shown in fig.1 operating point is the intersection of D.C load line on O/P characteristics of a transistor. There are several operating points.
AEI-302.21 70 •If operating point is selected at Q1 near the cut off region, output current Ic, and voltage VCE clipped at the negative peaks for a sinusoidal varying input signal. How the operating point is selected? •If operating point is selected at Q2, near the saturation region, the output signal would be clipped at the positive peaks for a sinusoid ally varying input signal.
AEI-302.21 71 •Selecting the operating point on the center of D.C. Load Line is not a rule. •Generally operating point is selected at the centre of DC load line. •For large signal amplifiers “Q” point can be taken on the center of D.C. Load Line.•For small signal amplifiers where the input signal excursion is very small.”Q” point can be selected any where on D.C. Load Line depending on circuit conditions. How the operating point is selected
AEI-302.21 72 PROBLEM In a transistor circuit RC= 5 k Ώ and VCC = 10v. The zero signal collector current is 1.0 mA. Find the operating point.
AEI-302.21 73 VCC =VCE + ICRC VCE = VCC – ICRC = 10 – (1 *10-3 * 5*103) = 5 v. The operating point is ( 5 v, 1mA) Solution
AEI302.22 74 Stabilization is nothing but keeping the Q- point (operating point)stable irrespective of the variation in temperature, β of the transistor and vbe STABILIZATION
AEI302.22 75 •In a transistor amplifier fixing suitable operating point is not sufficient. •The operating point should remain stable.
AEI302.22 76 Stabilization of operating point is essential because, it may change due to Instability of Collector current IC. With temperature ,Ie., ICBO or ICO • Variation of VBE • Change of β with transistor replacement.
AEI302.22 77 Instability of IC In a CE amplifier IC = β IB + (1+β) * ICO. The reverse saturation current ICO increases at a rate of 7 % / ° C for both Ge & Si transistors. Or ICO doubles for every 10 °C rise in temperature.
AEI302.22 78 Variation of VBE with temperature /change of transistor. Base-Emitter voltage VBE decreases at a rate of 2.5 mv per°C.
AEI302.22 79 Change of β factor • The value of β is not same for any two transistors even of same type. • For Ex : BC147 is a Silicon transistor with β varying from 100 to 600.
AEI302.22 80 All the above factors can cause the bias point to shift from the values originally fixed.
AEI302.22 81 THERMAL RUNAWAY • The collector current IC increases with increase in temperature. • This increases power dissipation and further increases the temperature, and it will increase icbo and hence finally ic. • Being a cumulative process it can result in burn –out of transistor.
AEI302.22 82 The self destruction of an un-stabilized transistor is called THERMAL RUNWAY
AEI302.22 83 Means of achieving stability for operating point • Stabilization techniques. • Compensation techniques.
AEI302.22 84 STABILIZATION TECHNIQUES • Use a resistive biasing circuit. • It permits variation of base current IB to maintain collector current Ic constant. • IC is made constant against variations in ICO,VBE and β
AEI302.22 85 COMPENSATION TECHNIQUES • They use temperature sensitive devices such as diodes, transistors & thermisters • They produce compensating voltages and currents and make operating point stable.
AEI302.23 86 On what factors operating point is dependent? • ICO Reverse current • VBE Base Emitter voltage •  Current amplification factor
AEI302.23 87 The degree of stability of IC against variations in ICO ,VBE & β is expressed in terms of stability factors. Stability factor
AEI302.23 88 The different stability factors • s • sv (s| ) • s (s|| )
AEI302.23 89 Stability factor S • Stability factor “S” is defined as the rate of change of collector current IC with respect to change in ICO keeping  and VBE constant. • S = dIC / dICO (At constant  and VBE)
AEI302.23 90 The General expression for S The expression for collector current Ic is IC= β *IB + (1+ β) ICO Differentiating w.r.t. IC 1 = β * dIB/dIC + (1+ β) * dICO / dIC 1 = β * dIB/dIC + (1+ β) / S S = (1+ β) / (1 – (β * dIB/dIC))
AEI302.23 91 • The ideal value of S is unity. • The smaller the value of S the higher is the stability.
AEI302.23 92 In CB amplifier the output current IC is given by IC =  *IE + ICO Differentiating w.r.t ICO dIC / dICO = 1. C.B amplifier achieves the lowest value of ‘S’. So C.B amplifier does not require stabilization.
AEI302.23 93 Stability factor SV • It is defined as the rate of change of collector current IC with respect to change in VBE keeping ICO and  constant. • SV = dIC / dVBE (at constant ICO and  )
AEI302.23 94 Stability factor S • Stability factor S is defined as the rate of change of collector current ICwith  keeping ICO and VBE constant. • S = dIC/ d (at constant ICO & VBE)
AEI302.23 95 • The expression for collector current IC is • IC =  * IB + (1+ )ICO • Differentiating w.r.t. IC • 1 = *dIB / dIC + IB * d /dIC + ICO d /dIC • 1 -  * dIB / dIC = d /dIC (IB + ICO) • (1/S) (IB + ICO) = 1 – ( *dIB /dIC) • S = (IB + ICO) / 1 – ( * dIB /dIC) General Expression for S

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Amplifiers

  • 1. AEI302.16 1 • Amplifier raises the level of a weak signal. • No change in the wave shape. • No change in the frequency of the input signal What is an amplifier?
  • 2. AEI302.16 2 • The signal is generally the o/p of a transducer like microphone, thermo couple. • It is very weak. • It must be amplified before feeding to the loud speaker etc. Why we need Amplification?
  • 3. AEI302.16 3 Block diagram of an Amplifier
  • 4. AEI302.16 4 • Common Base Configuration • Common Emitter Configuration • Common Collector Configuration Different Configurations of Transistor
  • 5. AEI302.16 5 In how many regions a transistor can be operated? 1. Cut off region 2. Active region 3. Saturation region
  • 6. AEI302.16 6 Cutoff region Emitter junction & Collector junction are in Reverse Biased Active region Emitter junction Forward Biased & Collector junction Reverse Biased Saturation region Emitter junction & Collector Junction are in Forward Biased
  • 7. AEI302.17 7 CIRCUIT OF C.E.AMPLIFIER
  • 8. AEI302.17 8 Working of C.E.Amplifier • Base emitter junction is forward biased by VBB. • Collector base junction is reverse biased by VCC. • During positive half cycle of signal forward bias is increased. • Hence base current IB is increased. • So Ic increases and ICRC drop increases. • The output VCE decreases as VCE = VCC - ICRC • There is a phase shift of 180º between input and output.
  • 9. AEI302.17 9 Output Signal Input Signal Wave Forms of Input and Output Signals
  • 10. AEI302.17 10 Salient points of C.E.Amplifier • Moderately low input resistance(1 k to 2 k). • Moderately high output resistance(50 k). • High current gain. • Very high voltage gain. • Very high power gain. • Input and output signals are 180° out of phase.
  • 11. AEI302.17 11 Comparison Of Amplifier Configurations NoYesNoPhase Reversal6. LowHighVery HighOutput Impedance 5. Very HighHighLowInput Impedance4. LowHighHighPower Gain3. Nearly UnityVery HighHighVoltage Gain2. Very HighHighNearly UnityCurrent Gain1. C.B C.E C.C ParticularsS.No
  • 12. AEI302.17 12 WHICH CONFIGURATION IS BEST SUITED AS AN AMPLIFIER ? C.E.CONFIGURATION
  • 13. AEI302.17 13 • its input and output impedances are suitable in many applications. • it offers current gain,voltage gain,power gain. Why C.E.Configuration Is Commonly Used?
  • 14. AEI302.18 14 The operating conditions of a transistor are determined by • VCE collector to emitter voltage • IC collector current Concept of DC Load Line
  • 15. AEI302.18 15 The value of IC for a given VCE can be known • From output characteristics of a transistor. • From D.C.Load Line .
  • 16. AEI302.18 16 Which one is convenient ? • D.C. Load Line
  • 17. AEI302.18 17 • It is a graph drawn between collector current IC and collector to emitter voltage VCE for a given VCC and RC. What is a D.C.Load Line ?
  • 18. AEI302.18 18 • VCE is taken on X-axis • IC is taken on Y-axis To draw the d.c.Load Line of a transistor
  • 19. AEI302.18 19 • Only two points cut-off point and saturation point are required. • Line joining these two points is known as load line. How we can draw the D.C.Load Line?
  • 20. AEI302.18 20 Determination of cut-off point The output equation of a transistor in C.E.mode is VCC = VCE + ICRC When transistor is cut-off IC = 0 So VCC = VCE Hence cut-off point = (VCE, 0)
  • 21. AEI302.18 21 Determination of Saturation point: In Saturation VCE of a transistor is zero. Hence VCC = ICRC Ic = VCC / RC Hence Saturation point = (0,VCC / RC)
  • 22. AEI302.18 22 Cut-off point Saturation point(0 ,VCC / RC) (VCE,0 )D.C.Load Line VCE IC Active region
  • 23. AEI302.18 23 • D.C.Load line represents all possible DC operating points of a transistor for a specified values of Vcc & Rc
  • 24. AEI302.18 24 • The lower end of the D.C.Load Line is called cut-off point. • The upper end of D.C.Load Line is saturation point. • The entire region between these two points indicates active region.
  • 25. AEI302.18 25 In a C.E. Configuration the Vcc = 12v, Rc = 3k Find D.C.Load Line ? Problem
  • 26. AEI302.18 26 SOLUTION The output equation of a transistor is VCC = VCE + ICRC 12 = VCE + 3 * IC When IC = 0; VCE = 12 v The Coordinates of cut off point are (12v , 0) When VCE = 0 IC = VCC / RC = 12 v / 3 kΩ = 4 mA The Coordinates of saturation point are (0, 4mA)
  • 28. AEI-302.19 28 What is the difference between D.C & A.C load lines?
  • 29. AEI-302.19 29 A.C LOAD LINE • A.C Load Line gives the values of ic and vce when an A.C signal is applied.
  • 30. AEI-302.19 30 Circuit of a C.E .Amplifier RE
  • 31. AEI-302.19 31 For A.C analysis • All capacitors in the circuit may be considered as short circuits. • The collector resistance Rc comes parallel with load Resistor RL and forms the A.C load resistance. • Effective Load for A.C signal is Rac = Rc || RL = RcRL / Rc+RL
  • 32. AEI-302.19 32 • When signal is applied “Q”point swings along ac load line.
  • 33. AEI-302.19 33 Drawing an A.C load line • The output equation of transistor is Vce + ic Rc = 0 (1) Ic = -Vce / Rac (2) A.C collector voltage is Vce = vCE – vCEQ (3) Substituting these values in equation (1) vCE – VCEQ + (ic-ICQ)Rac = 0 Ic = ICQ + VCEQ / Rac – vCE / Rac
  • 34. AEI-302.19 34 Determination of Cut-off & Saturation points • In saturation vCE = 0 • Hence ic(sat) = ICQ + VCEQ/Rac • ic(sat) = a.c saturation current • ICQ =d.c Collector current • VCEQ = DC collector - Emitter voltage . • Rac = a.c load resistance Saturation point
  • 35. AEI-302.19 35 Cut-off point • When transistor is cut-off ic equals to zero • ICQ +vCEQ / Rac - vCE(cutoff) / Rac = 0 • vCE(cutoff) = vCEQ + I CQ Rac.
  • 36. AEI-302.19 36 Line joining these two points is called A.C Load Line • The maximum possible positive signal swing is ICQRac. • The maximum possible negative signal swing is vCEQ. It represents all possible a.c operating points.
  • 38. AEI-302.19 38 PROBLEM 1. Draw the dc & ac load line for the C.E circuit shown in figure.
  • 39. AEI-302.19 39 SOLUTION • D.C OPERATING POINT • Vce(cutoff) = Vcc = 20 v (Represents point B) • I c(saturation) = Vcc / Rc+RE = 20 / (3+2)K =4 mA (Represents point A) • Line AB represents dc load line.
  • 40. AEI-302.19 40 ICQ =4 mA / 2 = 2mA (Taking “Q”at the centre of dc load line) VCEQ = Vcc - ICQ(Rc+RE) = 20 – 2 (3+2) = 10 v A.C Load resistance = RC || RL = 3 || 12 = (3*12) / (3+12) = 2.4 K CALCULATION OF AC LOAD LINE
  • 41. AEI-302.19 41 Ic (sat) = ICQ + VCEQ / Rac = 2 X 10-3+ 10 / 2.4 = 6.17 mA Hence saturation point = ( 0 , 6.17mA) VCE(cut off) = VCEQ + ICEQ * RE = 10 + 2 X 10-3 * 2 X 103 = 14.8 v Hence cut off point = ( 14.8 v , 0). Line joining CD is ac load line. This line passes through “Q” point.
  • 42. AEI-302.19 42 (20 v,) 0 B A (0, 4 mA) D (14.8 v, 0) C (0, 6.17mA) A.C.Load line D.C.Load line VCE IC Fig. 4
  • 43. AEI302.20 43 Need for biasing • For normal operation of a transistor amplifier circuit, the transistor must be biased so that it operates in the active region (linear) of it’s characteristics. That means • Forward bias on the emitter-base junction • Reverse bias on the collector-base junction
  • 44. AEI302.20 44 For achieving faithful amplification the following conditions should be satisfied • 1. Proper Zero signal collector current IC. • 2. Proper Base-Emitter voltage VBE at any instant . • 3. Proper Collector-Emitter voltage VCE at any instant.
  • 45. AEI302.20 45 What is meant by Zero signal collector current? • The current following through a transistor in the absence of A.C signal is known as Zero signal collector current IC.
  • 46. AEI302.20 46 Condition 1 • Zero signal collector current IC should be equal to the maximum collector current due to signal alone.
  • 47. AEI302.20 47 For Example: • An input signal causes a peek collector current of 1mA; Then Zero signal collector current can be either 1mA or more than 1mA.
  • 48. AEI302.20 48 IC > Maximum current due to A.C.Signal Here IC= 1mA • The maximum collector current due to signal is 0.5mA. • So the total collector current varies between 1.5mA to 0.5mA. 1m A 1.5m A
  • 49. AEI302.20 49 When IC = Maximum current due to A.C.Signal Here IC= 1mA Maximum current due to A.C.Signal is 1mA.So total current varies between 2 mA and 0 mA 0m A 1m A 2m A
  • 50. AEI302.20 50 When IC< Maximum current due to A.C.Signal Here IC= 0.5mA Maximum current due to A.C.Signal is 1mA Collector current IC becomes –ve during some part of input signal. • It means output waveform is clipped during that part. • Hence there is distortion in output. - 0.5m A 0.5m A0.m A 1.5m A
  • 51. AEI302.20 51 We can conclude that: • For faithful amplification Zero signal collector current IC  maximum collector current due to signal alone
  • 52. AEI302.20 52 Condition - 2 Minimum proper Base -Emitter voltage . • The Base – Emitter voltage VEBshould not fall below • 0.3v for Germanium transistors. • 0.7v for Silicon transistors.
  • 53. AEI302.20 53 • If VBE falls below these values during any part of the signal, that part will be amplified to a smaller extent and faithful amplification is not possible.
  • 54. AEI302.20 54 The conditions 1 & 2 ensures • Emitter-Base junction remains properly forward biased during all parts of input signal.
  • 55. AEI302.20 55 Condition - 3 Minimum proper Collector-Emitter voltage should not fall below knee voltage. • 0.5v for Germanium Transistors. • 1.0v for Silicon Transistors.
  • 56. AEI302.20 56 • If VCEis less than knee voltage • Collector Base junction is not properly reverse biased. • Amplification is not uniform. • Causes distortion in o/p waveform.
  • 57. AEI302.20 57 The condition 3 ensures • The Collector-Base junction remains properly reverse biased during all parts of input signal.
  • 58. AEI302.20 58 • The proper flow of zero signal collector current and maintenance of proper colletor - emitter voltage during the passage of signal is called TRANSISTOR BIASING
  • 59. AEI302.20 59 A Transistor can be biased • With the help of a battery. • Associating a circuit with the Transistor.
  • 60. AEI302.20 60 The second method is more efficient: • The circuit used for Transistor biasing is called BIASING CIRCUIT.
  • 61. AEI302.20 61 • Transistor Biasing is very essential for proper operation of a Transistor.
  • 62. AEI302.20 62 PROBLEM Find the maximum input current permissible for faithful amplification of a silicon transistor having RC = 4 kΏ and V = 10 v. The knee voltage = 1 v. β = 50.
  • 63. AEI302.20 63 SOLUTION The output equation of transistor is VCC =VCE + IC RC 10 = 1 + 4*103 * IC Ic = (10-1)/ (4*103) = 2.25 mA IB = IC / β = 2.25 mA / 50
  • 64. AEI-302.21 64 OPERATING POINT o VCE Dc Load line Ac Load Line I c Vcc R c
  • 65. AEI-302.21 65 • It is a point on the DC load line which specifies collector current IC and collector emitter voltage VCE that exist when no signal is applied. • The operating point is also known as “Quiescent point” or “Q” point. OPERATING POINT
  • 66. AEI-302.21 66 • When an input signal is applied, base current varies according to the input signal. • This causes collector current IC and out put voltage VCE to vary. • For faithful amplification selection of operating point is very important. OPERATING POINT
  • 67. AEI-302.21 67 A transistor should be biased to operate within the maximum limits of the following. • Maximum Collector Current ICmax) • Maximum Collector voltage VC(max) • Maximum Collector dissipation PC(max) • Maximum Emitter –Base voltage VBE(max)
  • 68. AEI-302.21 68 VCE IC Q 2 Q Q 1 Output characteristic s DC Load Line DC Load line is drawn on output characteristics Fig 1
  • 69. AEI-302.21 69 As shown in fig.1 operating point is the intersection of D.C load line on O/P characteristics of a transistor. There are several operating points.
  • 70. AEI-302.21 70 •If operating point is selected at Q1 near the cut off region, output current Ic, and voltage VCE clipped at the negative peaks for a sinusoidal varying input signal. How the operating point is selected? •If operating point is selected at Q2, near the saturation region, the output signal would be clipped at the positive peaks for a sinusoid ally varying input signal.
  • 71. AEI-302.21 71 •Selecting the operating point on the center of D.C. Load Line is not a rule. •Generally operating point is selected at the centre of DC load line. •For large signal amplifiers “Q” point can be taken on the center of D.C. Load Line.•For small signal amplifiers where the input signal excursion is very small.”Q” point can be selected any where on D.C. Load Line depending on circuit conditions. How the operating point is selected
  • 72. AEI-302.21 72 PROBLEM In a transistor circuit RC= 5 k Ώ and VCC = 10v. The zero signal collector current is 1.0 mA. Find the operating point.
  • 73. AEI-302.21 73 VCC =VCE + ICRC VCE = VCC – ICRC = 10 – (1 *10-3 * 5*103) = 5 v. The operating point is ( 5 v, 1mA) Solution
  • 74. AEI302.22 74 Stabilization is nothing but keeping the Q- point (operating point)stable irrespective of the variation in temperature, β of the transistor and vbe STABILIZATION
  • 75. AEI302.22 75 •In a transistor amplifier fixing suitable operating point is not sufficient. •The operating point should remain stable.
  • 76. AEI302.22 76 Stabilization of operating point is essential because, it may change due to Instability of Collector current IC. With temperature ,Ie., ICBO or ICO • Variation of VBE • Change of β with transistor replacement.
  • 77. AEI302.22 77 Instability of IC In a CE amplifier IC = β IB + (1+β) * ICO. The reverse saturation current ICO increases at a rate of 7 % / ° C for both Ge & Si transistors. Or ICO doubles for every 10 °C rise in temperature.
  • 78. AEI302.22 78 Variation of VBE with temperature /change of transistor. Base-Emitter voltage VBE decreases at a rate of 2.5 mv per°C.
  • 79. AEI302.22 79 Change of β factor • The value of β is not same for any two transistors even of same type. • For Ex : BC147 is a Silicon transistor with β varying from 100 to 600.
  • 80. AEI302.22 80 All the above factors can cause the bias point to shift from the values originally fixed.
  • 81. AEI302.22 81 THERMAL RUNAWAY • The collector current IC increases with increase in temperature. • This increases power dissipation and further increases the temperature, and it will increase icbo and hence finally ic. • Being a cumulative process it can result in burn –out of transistor.
  • 82. AEI302.22 82 The self destruction of an un-stabilized transistor is called THERMAL RUNWAY
  • 83. AEI302.22 83 Means of achieving stability for operating point • Stabilization techniques. • Compensation techniques.
  • 84. AEI302.22 84 STABILIZATION TECHNIQUES • Use a resistive biasing circuit. • It permits variation of base current IB to maintain collector current Ic constant. • IC is made constant against variations in ICO,VBE and β
  • 85. AEI302.22 85 COMPENSATION TECHNIQUES • They use temperature sensitive devices such as diodes, transistors & thermisters • They produce compensating voltages and currents and make operating point stable.
  • 86. AEI302.23 86 On what factors operating point is dependent? • ICO Reverse current • VBE Base Emitter voltage •  Current amplification factor
  • 87. AEI302.23 87 The degree of stability of IC against variations in ICO ,VBE & β is expressed in terms of stability factors. Stability factor
  • 88. AEI302.23 88 The different stability factors • s • sv (s| ) • s (s|| )
  • 89. AEI302.23 89 Stability factor S • Stability factor “S” is defined as the rate of change of collector current IC with respect to change in ICO keeping  and VBE constant. • S = dIC / dICO (At constant  and VBE)
  • 90. AEI302.23 90 The General expression for S The expression for collector current Ic is IC= β *IB + (1+ β) ICO Differentiating w.r.t. IC 1 = β * dIB/dIC + (1+ β) * dICO / dIC 1 = β * dIB/dIC + (1+ β) / S S = (1+ β) / (1 – (β * dIB/dIC))
  • 91. AEI302.23 91 • The ideal value of S is unity. • The smaller the value of S the higher is the stability.
  • 92. AEI302.23 92 In CB amplifier the output current IC is given by IC =  *IE + ICO Differentiating w.r.t ICO dIC / dICO = 1. C.B amplifier achieves the lowest value of ‘S’. So C.B amplifier does not require stabilization.
  • 93. AEI302.23 93 Stability factor SV • It is defined as the rate of change of collector current IC with respect to change in VBE keeping ICO and  constant. • SV = dIC / dVBE (at constant ICO and  )
  • 94. AEI302.23 94 Stability factor S • Stability factor S is defined as the rate of change of collector current ICwith  keeping ICO and VBE constant. • S = dIC/ d (at constant ICO & VBE)
  • 95. AEI302.23 95 • The expression for collector current IC is • IC =  * IB + (1+ )ICO • Differentiating w.r.t. IC • 1 = *dIB / dIC + IB * d /dIC + ICO d /dIC • 1 -  * dIB / dIC = d /dIC (IB + ICO) • (1/S) (IB + ICO) = 1 – ( *dIB /dIC) • S = (IB + ICO) / 1 – ( * dIB /dIC) General Expression for S