Asia-Pacific Communication Monitor 2020/2021

ASIA-PACIFIC
COMMUNICATION
MONITOR 2020/21
STRATEGIC ISSUES, COMPETENCY DEVELOPMENT, ETHICAL CHALLENGES
AND GENDER EQUALITY IN THE COMMUNICATION PROFESSION.
RESULTS OF A SURVEY IN 15 COUNTRIES AND TERRITORIES.
Jim Macnamara, May O. Lwin, Chun-Ju Flora Hung-Baesecke & Ansgar Zerfass
A study organised by the Asia Pacific Association of Communication Directors (APACD)
and the European Public Relations Education and Research Association (EUPRERA),
partnered with Truescope, Nanyang Technological University, and PRovoke.

4
Imprint
Published by:
APACD Asia-Pacific Association of Communication Directors, Hong Kong, www.apacd.com
EUPRERA European Public Relations Education and Research Association, Brussels, www.euprera.org
Citation of this publication (APA style):
Macnamara, J., Lwin, M. O., Hung-Baesecke, F., & Zerfass, A. (2021). Asia-Pacific Communication Monitor 2020/21.
Strategic issues, competency development, ethical challenges and gender equality in the communication profession.
Results of a survey in 15 countries and territories. Hong Kong, Brussels: APACD, EUPRERA.
Short quotation to be used in legends if using/citing graphics from this report:
Source: Asia-Pacific Communication Monitor 2020/21, www.communicationmonitor.asia.
Copyright:
© March 2021 by the research team (Macnamara, Lwin, Hung-Baesecke, & Zerfass) for the whole document and all parts, charts and data. The material
presented in this document represents empirical insights and interpretation by the research team. It is intellectual property subject to international
copyright. Title graphic provided by Quadriga Media. Survey tool, previous questionnaires/data, and website domain licensed by EURERA. Permission is
granted to quote from the content of this survey and reproduce any graphics, subject to the condition that the source including the internet address is
clearly quoted and depicted on every page or chart. It is not allowed to use this data to illustrate promotional material for commercial services.
Publishing this PDF document on websites or social media channels run by third parties and storing this document in databases or on platforms which are
only open to subscribers/members or charge payments for assessing information is prohibited. Please use a link to the official website
www.communicationmonitor.asia instead.
This report is available as a free PDF document at www.communicationmonitor.asia.
Contact:
Please contact the lead researchers or national research team members in your country if your are interested in presentations, workshops, interviews, or
further analyses of the insights presented here. Contacts are listed on pages 94-97.

5
Content
Introduction 6
Research design 8
Methodology and demographics 10
Strategic issues and communication channels 16
Competency development: Status quo and future needs 24
Ethical challenges and resources for the communication profession 42
Assessing and advancing gender equality 62
Characteristics of excellent communication departments 80
References 91
Authors and researcher team 94
National contacts 95
Survey organisers 98
Partners 99
More information 100

6
Introduction
Welcome to the third Asia-Pacific Communication Monitor. Following its launch in 2015/16 as a bi-annual survey, this study provides
valuable understanding of the communication industry in Asia-Pacific today and predictions for its future.
The Asia-Pacific Communication Monitor is part of the global Communication Monitor series that now includes the European
Communication Monitor; the North America Communication Monitor; and the Latin America Communication Monitor. In all, the Monitor
surveys cover more than 80 countries and territories on five continents and represent the views of more than 6,000 communication
professionals, making the collectively the largest study of public communication practices worldwide. The global sample of the
Communication Monitor also allows comparison of findings across regions to identify commonalities as well as reginal differences in
practice. The findings of the Asia-Pacific Communication Monitor 2020 build on those of previous Communication Monitor studies in Asia-
Pacific in 2015 (Macnamara, et al., 2015) and 2017 (Macnamara et al., 2017) to show development, trends, and future directions.
The 2020/21 Asia-Pacific Communication Monitor findings are based on responses from 1,155 communication professionals in 15 Asia-
Pacific countries and territories representing practices in corporations, governmental and non-profit organisations, and communication
agencies.
This report identifies the major strategic issues facing communication professionals in Asia-Pacific; the main communication channels
that they use; and the competency of communication professionals to meet the challenges of today and tomorrow; and its explores the
socially important issues of ethics and gender equality. Adequately responding to ethical challenges and advancing gender equality are
vital to ensure that public communication is socially responsible and contributes to the ‘social good’, as well as achieving the objectives of
organisations.
In this report, you will find some unsurprising trends, such as the continuing use and importance of social media, as well as some
surprises and findings that warrant discussion among practitioners and industry associations. For example, while women hold the
majority of positions in the field, they still lag in appointment to senior management roles. Also, a ‘glass ceiling’ is reported more often in
government organisations than non-profits, companies, and agencies. Arguably, governments should be more representative of society
and committed to social equity.
More than 40% of practitioners reporting facing ethical challenges in their work. In particular, 75% of practitioners are concerned
about using bots and big data analysis. With growth in use of data analytics and artificial intelligence (AI), ethical practice in these areas is
a matter for close attention in the industry. However, it is concerning that almost one-third of communication professionals in Asia-Pacific
have never participated in any ethics training.
The lead researchers and authors of this report believe that practitioners, industry organisations, and trainers and educators will find
interesting information and insights in this report.

7
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9
Research design
The Asia-Pacific Communication Monitor (APCM) is a unique transnational study of strategic communication practice covering 15 countries
and territories in the region. Findings are derived from an online survey of communication professionals working in corporations,
governmental and non-profit organisations, and communication agencies. The APCM is conducted in collaboration with similar studies in
other regions including Europe (Zerfass et al., 2020), North America (Meng et al., 2019) and Latin America (Moreno et al., 2019). With
more than 80 countries and territories participating globally using comparable methodology and sharing common questions, the
Communication Monitor studies are the most comprehensive research into strategic communication and public relations worldwide.
The research framework for the survey is designed to explore five key areas: (1) organisations (their structure and country or territory
of operation); (2) communication professionals (their demographics, role, experience, etc.); (3) the situation in which they operate
(challenges, competencies, etc.); (4) the communication department (its role, influence and performance); and (5) perceptions of the
future (strategic issues, importance of channels, etc.). It examines a number of independent and dependent variables in nine categories
outlined in the research framework on page 12.
The study explores four constructs. Firstly, developments and dynamics in the field of strategic communication (Falkheimer & Heide,
2018; Holtzhausen & Zerfass, 2015; Nothhaft et al., 2019) and public relations (Tench & Waddington, 2021; Valentini, 2021) are identified
by longitudinal comparisons of strategic issues and communication channels. To this end, questions from previous APCM surveys
(Macnamara et al., 2015, 2017) have been repeated. Secondly, regional and national differences are revealed by breaking down the results
to 11 key countries and territories. Thirdly, a selection of current challenges in the field are empirically tested. The study identifies the
frequency of moral challenges and approaches of coping with them generally (Bivins, 2018, Cheney et al., 2011; Parsons, 2016), as well as
ethical aspects of digital communication practices specifically (Barbu, 2014; DiStasio & Bortree, 2014). Additional issues explored are the
role of women in communication with a specific look on the glass ceiling hindering female practitioners to reach top positions (Dowling,
2017; Topić et al., 2020) and competency development for communicators (Moreno et al., 2017; Tench & Moreno, 2015). Fourthly,
statistical methods are used to identify high performing communication departments in the sample (Tench et al., 2017b; Verčič & Zerfass,
2016), and there define which aspects make a difference.
The design of the study provides insights to help communication professionals and industry bodies identify strengths and opportunities
as well as weaknesses and threats. It also provides empirical findings to inform professional development, undergraduate and
postgraduate education, and academic research.

11
Methodology and demographics
The online questionnaire of the Asia-Pacific Communication Monitor 2020/21 consisted of 32 questions. Five of these questions were only
presented to professionals working in communication departments. Instruments used dichotomous, nominal, ordinal and numeric scaling.
They were based on research questions and hypotheses derived from previous research and literature. The survey was available in English
and Chinese and was activated from September to November 2020. Communication practitioners were invited by e-mail from national
research collaborators and professional associations. In addition, e-mail invitations were issued based on a database from the previous
APCM editions and another provided by the Asia-Pacific Association of Communication Directors (APACD). The invitations were further
publicised by PRovoke Media.
In total 2,306 respondents started the survey and 1,236 of them completed it. Answers from participants who could not clearly be
identified as part of the population were deleted from the dataset. This strict selection of respondents is a distinct feature of the APCM
and sets it apart from many studies which are based on snowball sampling or which include students, academics and people outside of the
focused profession or region. The evaluation presented in this report is based on 1,155 fully completed replies by communication
professionals.
The Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) was used for data analysis. Results have been tested for statistical significance
with, depending on the variable, Chi², ANOVA / Scheffé Post-hoc-Test, independent samples T-Test, Pearson correlation, Kendall rank
correlation or Mann-Whitney U Test. The applied methods are reported in the footnotes. Significant results are marked with * (p ≤ 0.05,
significant) or ** (p ≤ 0.01, highly significant) in the graphics or tables and also mentioned in the footnotes.
The demographics reveal the high quality of the sample, which is dominated by senior professionals with a sound qualification and a
long tenure in the field. The average age is 39.2 years. Two out of three respondents are communication leaders: 23.1 per cent hold a top
hierarchical position as head of communication in an organisation or as chief executive officer of a communication consultancy; 34 per
cent are unit leaders or in charge of a single discipline in a communication department. 50.7 per cent of the professionals interviewed have
more than ten years of experience in communication management. 64.1 per cent of all respondents are female and a vast majority (96.6
per cent) in the sample has an academic degree, half of them even a graduate degree or doctorate (45.1 per cent).
Six out of ten respondents work in communication departments in organisations (joint stock companies, 18.4 per cent; private
companies, 19.5 per cent; government-owned, public sector, political organisations, 17.7 per cent; non-profit organisations, associations, 5
per cent), while 39.4 per cent are communication consultants working freelance or for agencies. Communication professionals from 15
different countries and territories participated in the survey. Detailed insights were calculated for 11 key markets.

12
Research framework and questions
Situation
Ethical challenges in communication,
Q 1
Orientation on ethical challenges, Q 2
New ethical challenges, Q 3
Women in communication, Q 4
Glass ceiling in communication, Q 5
Competencies in communication, Q 9
Importance and personal level of key
competencies, Q 10
Development of competencies, Q 11
Communication channels and instruments,
Q 12
Person (Communication professional)
Demographics Education Job status Professional status
Age, Q 21
Gender, Q 22
Academic
qualification,
Q 29
Position, Q 14
Practices (Areas
of work), Q 20
Experience on the job (years),
Q 23
Membership in professional
association(s), Q 30
Time spent for professional
development, Q 24, Q 25
Training in ethics, Q 26, Q 27
Communication department
Excellence
Influence Performance
Advisory influence, Q 16
Executive influence, Q 17
Success, Q 18
Quality & Ability, Q 19
Organisation
Structure / Culture Country
Type of organisation, Q 13
Alignment of the top
communication manager, Q 15
Female top communication
leaders and female share of
communication staff, Q 28
Country,
Q 31, Q 32
Perception
Reasons for the glass ceiling, Q 6
Overcoming the glass ceiling, Q 7
Strategic issues, Q 8
Communication channels and instruments, Q 12

13
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14
Personal background of respondents
Gender / Age
www.communicationmonitor.asia / Macnamara et al. 2021 / n = 1,155 communication professionals. Q 14: What is your position? Q 21: How old are you?
Q 22: What is your gender? Q 29: Please state the highest academic/educational qualification you hold. * No degree: 3.5%. Q 30: Are you a member of a
professional organisation?
Overall
Head of communication,
Agency CEO
Unit leader,
Team leader
Team member,
Consultant
Female
Male
Age (on average)
64.1%
35.9%
39.2 years
57.9%
42.1%
47.3 years
62.2%
37.8%
39.7 years
69.6%
30.4%
33.8 years
Highest academic educational qualification*
Doctorate (Ph.D., Dr.) 6.9%
Master (M.A., M.Sc., Mag., M.B.A.), Diploma 38.2%
Bachelor (B.A., B.Sc.) 48.0%
Polytechnical / technical diploma 3.5%
Membership in a professional association
Asia-Pacific Association of Communication
Directors (APACD)
4.6%
Other international communication association 15.8%
National PR or communication association 34.1%

15
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17
Strategic issues and communication channels
Coping with the digital evolution and the social web continues to be the major strategic issue and challenge facing communication
practitioners in Asia-Pacific, although the percentage of professionals rating this highest (38.1%) has declined since 2015 when 53.1%
rated this the most important strategic issue. This signals that practitioners are coming to grips with digital technology and social media.
However, using ‘big data’ and algorithms has increased as a strategic concern and focus.
Also, building and maintaining trust has become the third highest rated strategic issue, after being ranked seventh in 2017. This is
undoubtedly a response to global concerns about disinformation (Bennett & Livingston, 2018) and the reported emergence of post-truth
society (Kavanagh & Rich, 2018; McIntyre, 2019). Surprisingly, building and maintaining trust is rated highest by companies (37.3% of
practitioners) along with non-profit organisations (41.4% of practitioners), with less concern among government communication
professionals (33.3%). This, and high levels of focus among government communicators on coping with the digital evolution and social
web; using big data and algorithms; and dealing with the speed and volume of information flow; suggest government priority on
dissemination of information rather than engagement and two-way communication.
Dealing with sustainable development and social responsibility has increased most as a strategic concern, with almost 30% of all
practitioners rating this a high priority in 2020 compared with just 19.3% in 2015. This finding is appropriate and encouraging, given the
warning by social scientists such as Couldry and Mejias (2019) that new information and communication technologies (ICTs) are being
widely used to deceive and manipulate people. A recent extensive global study found that many public relations and corporate and
marketing communication professionals are participants in disinformation, deception, and manipulation of citizens through practices such
as paid influencers and sponsored content (Macnamara, 2020). An analysis of attitudes towards artificial intelligence (AI) by Bourne (2019)
described public relations practitioners as “cheerleaders” without adequate concern for ethics and consumer protection. Thus, increased
focus on social responsibility is timely.
Linking communication to business strategy, the second highest rated strategic issue in 2017, has declined in focus, to be rated seventh
in 2020. However, this may be the result of the increase in other strategic concerns, rather than declining importance.
The shift to social media and mobile communication has not been as significant as predicted in 2017. Rather, the use of social media
has grown steadily, and use of mobile communication such as mobile web and phone and tablet apps has remained stable.
Contrary to predictions of the ‘end of newspapers’ (Meyer, 1994), press and media relations remains a major activity, with only a small
decline since 2017—albeit the focus is now online newspapers. More than 80% of practitioners continue to rate press and media relations
as important.
Looking ahead to 2023, practitioners in Asia-Pacific see continuing growth in the importance and use of social media and mobile
communication, and stable patterns in use of websites, with continuing gradual decline in online as well as print newspapers, radio, TV,
and events.

18
Most important strategic issues for communication management until 2023
www.communicationmonitor.asia / Macnamara et al. 2021 / n = 1,155 communication professionals. Q 8: Which issues will be most important for
communication management/PR within the next three years from your point of view? Please pick exactly 3 items. Percentages: Frequency based on selection
as Top-3 issue.
38.1%
36.9%
34.3%
31.8%
29.9%
28.2%
25.5%
24.1%
22.7%
20.3%
8.3%
Coping with the digital evolution and the social web
Using big data and/or algorithms for communication
Building and maintaining trust
Strengthening the role of the communication function in
supporting top-management decision making
Dealing with sustainable development and social responsibility
Exploring new ways of creating and distributing content
Linking business strategy and communication
Dealing with the speed and volume of information flow
Matching the need to address more audiences and channels with
limited resources
Elevating and adapting competences of communication
practitioners
Tackling gender issues on the individual, organisational or
professional level

19
Long-term development of strategic issues for communication management
www.communicationmonitor.asia / Macnamara et al. 2021 / n = 1,155 communication professionals (Q 8); Macnamara et al. 2017 / n = 1,306 (Q 1) /
Macnamara et al. 2015 / n = 1,200 (Q 3). Q: Which issues will be most important for communication management/PR within the next three years from
your point of view? Please pick exactly 3 items. Percentages: Frequency based on selection as Top-3 issue.
53.1%
0.0%
31.2%
30.1%
19.3%
41.0%
48.9%
32.4%
26.8%
28.6%
21.3%
34.9%
38.1%
36.9%
34.3%
31.8%
29.9%
25.5%
Coping with the
digital evolution and
the social web
Using big data and/or
algorithms for
communication
Building and
maintaining trust
Strengthening the
role of the
communication
function in
supporting top-
management
decision making
Dealing with
sustainable
development and
social responsibility
Linking business
strategy and
communication
2015 2017 2020

20
Relevance of strategic issues differs between types of organisations
www.communicationmonitor.asia / Macnamara et al. 2021 / n = 1,155 communication professionals. Q 8: Which issues will be most important for
communication management/PR within the next three years from your point of view? Please pick exactly 3 items. Percentages: Frequency based on selection
as Top-3 issue.
37.5%
35.9%
37.3%
29.7%
32.3%
27.7%
30.2%
20.4%
23.3%
17.2%
8.5%
39.5%
36.1%
33.2%
31.2%
32.2%
27.3%
15.6%
30.7%
23.4%
21.0%
9.8%
34.5%
29.3%
41.4%
34.5%
25.9%
25.9%
22.4%
31.0%
27.6%
15.5%
12.1%
38.5%
39.1%
31.0%
33.6%
27.0%
29.5%
25.9%
23.7%
21.1%
23.5%
7.0%
Coping with the digital evolution and the social web
Using big data and/or algorithms for communication
Building and maintaining trust
Strengthening the role of the communication function in
supporting top-management decision making
Dealing with sustainable development and social responsibility
Exploring new ways of creating and distributing content
Linking business strategy and communication
Dealing with the speed and volume of information flow
Matching the need to address more audiences and channels with
limited resources
Elevating and adapting competences of communication
practitioners
Tackling gender issues on the individual, organisational or
professional level
Companies
Governmental organisations
Non-profit organisations
Consultancies & Agencies

21
Importance of communication channels and methods today and in the future:
Mobile communication is advancing fast; media relations is on the downturn
www.communicationmonitor.asia / Macnamara et al. 2021 / n = 1,149 communication professionals. Q 12: How important are the following methods in
addressing stakeholders, gatekeepers and audiences today? In your opinion, how important will they be in three years? Scale 1 (Not important) – 5 (Very
important). Frequency based on scale points 4-5.
Perceived importance for addressing stakeholders, gatekeepers and audiences in 2020 and in 2023
+1.7%
+4.4%
-8.7%
-1.1%
-7.8%
-15.0%
-6.2%
-3.4%
-23.1%
-6.6%
∆
91.6%
82.3%
81.5%
79.2%
76.3%
69.6%
65.4%
57.3%
56.7%
45.6%
93.3%
86.7%
72.8%
78.1%
68.5%
54.6%
59.2%
53.9%
33.6%
39.0%
Social media and social networks (e.g., Blogs, Twitter,
Facebook)
Mobile communication (phone/tablet apps, mobile websites)
Press and media relations with online newspapers/magazines
Online communication via websites, e-mail, intranets
Face-to-face communication
Press and media relations with TV and radio stations
Events
Non-verbal communication (appearance, architecture)
Press and media relations with print newspapers/magazines
Corporate publishing/owned media (customer/employee
magazines)
Importance today (scale 4-5) Importance in 2023 (scale 4-5)

22
Longitudinal analysis: Social media has clearly gained in importance, while media
relations with print newspapers and magazines are rapidly declining
www.communicationmonitor.asia / Macnamara et al. 2021 / n = 1,149 communication professionals (Q 12); Macnamara et al. 2017 / n ≥ 1,280 (Q2);
Macnamara et al. 2015 / n ≥ 1,148 (Q 4). Q: You are almost done – one last question before we move on to the background and socio-demographics!
How important are the following methods in addressing stakeholders, gatekeepers and audiences today? In your opinion, how important will they be in
three years? Scale 1 (Not important) – 5 (Very important). Frequency based on scale points 4-5.
Perceived importance of communication channels for addressing stakeholders, gatekeepers and audiences
91.6%
82.3%
81.5%
79.2%
76.3%
69.6%
65.4%
57.3%
56.7%
45.6%
90.4%
83.8%
83.3%
82.7%
74.9%
67.0%
63.3%
50.3%
61.5%
52.6%
75.0%
66.5%
73.2%
73.6%
71.2%
66.8%
59.8%
42.3%
76.5%
39.1%
Facebook)
Mobile communication (phone/tablet apps, mobile
websites)
Press and media relations with online
newspapers/magazines
Events
magazines)
2020
2017
2015

23
Shift towards social media and mobile communication has not been as strong as
estimated in previous studies – and press relations is still better off
www.communicationmonitor.asia / Macnamara et al. 2021 / n = 1,149 communication professionals (Q 12); Macnamara et al. 2017 / n ≥ 1,274 (Q2).
Q: You are almost done – one last question before we move on to the background and socio-demographics! How important are the following methods in
addressing stakeholders, gatekeepers and audiences today? In your opinion, how important will they be in three years? Scale 1 (Not important) – 5 (Very
important). Frequency based on scale points 4-5.
Perceived and predicted importance of communication channels and instruments in 2020
-2.4%
-9.0%
+2.8%
-4.2%
+6.8%
+15.0%
+3.8%
+4.4%
+17.6%
-6.4%
∆
91.6%
82.3%
81.5%
79.2%
76.3%
69.6%
65.4%
57.3%
56.7%
45.6%
94.0%
91.3%
78.7%
83.4%
69.5%
54.6%
61.6%
52.9%
39.1%
52.0%
Facebook)
Mobile communication (phone/tablet apps, mobile websites)
Press and media relations with online newspapers/magazines
Events
magazines)
Importance 2020 (scale 4-5) Predicted importance 2020 (in 2017; scale 4-5)

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25
Competency development: Status quo and future needs
Communication competence has been widely discussed in European communication literature (e.g., Tench et al., 2013, 2015) and in the
Global Capability Framework produced by the Global Alliance for Public Relations and Communication Management (Gregory & Fawkes,
2019). Tench and Moreno (2015) contend that knowledge, skills and personal attributes (KSAs) constitute the broad competencies in
communication departments. Gregory (2008) defined competencies as “behavioral sets or sets of behaviors that support the attainment of
organisational objectives. How knowledge and skills are used in performance” (p. 216). Integrating different definitions, Tench and Moreno
(2015) described competencies as “the mix of skills and knowledge held by a practitioner, which combine with personal attributes to
produce effective professional behaviors” (p. 44).
Examination of communication competence in Asia-Pacific shows significant gaps, with four out of five practitioners acknowledging a
need to increase competencies. Recognition of this need is highest in Hong Kong and Macau (SAR) (85.5%); the Philippines (85.3%); Korea
(84.1%); Singapore (83.0%); Australia (82.9%); Taiwan (81.7%); New Zealand (81.6%); and Malaysia (80.7%). Similar to 2020 European
Communication Monitor findings, seasoned and experienced communication professionals in the Asia Pacific region are more aware of the
need to develop competence, while almost 25% of young practitioners did not acknowledge a strong need to do so.
While acknowledging a need for competencies, there are large gaps between perceived importance of particular competencies and
current competency levels. The largest discrepancy can be found in data competence, where 77.6% of practitioners consider data
competence to be important, but only 45.1% of practitioners report having high competence. Similarly, even though 75.0% of practitioners
consider technology competence to be important, only 46.6% stated they have high levels of competence in relation to technology.
Communication leaders are more confident than their subordinates in communication, management, and business, which is consistent
with their counterparts in Europe. However, in terms of technology and data competence, there is no difference across seniority levels.
Male practitioners reported significantly higher competence in business, technology, and data than female practitioners. In terms of age,
senior practitioners reported being more confident in business, management, communication, and data, as could be expected.
Closing the competence gap requires investment of more time in education and training (Moreno, et al., 2017). When it comes to how
practitioners should improve their competencies, nine in ten Asia-Pacific practitioners consider this a personal responsibility (87.7%) and a
responsibility of their employer organisations (87.1%)—although three-quarters also believe professional associations should play a role.
Across the region, communication professionals have completed an average of 22 training days per year in 2020, with almost half of
those taking place in the practitioner’s free time (weekends, holidays or evenings). Personal development time is highest for those working
in non-profit organisations, and lowest among those working in joint stock companies. Differences exist between practitioner age groups,
with younger professionals (29 years or younger) investing more than seven weeks of work and leisure time a year in professional
development, compared to only 15.8 days a year for those aged 50–59.

26
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27
A competencies gap: Practitioners across the region acknowledge the need to
improve competencies
www.communicationmonitor.asia / Macnamara et al. 2021 / n = 1,122 communication professionals from 11 countries and territories. Q 9: Practitioners working
in strategic communication and public relations need a broad set of skills and knowledge to fulfil their tasks. How do you assess the current situation regarding
competencies in communication? First scale 1 (Competencies are not at all discussed in the communication profession in my country) – 5 (Competencies are
heavily discussed in the communication profession in my country); second scale 1 (There is no need at all for communication practitioners to develop their
competencies) – 5 (There is a great need for communication practitioners to develop their competencies). Frequency based on scale points 4-5.
“There is a great need for
communication practitioners to
develop their competencies.”
“Competencies are heavily
discussed in the communication
profession in my country.”
Australia
China
(Mainland)
Hong Kong
& Macau,
SAR
Indonesia Korea Malaysia
New
Zealand
Philippines Singapore Taiwan Vietnam
57.1% 42.9% 48.7% 38.7% 50.8% 46.8% 46.9% 43.1% 50.0% 54.8% 49.5%
82.9% 72.9% 85.5% 69.4% 84.1% 80.7% 81.6% 85.3% 83.0% 81.7% 71.8%
Australia
China
(Mainland)
Hong Kong
& Macau,
SAR
Indonesia Korea Malaysia
New
Zealand
Philippines Singapore Taiwan Vietnam

28
Seasoned communication professionals are more aware of the need to advance
knowledge and skills
www.communicationmonitor.asia / Macnamara et al. 2021 / n = 1,155 communication professionals. Q 9: Practitioners working in strategic communication
and public relations need a broad set of skills and knowledge to fulfil their tasks. How do you assess the current situation regarding competencies in communi-
cations? First scale 1 (Competencies are not at all discussed in the communication profession in my country) – 5 (Competencies are heavily discussed in the
communication profession in my country); second scale 1 (There is no need at all for communication practitioners to develop their competencies) – 5 (There
is a great need for communication practitioners to develop their competencies). Frequency based on scale points 4-5.
77.0%
77.4%
79.8%
83.5%
85.7%
29 or younger
30 - 39
40 - 49
50 - 59
60 or older
Much or great need to develop competencies

29
Communication leaders stress the need for constant professional development
more than practitioners at lower levels
www.communicationmonitor.asia / Macnamara et al. 2021 / n = 1,069 communication professionals. Q 9: Practitioners working in strategic communication
and public relations need a broad set of skills and knowledge to fulfil their tasks. How do you assess the current situation regarding competencies in communi-
cations? First scale 1 (Competencies are not at all discussed in the communication profession in my country) – 5 (Competencies are heavily discussed in the
communication profession in my country); second scale 1 (There is no need at all for communication practitioners to develop their competencies) – 5 (There
is a great need for communication practitioners to develop their competencies). Frequency based on scale points 4-5.
82.0%
79.4%
78.7%
Head of communication / Agency CEO
Unit leader / Team leader
Team member / Consultant
Much or great need to develop competencies

30
91.4%
86.7%
79.0%
75.0%
77.6%
79.3%
66.3%
56.0%
46.6%
45.1%
Communication competence
Management competence
Business competence
Technology competence
Data competence
Important
keycompetence
(scale 4-5)
High personal
competence
(scale 4-5)
Increasing
gap
Large gaps between perceived importance and personal competence
www.communicationmonitor.asia / Macnamara et al. 2021 / n = 1,145 communication professionals. Q 10: Competencies are based upon knowledge, skills
and personal attributes. Some of them might be more important than others. How important are the following competencies for communication practitioners
in your opinion? And how do you rate your personal level in each case? Scale 1 (Very low) – 5 (Very high). Frequency based on scale points 4-5.
Importance of competencies vs. personal assessment of competencies by practitioners
Communication competence
(message creation and production, listening;
principles of communication and persuasion)
Business competence
(dealing with budgets, contracts and taxation;
knowledge of markets, products and competitors)
Management competence
(decision making, planning, organising, measurement,
leading people, human resources, self management)
Technology competence
(software and hardware usage,
digital savviness)
Data competence
(use cases, methods,
results interpretation)

31
A closer look at competency gaps: Largest share of under-skilled communicators
in the fields of technology and data
12.5%
16.3% 19.0% 19.5%
24.0%
36.7%
33.6%
32.3% 32.7%
32.4%
Communication
competence
Management
competence
Business
competence
Technology
competence
Data
competence
in your opinion? And how do you rate your personal level in each case? Scale 1 (Very low) – 5 (Very high).
Under-skilled
professionals
Critically
under-skilled
professionals
∑ 49.2%
∑ 51.3%
∑ 49.9%
∑ 52.2%
∑ 56.4%
Total of
under-skilled
communicators
How the number of under-skilled professionals has been calculated
Under-skilled professionals = those who perceive the importance of a competence 1 scale point higher than their personal level
(e. g. importance = 5 “very high”, but personal level = 4 “above average”). Critically under-skilled professionals = those who perceive the importance of
a competence 2 or more scale points higher than their personal level (e. g. importance = 4 „above average“, but personal level = 2 “below average”).

32
Practitioners working in governmental and non-profits organisations rate their
business competencies lower than other sectors
in your opinion? And how do you rate your personal level in each case? Scale 1 (Very low) – 5 (Very high). Mean values. ** Highly significant differences
(ANOVA, p ≤ 0.01).
Personal assessment of competency levels by communication professionals
4.05
3.82
3.63
3.53
3.40
4.09
3.72
3.20
3.45
3.38
3.97
3.88
3.28
3.53
3.38
4.12
3.91
3.73
3.35
3.35
2.50 4.00
Companies
Communication
competence
Management
competence
Business
competence **
Technology
competence
Data
competence
(1) Very low Very high (5)
(3)

33
Communication competence strong, but practitioners need to increase
competencies in data, technology and business
www.communicationmonitor.asia / Macnamara et al. 2021 / n ≥ 247 communication professionals. Q 10: Competencies are based upon knowledge, skills
(independent samples T-Test, p ≤ 0.01). * Significant differences (independent samples T-Test, p ≤ 0.05).
4.30
4.17
3.87
3.49
3.48
4.11
3.72
3.45
3.40
3.25
3.98
3.72
3.41
3.55
3.36
4.20
4.10
3.80
3.45
3.47
4.08
3.78
3.61
3.50
3.46
2.50 3.50 4.50
Strategy and coordination
Media relations
Online communication
Consultancy, advising, coaching, key account
Marketing, brand, consumer communication
Communication
competence **
Management
competence **
Business
competence **
Technology
competence *
Data
competence **
(3)

34
Leaders are confident about their business, management and communication
competencies, but rank equally to their subordinates in handling tech and data
(Kendall rank correlation, p ≤ 0.01).
3.86
3.54
3.26
3.27
3.42
4.11
3.95
3.62
3.38
3.43
4.40
4.21
4.04
3.51
3.50
2.50 3.50 4.50
Team member / Consultant
Unit leader / Team leader
Head of communication / Agency CEO
Communication
competence **
Management
competence **
Business
competence **
Technology
competence
Data
competence
(3)

35
Male professionals rate their skills and knowledge higher than female peers –
significant differences in the levels of business, technology and data competencies
(independent samples T-Test, p ≤ 0.01). * Significant differences (independent samples T-Test, p ≤ 0.05).
4.05
3.82
3.52
3.35
3.32
4.14
3.88
3.68
3.61
3.47
2.50 3.50 4.50
Female professionals
Male professionals
Communication
competence
Management
competence
Business
competence **
Technology
competence **
Data
competence *
(3)

36
Older professionals lagging behind in technology competencies, but are stronger
in terms of communication, management, and business skills
(Pearson correlation, p ≤ 0.01). * Significant differences (Pearson correlation, p ≤ 0.05).
3.70
3.47
3.11
3.40
3.28
4.06
3.72
3.53
3.55
3.40
4.19
3.98
3.73
3.41
3.38
4.38
4.23
3.89
3.40
3.40
4.41
4.43
4.09
3.20
3.59
2.50 3.50 4.50
29 or younger
30 - 39
40 - 49
50 - 59
60 or older
Communication
competence **
Management
competence **
Business
competence **
Technology
competence
Data
competence *
(3)

37
Competency development: Most practitioners believe it is the responsibility of
themselves and their employers
www.communicationmonitor.asia / Macnamara et al. 2021 / n = 1,129 communication professionals. Q 11: Who should take care of the further development of
competencies in the communication profession from your point of view? Scale 1 (Strongly disagree) – 5 (Strongly agree). Frequency based on scale points 4-5.
Responsibility for the further development of competencies in the communication profession
87.7%
87.1%
74.5%
Communication practitioners themselves,
who should invest in their professional development
(micro level)
Organisations,
who should offer development programmes for their
communication staff
(meso level)
Professional associations,
who should offer development programmes
(micro level)

38
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39
Days spent for personal training and development across Asia-Pacific
Days of work time
Days of free time
(Weekends, holidays, evenings, …)
Overall training days
Australia 15.7 17.5 33.2
China (Mainland) 9.5 8.8 18.3
Hong Kong &
Macau, SAR
2.8 4.7 7.5
Indonesia 18.3 9.1 27.4
Korea 23.4 14.1 37.5
Malaysia 12.5 6.9 19.4
New Zealand 7.9 5.2 13.1
Philippines 17.0 4.5 21.5
Singapore 8.0 10.5 18.5
Taiwan 8.8 15.3 24.1
Vietnam 25.9 11.5 37.4
www.communicationmonitor.asia / Macnamara et al. 2021 / n ≥ 696 communication professionals from 11 countries and territories. Q 24: In 2019, how many
days have you spent on personal training and development in any fields (including further education / studying while working; add part-time to full days)?
Q 25: And how many of these days were your free time that you have invested (weekends, holidays, evenings, …)? Mean values.

40
Communication professionals in non-profits spend more time on personal
development than their colleagues in other types of organisations
www.communicationmonitor.asia / Macnamara et al. 2021 / n ≥ 717 communication professionals. Q 24: In 2019, how many days have you spent on personal
training and development in any fields (including further education / studying while working; add part-time to full days)? Q 25: And how many of these days
were your free time that you have invested (weekends, holidays, evenings, …)? Mean values.
Average number of full days spent by communication practitioners for personal training and development
5.5
18.2
16.9
11.3
11.4
9.3
10.1
10.1
19.9
7.8
Joint stock companies
Private companies
Consultanices & Agencies
Number of work days spent on personal training and development
Number of free time days spent on personal training and development
∑ 14.8
∑ 28.3
∑ 27.0
∑ 31.2
∑ 19.2

41
Younger professionals invest five weeks of work and leisure time in further
education per year – many of them will probably study part-time to advance skills
www.communicationmonitor.asia / Macnamara et al. 2021 / n ≥ 717 communication professionals. Q 24: In 2019, how many days have you spent on personal
training and development in any fields (including further education / studying while working; add part-time to full days)? Q 25: And how many of these days
were your free time that you have invested (weekends, holidays, evenings, …)? Mean values. ** Highly significant differences (Pearson correlation, p ≤ 0.01).
* Significant differences (Pearson correlation, p ≤ 0.05).
Average number of full days spent by communication practitioners for personal training and development
20.8
12.8
9.4
9.5
11.4
14.2
8.9
9.7
6.3
6.4
29 or younger
30 - 39
40 - 49
50 - 59
60 or older
Number of work days spent on personal training and development **
Number of free time days spent on personal training and development *
∑ 35.0
∑ 21.7
∑ 19.1
∑ 15.8
∑ 17.8

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43
Ethical challenges and resources for the communication profession
Globalisation and advances in technology have created opportunities for public relations and strategic communication management.
However, they also raise ethical concerns. Coleman and Wilkins (2009) contend that public relations practitioners are “good ethical
thinkers” (p. 335) for their organisations. Yet, with the growing public concern about misinformation, disinformation, and manipulative
corporate and marketing communication (Macnamara, 2020), practitioners in public relations and communication management are
coming under increased pressure to make ethical decisions and provide ethical advice.
More than half of the communication practitioners surveyed (56.5%) report experiencing one or more ethical challenges in their work
in the past year. Practitioners in Southeast Asian countries including Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, and Vietnam report facing
several ethical challenges a year. Interestingly, while 43.6% of all practitioners report facing no ethical challenges in the past year,
practitioners in China (Mainland) and Taiwan report the least ethical challenges, with 64.7% of practitioners in China (Mainland) and 61.5%
in Taiwan reporting ‘no ethical challenges’.
In terms of dealing with ethical challenges, Place (2010) has reported that practitioners rely on moral duty and maintaining others’
dignity in making ethical decisions. These approaches are underpinned by personal values. Industry and organisation policies are also a
source of guidance, and almost all professional associations provide a code of ethics to their members. Practitioners in Asia-Pacific report
using all resources available at macro (72.8%), meso (83.6%), and micro (86.9%) levels when dealing with ethical challenges. While relying
on personal values is the most common approach in most countries and territories, Indonesian practitioners report relying mostly on
codes of ethics of professional associations, while practitioners in the Philippines mostly use organisational ethical guidelines (meso level).
This indicates that it is important for organisations and professional associations to support practitioners in relation to ethical decisions
and practice.
Digital technologies have had a significant impact on public relations and communication management (Wiesenberg & Tench, 2020;
Wiesenberg, Zerfass, & Moreno, 2017). While offering many benefits, concerns about privacy and ethical use of communication
technology have been raised (Yang & Kang, 2015). This study found that more than 75% of Asia-Pacific practitioners are concerned about
using bots (76.4%) and about using personal data as part of ‘big data’ analyses (76.8%)—far higher than their European counterparts.
Audience targeting and profiling based on demographic information is the least concern in terms of ethics, although more than half of the
practitioners surveyed (52%) expressed concern about this practice.
Training in ethics is identified as a key method for improving ethical practice. But 30.1% of practitioners report that they have never
participated in ethics training. Of those who have had ethics training, 30.5% received this through their employer organisation and 26.1%
attended ethics courses offered by professional associations. This indicates that professional associations could do more to address this
gap. As Schauster and Neill (2017) noted, public relations and communication management need to respond to the fast-moving business
and digital environments. Increased initiatives by professional associations and employer organisations could improve ethical
understanding and practice, particularly in relation to use of new digital technologies.

44
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!(#)%
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0*?(#)1-#?)110'A0,

45
Ethical challenges in communication differ between countries and territories
www.communicationmonitor.asia / Macnamara et al. 2021 / n = 1,020 communication professionals from 11 countries and territories. Q 1: Like anyone else,
Communication professionals sometimes face situations where particular activities might be legally acceptable, but challenging from a moral point of view. In
your day to day work during the past 12 months, have you experienced ethical challenges? No / Yes, once / Yes, several times / Don’t know or don’t remember.
25.7%
64.7%
48.6%
23.6%
48.3%
26.7%
49.0%
22.3%
54.8%
61.5%
20.2%
17.1%
10.4%
18.0%
14.5%
12.1%
11.4%
18.4%
21.3%
15.5%
8.7%
17.0%
57.1%
24.9%
33.3%
61.8%
39.7%
61.9%
32.7%
56.4%
29.8%
29.8%
62.8%
0% 100%
Australia
China (Mainland)
Hong Kong & Macau, SAR
Indonesia
Korea
Malaysia
New Zealand
Philippines
Singapore
Taiwan
Vietnam
No ethical challenges One ethical challenge Several ethical challenges

46
Female communication practitioners report significantly less ethical challenges
than their male colleagues
www.communicationmonitor.asia / Macnamara et al. 2021 / n = 1,048 communication professionals. Q 1: Like anyone else, communication professionals
sometimes face situations where particular activities might be legally acceptable, but challenging from a moral point of view. In your day to day work during
the past 12 months, have you experienced ethical challenges? No / Yes, once / Yes, several times / Don’t know or don’t remember. Significant differences
between women and men (Mann-Whitney U Test, p ≤ 0.05).
Number of ethical challenges encountered in day to day work in the past year
46.0%
39.7%
14.8%
14.0%
39.3%
46.3%
0% 100%
Male professionals

47
Ethical challenges are most common in governmental organisations,
compared to other types of organisations
Number of ethical challenges encountered by communication professionals in day to day work in the past year
www.communicationmonitor.asia / Macnamara et al. 2021 / n = 1,051 communication professionals. Q 1: Like anyone else, communication professionals
the past 12 months, have you experienced ethical challenges? No / Yes, once / Yes, several times / Don’t know or don’t remember. Highly significant
differences between various types of organisations (chi-square test, p ≤ 0.01).
33.0%
38.9%
42.4%
43.7%
56.7%
15.4%
14.8%
13.8%
15.8%
11.2%
51.6%
46.3%
43.8%
40.6%
32.1%
0% 100%
Private companies

48
Communication generalists report less ethical incidents
than their peers in other areas of work
www.communicationmonitor.asia / Macnamara et al. 2021 / n ≥ 231 communication professionals. Q 1: Like anyone else, communication professionals
the past 12 months, have you experienced ethical challenges? No / Yes, once / Yes, several times / Don’t know or don’t remember. Q 24: What are the
dominant areas of your work? Please pick 3! ** Highly significant differences (chi-square test, p ≤ 0.01).
Number of ethical challenges encountered by communication professionals in day to day work in the past year
39.7%
40.3%
43.2%
44.1%
44.4%
49.3%
15.6%
16.0%
12.8%
13.7%
16.7%
12.7%
44.7%
43.7%
44.0%
42.1%
38.9%
38.0%
0% 100%
Media relations
Overall communication **

49
Dealing with ethical challenges: Most practitioners rely on their personal values;
organisational guidelines and codes promoted by associations are less important
Resources used by communication practitioners when dealing with ethical challenges
www.communicationmonitor.asia / Macnamara et al. 2021 / n ≥ 493 communication professionals. Q 2: How important were the following resources to you
when dealing with ethical challenges? Scale 1 (Not important) – 5 (Very important). Frequency based on scale points 4-5.
86.9%
83.6%
72.8%
My personal
values and beliefs
(micro level)
Ethical guidelines
of my organisation
(meso level)
Ethical codes of practice
of professional associations
(macro level)

50
Resources used for dealing with ethical challenges across Asia-Pacific
www.communicationmonitor.asia / Macnamara et al. 2021 / n ≥ 480 communication professionals from 11 countries and territories. Q 2: How important were
the following resources to you when dealing with ethical challenges? Scale 1 (Not important) – 5 (Very important). Frequency based on scale points 4-5.
(macro level)
Ethical guidelines
of my organisation
(meso level)
My personal
values and beliefs
(micro level)
Australien 56.0% 77.8% 84.0%
China (Mainland) 65.0% 79.6% 88.3%
Hong Kong &
Macau, SAR
66.1% 78.3% 83.9%
Indonesia 97.6% 92.3% 88.1%
Korea 50.0% 73.1% 73.3%
Malaysia 84.4% 86.4% 90.9%
New Zealand 72.0% 88.2% 92.0%
Philippines 90.4% 92.2% 91.8%
Singapore 56.8% 84.4% 91.9%
Taiwan 70.0% 80.6% 87.5%
Vietnam 76.0% 85.7% 88.0%

51
Organisational guidelines are most acknowledged in governmental organisations,
while practitioners in consultancies and agencies trust in personal values and beliefs
Resources used by communication practitioners when dealing with ethical challenges
73.5%
83.2%
82.7%
79.0%
89.8%
89.5%
75.8%
83.3%
81.8%
68.5%
80.4%
89.8%
(macro level)
Ethical guidelines
of my organisation
(meso level)
My personal
values and beliefs
(micro level)
Companies

52
Female communicators rely more often on professional codes of ethics and
organisational guidelines, while men depend on their personal values and beliefs
Resources used for dealing with ethical challenges
75.6%
85.7%
85.8%
68.9%
80.2%
88.4%
(macro level)
Ethical guidelines
of my organisation
(meso level)
My personal
values and beliefs
(micro level)
Male professionals

53
Ethical concerns over communication practices on social media:
Three out of four practitioners are worried about using bots and big data analyses
Ethical challenges of current communication practices
www.communicationmonitor.asia / Macnamara et al. 2021 / n ≥ 1,036 communication professionals. Q 3: Strategic communication and public relations are
constantly evolving and introducing new ways of communicating with stakeholders. How challenging are the following practices in your opinion in terms of
ethics? Scale 1 (Ethically not challenging at all) – 5 (Ethically extremely challenging).
55.6%
55.3%
45.9%
45.2%
44.0%
37.4%
30.5%
20.8%
21.5%
21.8%
24.2%
24.2%
23.8%
21.5%
23.6%
23.2%
32.3%
30.6%
31.8%
38.8%
48.0%
0% 100%
Using bots to generate feedback
and followers on social media
Exploiting audiences' personal data
by applying big data analyses
Motivating employees to spread organisational messages
on their private social media accounts
Using sponsored social media posts and sponsored articles
on news websites that look like regular content
Paying social media influencers
to communicate favourably
Editing entries about my organisation
on public wikis
Profiling and targeting audiences
based on their age, gender, ethnicity, job, or interests
Extremely/verychallenging (scale 4-5) Moderately challenging (scale 3) Slightly/not challenging (scale 1-2)

54
Ethical concerns over communication practices across Asia-Pacific
www.communicationmonitor.asia / Macnamara et al. 2021 / n ≥ 480 communication professionals from 11 countries and territories. Q 3: Strategic communi-
cation and public relations are constantly evolving and introducing new ways of communicating with stakeholders. How challenging are the following practices
in your opinion in terms of ethics? Scale 1 (Ethically not challenging at all) – 5 (Ethically extremely challenging). Frequency based on scale points 4-5. ** Highly
significant differences (chi-square test, p ≤ 0.01).
Using bots to
generate
feedback and
followers on
social media
Exploiting
audiences'
personal data by
applying big data
analyses
Motivating employees to
spread organisational
messages on their
private social media
accounts **
Using sponsored
social media posts
and sponsored
articles on news
websites
Paying social
media influencers
to communicate
favourably **
Editing entries
about my
organisation
on public
wikis **
Profiling and
targeting audiences
based on age,
gender, ethnicity,
job, or interests
Australia 84.4% 72.7% 34.3% 67.6% 47.1% 44.1% 20.6%
China
(Mainland)
43.9% 45.0% 38.8% 40.0% 42.7% 30.9% 38.9%
Hong Kong
& Macau,
SAR
48.0% 48.1% 40.4% 36.2% 25.9% 25.5% 15.4%
Indonesia 61.7% 72.9% 62.3% 50.0% 51.7% 49.2% 48.4%
Korea 53.3% 47.5% 50.4% 42.4% 41.1% 33.3% 23.4%
Malaysia 61.8% 66.7% 52.8% 48.5% 53.3% 44.6% 45.0%
New
Zealand 77.8% 64.4% 43.5% 46.8% 42.6% 36.6% 8.2%
Philippines 63.5% 60.2% 41.4% 43.4% 54.2% 38.6% 29.4%
Singapore 72.2% 47.7% 32.6% 42.9% 36.3% 34.1% 20.9%
Taiwan 40.5% 52.3% 56.0% 53.2% 45.2% 40.6% 28.8%
Vietnam 46.9% 66.7% 48.0% 43.9% 45.5% 50.0% 37.0%

55
Communicators working in governmental organisations and non-profits are more
troubled about using bots and exploiting audiences’ personal data
ethics? Scale 1 (Ethically not challenging at all) – 5 (Ethically extremely challenging). Mean values. ** Highly significant differences (ANOVA, p ≤ 0.01).
* Significant differences (ANOVA, p ≤ 0.05).
3.61
3.53
3.03
3.17
3.16
2.82
2.66
3.41
3.40
3.16
3.11
3.11
2.89
2.79
3.90
3.88
3.48
3.45
3.53
3.10
3.05
3.72
3.73
3.42
3.51
3.51
3.18
3.11
3.38
3.39
3.13
3.21
3.10
2.93
2.51
Private companies
Profiling and targeting audiences based on
their age, gender, ethnicity, job, or interests **
Motivating employees to spread organisational
messages on their private social media accounts *
Using sponsored social media posts and sponsored
articles on news websites that look like regular content
Paying social media influencers to
communicate favourably **
Exploiting audiences' personal data by
applying big data analyses **
Using bots to generate feedback and
followers on social media **
Editing entries about my
organisation on public wikis
(1) Ethically not challenging at all Ethically extremely challenging (5)
(3)

56
Male practitioners have most ethical concerns about bots, use of personal data,
and employees spreading organisational information on social media
ethics? Scale 1 (Ethically not challenging at all) – 5 (Ethically extremely challenging). Mean values. ** Highly significant differences (independent sample
T-Test, p ≤ 0.01). * Significant differences (independent sample T-Test, p ≤ 0.05).
3.52
3.56
3.18
3.14
3.19
2.90
2.61
3.56
3.45
3.34
3.32
3.21
3.03
2.92
Male professionals
their age, gender, ethnicity, job, or interests **
messages on their private social media accounts **
Using sponsored social media posts and sponsored articles
on news websites that look like regular content *
communicate favourably *
Exploiting audiences' personal
data by applying big data analyses
and followers on social media
organisation on public wikis
(3)

57
Younger communication professionals have less ethical concern in relation to
sponsored content and social media influencers
ethics? Scale 1 (Ethically not challenging at all) – 5 (Ethically extremely challenging). Mean values. ** Highly significant differences (Pearson correlation,
p ≤ 0.01). * Significant differences (Pearson correlation, p ≤ 0.05).
3.47
3.33
3.06
2.95
3.23
2.91
2.75
3.45
3.42
2.99
3.09
3.17
2.84
2.65
3.50
3.60
3.38
3.24
3.15
2.97
2.66
3.87
3.85
3.71
3.59
3.21
3.09
2.85
3.69
3.67
3.50
3.76
3.47
3.21
2.98
29 or younger
30 - 39
40 - 49
50 - 59
60 or older
their age, gender, ethnicity, job, or interests
messages on their private social media accounts
Using sponsored social media posts and sponsored
articles on news websites that look like regular content **
communicate favourably **
Exploiting audiences' personal data
by applying big data analyses **
and followers on social media *
organisation on public wikis *
(3)

58
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/$+0-*C)'-R-?0)+,-)A$ !+#!%

59
Participation in training on communication ethics across Asia-Pacific
www.communicationmonitor.asia / Macnamara et al. 2021 / n = 1,000 communication professionals from 11 countries and territories. Q 26: Have you ever
participated in trainings on communication ethics? Yes, I have participated in communication ethics training(s) by a professional association / Yes, I have
participated in communication ethics training(s) by my organisation / Yes, I took a communication ethics class(es) during my studies / No, never / Don't know
or don’t remember.
32.4% 23.5% 23.5%
18.9% 26.7% 22.8%
15.1% 40.6% 29.2%
45.0% 31.7% 43.3%
19.5% 34.5% 26.5%
37.5% 30.2% 41.7%
55.3% 14.8% 36.2%
30.8% 18.7% 45.1%
8.9% 39.2% 44.3%
14.7% 30.4% 23.5%
42.4% 32.6% 35.9%
35.3%
44.4%
32.1%
10.0%
38.1%
20.8%
14.9%
23.1%
25.3%
45.1%
13.0%
64.7%
55.6%
67.9%
90.0%
61.9%
79.2%
85.1%
76.9%
74.7%
54.9%
87.0%
Australia
China (Mainland)
Hong Kong &
Macau,SAR
Indonesia
Korea
Malaysia
New Zealand
Philippines
Singapore
Taiwan
Vietnam
By a professional
association
During
my studies
By my
organisation
No Yes
Participation in training on communication ethics Ethics trainings attended …
(multiple selections possible)

60
Attending internal ethics training is most common in governmental organisations –
joint stock companies rely on further education offered by professional associations
www.communicationmonitor.asia / Macnamara et al. 2021 / n = 1,033 communication professionals. Q 26: Have you ever participated in trainings on
communication ethics? Yes, I have participated in communication ethics training(s) by a professional association / Yes, I have participated in communication
ethics training(s) by my organisation / Yes, I took a communication ethics class(es) during my studies / No, never / Don't know or don't remember.
40.5%
37.5%
26.5%
27.5%
30.4%
59.5%
62.5%
73.5%
72.5%
69.6%
Joint stock
companies
Private
companies
Governmental
organisations
Non-profit
organisations
Consultancies
& Agencies
34.1% 21.4% 17.9%
23.8% 17.7% 22.7%
18.3% 25.7% 32.0%
33.3% 10.4% 33.3%
28.7% 19.3% 23.1%
Participation in training on communication ethics
No Yes By a professional
association
During
my studies
By my
organisation
Ethics trainings attended …

61
Communication leaders have participated in ethics training more than junior
practitioners – particularly training by professional associations
www.communicationmonitor.asia / Macnamara et al. 2021 / n = 963 communication professionals. Q 26: Have you ever participated in trainings on commu-
nication ethics? Yes, I have participated in communication ethics training(s) by a professional association / Yes, I have participated in communication ethics
training(s) by my organisation / Yes, I took a communication ethics class(es) during my studies / No, never / Don't know or don't remember.
37.7% 32.5% 28.2%
21.6% 34.2% 30.5%
22.6% 26.2% 35.5%
26.2%
31.0%
31.7%
73.8%
69.0%
68.3%
Head of
communication /
Agency CEO
Unit leader /
Team leader
Team member /
Consultant
Participation in training on communication ethics Ethics trainings attended …
No Yes
By a professional
association
During
my studies
By my
organisation

!""#""$%&'(%)'()*(%+$%&'
&#%)#,'#-.(/$01

63
Assessing and advancing gender equality
The PR and communication industry has responded to the United Nation’s inclusion of gender equality in its Sustainable Development
Goals (SDGs) with requirements such as reports (i.e. GWPR 2019) and initiatives such as workshops. However, recent studies have pointed
out that gender inequalities persist in the communication field globally (Topić et al., 2020).
The APCM 2020 study shows that gender issues remain prevalent in Asia. Women make up more than three-quarters (75.9%) of the
regional workforce in PR and communication management. However, only 59% of the senior communication leaders in the region are
female, suggesting continuing barriers in ascent to leadership.
Comparison across countries and territories shows that employment of women and appointment of women to senior roles varies
substantially. Women make up 95% of communication departments and agencies in New Zealand, compared to 57% in Indonesia. Female
leadership in communication is strong in New Zealand (76.1%), Singapore (78.3%), and Taiwan (69.4%), while Malaysia, the Philippines,
and Korea lag in appointment of women to senior roles.
A majority (60.8%) of communication professionals s agree that gender equality has advanced, but have mixed opinions on measures
for improvement. Almost one-third (32.0%) disagree that enough has been done to support women in the field in their country. Some
42.5% of the respondents recognise a glass ceiling problem at a macro level (across the profession), but only a quarter (25.2%) see a glass
ceiling at micro level (in their own organisation).
Concern about a glass ceiling at a macro level are most reported in governmental organizations in Asia-Pacific, with 53.5% of
communicators in these organisations acknowledging a glass ceiling, compared to only 39.5% perceiving a glass ceiling in companies.
The study also identifies denial of a glass ceiling affecting women among male practitioners. Almost half of female communication
professionals (47.6%) agree that a glass ceiling affects the field, compared to only 32.5% of males. At a personal level, almost a third
(31.3%) of female practitioners stated that they are personally affected by an invisible barrier preventing them from rising up the ranks.
Organisational barriers are reported as the major contributors to the glass ceiling, with lack of flexibility to take care of family
commitments being the most cited (60.9%), followed by lack of transparency of promotion policies (50.9%), and lack of specific networks
and development programmes for women (49.1%).
A lack of specific competencies poses a barrier to women in some countries such as Indonesia, with 42.9% citing this concern, while
only 9.5% of practitioners in Australia identified this factor. Perhaps not surprisingly, non-profit organisations are rated most highly in
terms of offering flexibility to take care of family obligations and having more transparent promotional policies.
In terms of how to further advance opportunities for women, the majority of respondents in almost all countries and territories believe
that organizations have the most capability to effect change. However, 51.4% of Indonesian communicators and almost 40% of
Vietnamese communicators believe that change is mostly up to female communicators themselves. Online communicators say that
professional associations can play a key role.

64
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*>)'-!$%0'
"$#)%
!$%0'
'*#!%
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65
Female communicators are predominant in all types of organisations –
female leadership is strongest in non-profits
www.communicationmonitor.asia / Macnamara et al. 2021 / n ≥ 1,062 communication professionals. Q 28: How is the situation regarding women in leading
communication positions in your organisation? The top leader of my communication department/the CEO of my agency is a woman / Overall, there are
more women than men in my communication department/agency. Scale: Yes / No / N/A. Highly significant differences between various types of organisations
(chi-square test, p ≤ 0.01).
51.5%
53.0%
56.1%
66.1%
69.8%
48.5%
47.0%
43.9%
33.9%
30.2%
0% 100%
Governmental
organisations
Joint stock
companies
Private
companies
Consultancies &
Agencies
Non-profit
organisations
Top leader of my communication department / the CEO of my agency is a woman
Top leader of my communication department / the CEO of my agency is a man
67.3%
70.4%
71.1%
78.6%
81.8%
32.7%
29.6%
28.9%
21.4%
18.2%
0% 100%
Private
companies
Non-profit
organisations
Joint stock
companies
Governmental
organisations
Consultancies &
Agencies
More women than men in mycommunication department/agency
More men than women in mycommunication department/agency

66
More than 95 per cent of all departments and agencies in New Zealand are
dominated by female professionals, compared to only 57 per cent in Indonesia
www.communicationmonitor.asia / Macnamara et al. 2021 / n = 1,033 communication professionals from 11 countries and territories. Q 28: How is the
situation regarding women in leading communication positions in your organisation? The top leader of my communication department/the CEO of my agency
is a woman / Overall, there are more women than men in my communication department/agency. Scale: Yes / No / N/A. Highly significant differences between
countries (chi-square test, p ≤ 0.01).
80.6%
73.2%
92.0%
57.1%
70.3%
73.5%
95.5%
78.5%
84.1%
73.6%
69.9%
19.4%
26.8%
8.0%
42.9%
29.7%
26.5%
4.5%
21.5%
15.9%
26.4%
30.1%
0% 100%
Australia
China (Mainland)
Indonesia
Korea
Malaysia
New Zealand
Philippines
Singapore
Taiwan
Vietnam
More women than men in mycommunication department/agency More men than women in mycommunication department/agency

67
Female leadership in communication is strong in New Zealand, Singapore
and Taiwan, while Malaysia, Philippines and Korea are lagging behind
www.communicationmonitor.asia / Macnamara et al. 2021 / n = 1,058 communication professionals from 11 countries and territories. Q 28: How is the
situation regarding women in leading communication positions in your organisation? The top leader of my communication department/the CEO of my agency
is a woman / Overall, there are more women than men in my communication department/agency. Scale: Yes / No / N/A. Highly significant differences between
countries and territories (chi-square test, p ≤ 0.01).
50.0%
60.0%
60.0%
58.3%
44.4%
48.5%
76.1%
52.5%
78.3%
69.4%
61.2%
50.0%
40.0%
40.0%
41.7%
55.6%
51.5%
23.9%
47.5%
21.7%
30.6%
38.8%
0% 100%
Australia
China (Mainland)
Indonesia
Korea
Malaysia
New Zealand
Philippines
Singapore
Taiwan
Vietnam
Top leader of my communication department / the CEO of my agency is a woman
Top leader of my communication department / the CEO of my agency is a man

68
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69
Four out of ten communication practitioners in Asia-Pacific recognise a glass ceiling
problem in the profession, but only one in four report it in their own environment
www.communicationmonitor.asia / Macnamara et al. 2021 / n ≥ 1,088 communication professionals. Q 5a: In many professions, women are less often found in
leading positions. This phenomenon is referred to as the “glass ceiling” – an invisible barrier that keeps female practitioners from rising beyond a certain level
in the hierarchy. How do you perceive the situation in the communication profession in your country and in your organisation? Scale 1 (Strongly disagree) –
5 (Strongly agree). Frequency based on scale points 4-5. Not recognizing the problem at all = respondents who disagreed with all three items (scale points 1-2).
33.4%
do not recognise
the glass ceiling
as a problem
at all
Glass ceiling
= an invisible barrier that keeps female practitioners from rising beyond a certain level in the hierarchy
42.3%
25.6%
25.2%
The glass ceiling problem affects
the communication profession
(macro level)
my communication department/agency
(meso level)
female communication practitioners in my organisation
working in positions like mine
(micro level)

70
Differences across various types of organisations: A glass ceiling problem
is perceived as most relevant in governmental organisations
www.communicationmonitor.asia / Macnamara et al. 2021 / n ≥ 1,088 communication professionals. Q 5a: In many professions, women are less often found in
leading positions. This phenomenon is referred to as the “glass ceiling” – an invisible barrier that keeps female practitioners from rising beyond a certain level
in the hierarchy. How do you perceive the situation in the communication profession in your country and in your organisation? Scale 1 (Strongly disagree) –
5 (Strongly agree). Frequency based on scale points 4-5. * Significant differences (chi-square test, p ≤ 0.05).
39.5%
25.9% 26.1%
53.5%
34.5%
33.0%
43.4%
34.5%
30.4%
39.7%
20.1% 20.0%
The glass ceiling problem affects the
communication profession
(macro level) *
The glass ceiling problem affects my
communication department/agency
(meso level)
The glass ceiling problem affects female
communication practitioners in my
organisation working in positions like mine
(micro level)
Companies Governmental organisations Non-profit organisations Consultancies & Agencies

71
Female professionals are much more aware of unacknowledged barriers for
promotion on the macro, meso, and micro level than their male colleagues
www.communicationmonitor.asia / Macnamara et al. 2021 / n ≥ 1,086 communication professionals professionals. Q 5a: In many professions, women are less
often found in leading positions. This phenomenon is referred to as the “glass ceiling” – an invisible barrier that keeps female practitioners from rising beyond
a certain level in the hierarchy. How do you perceive the situation in the communication profession in your country and in your organisation? Scale 1 (Strongly
disagree) – 5 (Strongly agree). Frequency based on scale points 4-5. ** Highly significant differences (chi-square test, p ≤ 0.01).
47.6%
28.6% 28.7%
32.5%
20.2%
18.4%
The glass ceiling problem affects the
communication profession
(macro level) **
The glass ceiling problem affects my
communication department/agency
(meso level) **
The glass ceiling problem affects female
communication practitioners in my
organisation working in positions like mine
(micro level) **
Female professionals Male professionals

72
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73
Meso level barriers
(73.9% identified
at least one of them)
Factors hindering women from reaching top positions in communication:
Organisational barriers are most important
www.communicationmonitor.asia / Macnamara et al. 2021 / n = 532 communication professionals. Q 6: What are the factors that hinder women from
reaching top positions in strategic communication and public relations in your country? Scale 1 (Strongly disagree) – 5 (Strongly agree). Frequency based
on scale points 4-5.
Reasons for the glass ceiling in the communication profession
Macro level barriers
(60.9%)
Micro level barriers
(40.6%)
60.9%
50.9%
49.1%
37.8%
28.4%
27.6%
Organisations don’t offer enough flexibility
to take care of family obligations
Organisations promote employees
based on non-transparent and informal policies
The profession lacks specific networks
and development programmes for women
The profession lacks inspiring
female role models
Women who don’t get promoted lack
the ambition required to reach senior levels
specific competences necessary for senior levels

74
Assessment of reasons for the glass ceiling problem in Asia-Pacific
www.communicationmonitor.asia / Macnamara et al. 2021 / n = 517 communication professionals from 11 countries and territories. Q 6: What are the
factors that hinder women from reaching top positions in strategic communication and public relations in your country? Scale 1 (Strongly disagree) – 5
(Strongly agree). Frequency based on scale points 4-5.
Women who don’t
get promoted lack
specific competences
necessary for senior
levels
Women who don’t get
promoted lack the
ambition required to
reach senior levels
Organisations promote
employees based on
non-transparent and
informal policies
Organisations don’t
offer enough flexibility
to take care of family
obligations
The profession lacks
specific networks
and development
programmes for
women
The profession
lacks inspiring
female role models
Australia 9.5% 9.5% 57.1% 61.9% 42.9% 4.8%
China
(Mainland)
32.9% 40.0% 51.4% 62.9% 51.4% 38.6%
Hong Kong &
Macau, SAR
14.3% 14.3% 48.6% 60.0% 42.9% 37.1%
Indonesia 42.9% 37.1% 37.1% 45.7% 45.7% 40.0%
Korea 22.6% 24.2% 53.2% 66.1% 48.4% 58.1%
Malaysia 36.8% 26.3% 45.6% 66.7% 45.6% 43.9%
New Zealand 20.0% 16.7% 66.7% 63.3% 26.7% 30.0%
Philippines 25.8% 30.3% 53.0% 66.7% 54.5% 30.3%
Singapore 14.6% 20.8% 62.5% 62.5% 60.4% 35.4%
Taiwan 33.3% 36.1% 47.2% 52.8% 47.2% 33.3%
Vietnam 36.8% 38.6% 40.4% 54.4% 61.4% 33.3%

75
Non-profits are non-transparent and informal in their promotion policies,
while companies and governmental organisations lack flexibility
reaching top positions in strategic communication and public relations in your country? Scale 1 (Strongly disagree) – 5 (Strongly agree). Mean values.
3.85 3.69
3.76
3.46
3.62
3.26
3.29
3.47
3.50
3.31
Joint stock
companies
Private
companies
Governmental
organisations
Non-profit
organisations
Consultancies
& Agencies
Organisations don’t offer enough flexibility to take care of family obligations
Organisations promote employees based on non-transparent and informal policies
Organisational factors which hinder women from reaching top positions in communication

76
Female practitioners report stronger barriers at organisational and professional
levels than men's perception
reaching top positions in strategic communication and public relations in your country? Scale 1 (Strongly disagree) – 5 (Strongly agree). Mean values.
** Highly significant differences (independent samples T-Test, p ≤ 0.01). * Significant differences (independent samples T-Test, p ≤ 0.05).
Factors assumed to hinder women from reaching top positions in communication
3.83
3.42
3.45
2.92
2.48
2.48
3.30
3.11
2.87
2.68
2.66
2.57
1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00
Male professionals
Organisations don’t offer enough flexibility
to take care of family obligations **
Organisations promote employees based
on non-transparent and informal policies *
The profession lacks specific networks and
development programmes for women **
The profession lacks
inspiring female role models
specific competences necessary for senior levels
the ambition required to reach senior levels
(1) Strongly disagree Strongly agree (5)
(3)

77
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78
Perceived capability of different agents to break the glass ceiling in Asia-Pacific
www.communicationmonitor.asia / Macnamara et al. 2021 / n = 531 communication professionals from 11 countries and territories. Q 7: And who do you
think is most capable of changing the current situation of women in communication? Female practitioners themselves (e.g. by enhancing their competencies
and motivation) / Organisations (e.g. by changing structures and cultures) / Professional communities (e.g. by uniting and supporting female practitioners).
Female practitioners themselves
(micro level)
Organisations
(meso level)
Professional communities
(macro level)
Australia 4.8% 76.2% 19.0%
China (Mainland) 32.9% 52.6% 14.5%
Hong Kong &
Macau, SAR
16.7% 58.3% 25.0%
Indonesia 51.4% 28.6% 20.0%
Korea 15.9% 74.6% 9.5%
Malaysia 19.0% 62.1% 19.0%
New Zealand 6.7% 86.7% 6.7%
Philippines 15.2% 69.7% 15.2%
Singapore 13.7% 72.5% 13.7%
Taiwan 24.3% 59.5% 16.2%
Vietnam 39.7% 22.4% 37.9%

79
Communication generalists emphasise responsibility of organisations, while
online communicators stress stewardship of professional associations more often
www.communicationmonitor.asia / Macnamara et al. 2021 / n = 546 communication professionals. Q 7: And who do you think is most capable of changing
the current situation of women in communication? Female practitioners themselves (e.g. by enhancing their competencies and motivation) / Organisations
(e.g. by changing structures and cultures) / Professional communities (e.g. by uniting and supporting female practitioners). * Significant differences (chi-
square test, p ≤ 0.05).
Agents assumed to be most capable to change the current situation of women in communication
25.1%
24.5%
23.8%
23.8%
23.3%
20.2%
55.0%
56.1%
61.9%
53.0%
63.2%
65.4%
19.9%
19.4%
14.3%
23.2%
13.5%
14.4%
0% 100%
Media relations
Overall communication *
Female practioners themselves (micro level) Organisations (meso level) Professional communities (macro level)

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Asia-Pacific Communication Monitor 2020/2021

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Asia-Pacific Communication Monitor 2020/2021