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Chapter 5 notes new

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HarshitParkar6677

Procedures and macros allow code to be reused in assembly language programs. Procedures are subroutines that are called using CALL and RET instructions. Macros allow short, repetitive code sequences to be defined once and reused by replacing the macro call with its body code. Some key differences are that procedures occupy less memory than macros since macro code is generated each time, while procedures' code is only stored once. Procedures are accessed using CALL while macros are accessed by name.

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PROCEDURES & MACROS While writing programs, sometimes it may be required to use same set of instructions repeatedly. If these instructions are actually written again & again, the program size increases and occupies more memory space. To avoid this, these instructions can be written as a separate program (subprogram) and whenever this set of instructions is required, an instruction can be written in the main program CALL this subprogram. This saves the memory space. Such a subprogram which is called from the main program to execute certain set of instructions is called subroutine or procedure. Declaring PROCEDURES: The syntax for procedure declaration: name PROC [NEAR/FAR] ; Instructions of the procedures ; are written here. RET name ENDP Example: Delay PROC AGAIN: MOV CX,COUNT NOP LOOP AGAIN RET Delay ENDP The above procedure introduces a delay in between the program statements, when it is called from the main program. A procedure in 8086 can be accessed with a CALL & RET instruction. CALL instruction: This performs two operations 1. Saves the return address or the address of the instruction next to the CALL instruction on the stack. Return address is the address where the program will return to after the procedure completes execution. a. If the call to procedure is in the same code segment, i.e. a near CALL, then only the contents of IP are pushed on the stack. b. If the call to procedure is in another code segment, i.e. a far CALL, then the contents of IP as well as CS are pushed on the stack. 2. It loads the IP & CS register with a new starting address of the procedure and then branches to the procedure. RET instruction: When 8086 executes a CALL instruction, it stores the return address of the CALLing routine on the stack. A RET instruction at the end of the procedure copies the return address stored on the stack back into the CS and IP registers and then returns execution to the main program.
Passing Parameters to procedures: Procedures may require input data or constants for their execution. Their data or constants may be passed to the procedure by the main program or some procedures may access the readily available data of constants available in memory. Generally following techniques are used to pass input data/parameter to procedures in assembly language language programs, 1. Using global declared variable 2. Using registers of CPU architecture 3. Using memory locations 4. Using stack Example : Using registers CODE SEGMENT START: MOV AX, 5555H MOV BX,7272h : : CALL PROC1 : : PROCEDURE PROC1 : : ADD AX,BX : : RET PROC1 ENDP CODE ENDS END START Re-entrant Procedures : A procedure is said to be re-entrant, if it can be interrupted, used and re- entered without losing or writing over anything. To be a re-entrant,  Procedure must first push all the flags and registers used in the procedure.  It should also use only registers or stack to pass parameters. The flow of re-entrant procedure for a multiply procedure when interrupt procedure is executed, as shown below. Call Multiply Interrupt Here Call Multiply Main Line Interrupt Procedure Return to Interrupt Multiply procedure Return to Calling pgm
Recursive Procedures: A recursive procedure is a procedure which calls itself. Here, the program sets aside a few locations in stack for the storage of the parameters whicha re passed each time the computation is done and the value is returned. Each value returned is then obtained by popping back from the stack at every RET instruction when executed at the end of the procedure. Example : To calculate factorial using recursion data segment n db 04h res dw ? data ends code segment assume cs:code, ds:data start: mov ax,data mov ds,ax mov al,n mov ah,00h call fact int 3 fact proc cmp ax,01 ;if n=1, fact=1 else fact=n*fact(n-1) jz exit push ax dec ax ;n-1 call fact ;fact(n-1) , RECURSION pop ax mul res ;n*fact(n-1) mov res,ax ;res=factorial ret exit: mov res,01 ret fact endp code ends end start Advantages of Procedures: 1. Simple modular programming 2. Reduced workload and development time 3. Debugging of program and procedure is easier 4. Reduction in the size of the main program 5. Reuse of procedures in the same program many times or in another program. Macros : Small sequences of codes of the same pattern repeated frequently at different places which perform the same operation on the different data of the same data type are called MACRO. Macro is also called as an Open subroutine. When Called, the code written within macro are executed automatically. Macros should be used when it has few program statements. This simplifies the programming process.
Procedures Vs Macros  Procedure does occupy minimum memory space than macro.  In macro machine code is generated for instructions each time when it is called but in procedure machine code for instruction is put only once in the memory  Procedure is accessed by call Instruction whereas Macro is accessed with the name given. Advantages  Simplify and reduce the amount of repetitive coding  Reduce errors caused by repetitive coding  Makes program more readable  Execution time is less as compared to procedures as no extra instructions required Defining Macros  The Directive MACRO indicates the beginning of a MACRO  Name of the Macro followed by MACRO and arguments if any are specified.  ENDM is always associated with MACRO which ends the macro. General Form : Macro_name MACRO [Arguement1, arguement2…] : : ENDM Example: PRINT MACRO MES MOV AX,09H LEA DX, MES INT 21H ENDM The above macro is used to display a string specified in the argument MES on the screen, when evoked by the main program as given below DATA SEGEMENT STR DB 0DH,0AH,”Hello World$” DATA ENDS CODE SEGMENT ASSUME DS:DATA, CS:CODE START: MOV AX, DATA MOV DS, AX PRINT STR ; Calls Macro PRINT to display STR ; STR is the parameter passed which is ;taken as MES in the Macro PRINT. : : CODE ENDS END START Note : Main difference between Macro and Procedure is that A call to Macro will be replaced with its body during assembly time, whereas the call to procedure is explicit transfer of control during run-time.

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Chapter 5 notes new

  • 1. PROCEDURES & MACROS While writing programs, sometimes it may be required to use same set of instructions repeatedly. If these instructions are actually written again & again, the program size increases and occupies more memory space. To avoid this, these instructions can be written as a separate program (subprogram) and whenever this set of instructions is required, an instruction can be written in the main program CALL this subprogram. This saves the memory space. Such a subprogram which is called from the main program to execute certain set of instructions is called subroutine or procedure. Declaring PROCEDURES: The syntax for procedure declaration: name PROC [NEAR/FAR] ; Instructions of the procedures ; are written here. RET name ENDP Example: Delay PROC AGAIN: MOV CX,COUNT NOP LOOP AGAIN RET Delay ENDP The above procedure introduces a delay in between the program statements, when it is called from the main program. A procedure in 8086 can be accessed with a CALL & RET instruction. CALL instruction: This performs two operations 1. Saves the return address or the address of the instruction next to the CALL instruction on the stack. Return address is the address where the program will return to after the procedure completes execution. a. If the call to procedure is in the same code segment, i.e. a near CALL, then only the contents of IP are pushed on the stack. b. If the call to procedure is in another code segment, i.e. a far CALL, then the contents of IP as well as CS are pushed on the stack. 2. It loads the IP & CS register with a new starting address of the procedure and then branches to the procedure. RET instruction: When 8086 executes a CALL instruction, it stores the return address of the CALLing routine on the stack. A RET instruction at the end of the procedure copies the return address stored on the stack back into the CS and IP registers and then returns execution to the main program.
  • 2. Passing Parameters to procedures: Procedures may require input data or constants for their execution. Their data or constants may be passed to the procedure by the main program or some procedures may access the readily available data of constants available in memory. Generally following techniques are used to pass input data/parameter to procedures in assembly language language programs, 1. Using global declared variable 2. Using registers of CPU architecture 3. Using memory locations 4. Using stack Example : Using registers CODE SEGMENT START: MOV AX, 5555H MOV BX,7272h : : CALL PROC1 : : PROCEDURE PROC1 : : ADD AX,BX : : RET PROC1 ENDP CODE ENDS END START Re-entrant Procedures : A procedure is said to be re-entrant, if it can be interrupted, used and re- entered without losing or writing over anything. To be a re-entrant,  Procedure must first push all the flags and registers used in the procedure.  It should also use only registers or stack to pass parameters. The flow of re-entrant procedure for a multiply procedure when interrupt procedure is executed, as shown below. Call Multiply Interrupt Here Call Multiply Main Line Interrupt Procedure Return to Interrupt Multiply procedure Return to Calling pgm
  • 3. Recursive Procedures: A recursive procedure is a procedure which calls itself. Here, the program sets aside a few locations in stack for the storage of the parameters whicha re passed each time the computation is done and the value is returned. Each value returned is then obtained by popping back from the stack at every RET instruction when executed at the end of the procedure. Example : To calculate factorial using recursion data segment n db 04h res dw ? data ends code segment assume cs:code, ds:data start: mov ax,data mov ds,ax mov al,n mov ah,00h call fact int 3 fact proc cmp ax,01 ;if n=1, fact=1 else fact=n*fact(n-1) jz exit push ax dec ax ;n-1 call fact ;fact(n-1) , RECURSION pop ax mul res ;n*fact(n-1) mov res,ax ;res=factorial ret exit: mov res,01 ret fact endp code ends end start Advantages of Procedures: 1. Simple modular programming 2. Reduced workload and development time 3. Debugging of program and procedure is easier 4. Reduction in the size of the main program 5. Reuse of procedures in the same program many times or in another program. Macros : Small sequences of codes of the same pattern repeated frequently at different places which perform the same operation on the different data of the same data type are called MACRO. Macro is also called as an Open subroutine. When Called, the code written within macro are executed automatically. Macros should be used when it has few program statements. This simplifies the programming process.
  • 4. Procedures Vs Macros  Procedure does occupy minimum memory space than macro.  In macro machine code is generated for instructions each time when it is called but in procedure machine code for instruction is put only once in the memory  Procedure is accessed by call Instruction whereas Macro is accessed with the name given. Advantages  Simplify and reduce the amount of repetitive coding  Reduce errors caused by repetitive coding  Makes program more readable  Execution time is less as compared to procedures as no extra instructions required Defining Macros  The Directive MACRO indicates the beginning of a MACRO  Name of the Macro followed by MACRO and arguments if any are specified.  ENDM is always associated with MACRO which ends the macro. General Form : Macro_name MACRO [Arguement1, arguement2…] : : ENDM Example: PRINT MACRO MES MOV AX,09H LEA DX, MES INT 21H ENDM The above macro is used to display a string specified in the argument MES on the screen, when evoked by the main program as given below DATA SEGEMENT STR DB 0DH,0AH,”Hello World$” DATA ENDS CODE SEGMENT ASSUME DS:DATA, CS:CODE START: MOV AX, DATA MOV DS, AX PRINT STR ; Calls Macro PRINT to display STR ; STR is the parameter passed which is ;taken as MES in the Macro PRINT. : : CODE ENDS END START Note : Main difference between Macro and Procedure is that A call to Macro will be replaced with its body during assembly time, whereas the call to procedure is explicit transfer of control during run-time.