The document summarizes key aspects of constitutions, including:
1. Constitutions are the fundamental laws that establish a state's structure and citizens' rights while limiting government power.
2. Constitutions have distinctive features like generality, permanency, and supremacy over other laws.
3. Constitutions serve major purposes like framing government, limiting powers, and protecting individual rights.
4. Constitutions can be classified based on factors like form (written or unwritten), amendment difficulty (rigid or flexible), and degree of implementation (effective or nominal).
5. The document then discusses Ethiopia's constitutional history and evolution from traditional to written forms over time
This document discusses the concept of sovereignty, including its definition and types. It was first studied technically by Jean Bodin, who defined sovereignty as the absolute and perpetual power to command. There are several types of sovereignty: titular vs actual, where a titular sovereign has legal power but not actual power; legal vs political, referring to lawmaking authority; and de facto vs de jure, with de facto being power exercised without legal right and de jure being a legal claim without actual power. The document also discusses popular sovereignty, where political power comes from the consent of the people through elected representatives.
Federalism and devolutiion in ethiopia finalQuincy Kiptoo
This document discusses federalism and ethnic diversity in Ethiopia. It notes that Ethiopia has 84 ethnic groups, with the Oromo and Amhara being the largest. While Ethiopia attempted cultural homogenization in the past, it transitioned to an ethnic federal system in the 1990s, establishing regional states along ethnic lines with self-governance powers. The 1995 constitution established this federal system and enshrined principles like ethnic self-determination, equality, and equity in development.
Sovereignty refers to the supreme authority within a territory. It is embodied in the state as the political institution. Sovereignty implies having supreme and unlimited power without being accountable to any external entity. There are different types and aspects of sovereignty including internal sovereignty over citizens and external sovereignty implying independence from foreign control. John Austin's theory defines sovereignty as a determinate human superior who receives habitual obedience from the bulk of society and is not in the habit of obedience to another like superior. Power refers to the ability to influence or control others and can take different forms like reward, coercive, expert and referent power. Authority is power that is seen as legitimate by both the ruler and the ruled, and can be rational-
The document discusses the concepts of government, public policy, types of government power, constitutions, politics, the state, and theories on the origin of states. It defines government as the institution through which a society makes and enforces public policy. Public policy includes areas like education, defense, crime, and healthcare. Government power is often outlined in a constitution, with democracies holding leaders accountable to citizens. The state is the dominant political unit defined by a population living in a territory with sovereignty and a government. Theories on how states originated include through force, evolution from families to tribes, divine right, and social contract.
Democracy is a system of governance where people rule through elected representatives. There are different types of democracies like presidential and parliamentary systems. Not all democracies provide the same levels of civil liberties and rule of law. There are degrees of democracy, with some countries having more authoritarian practices. Other regime types include authoritarian, totalitarian, and sultanic governments. Multiple factors can support or hinder democracy such as a country's political culture, history, and economic development. Transitions to democracy involve a process of liberalization and consolidation over time.
Security is the deepest and most abiding issue in politics. At its heart is the question: How can people live a decent and worthwhile existence, free from threats, intimidation and violence?' The search for security is therefore linked to the pursuit of order; and for the establishment of relative peace and stability amongst individuals and groups with different needs and interests. These concerns are commonly thought to resolved in the domestic realm by the existence of a sovereign state, a body capable of imposing its will on all the groups and institutions within its borders. Nevertheless, domestic security raises important issues, particularly about the roles of the institutions of the 'coercive state'; the police and the military. However, the issue of security is often considered to be especially pressing in international politics because the international realm, unlike the domestic realm, is anarchical, and therefore threatening and unstable by its nature. There has been fierce theoretical debate about whether this implies that international conflict and war are inevitable features of world affairs, and about the extent to which states are able to keep war at bay through cooperation. These debates have become increasingly pressing due to the advent of new challenges to international security, such as the rise of transnational terrorism and the proliferation of nuclear weapons. Finally, growing interest in the concept of 'human security' has shifted attention from the security of the state to the security of the individual, and, in the process, widened the notion of security to include, for instance, economic security, food security and personal security.
Realists advance a power politics model of world affairs in which security is primarily understood in terms of 'national security' and war is kept in check by the balance of power. The liberal belief in interdependence and balance in world affairs inclines them to place their faith in 'collective security', while critical theorists have either emphasized the extent to which state interactions are mediated by beliefs, values and assumptions, or exposed masculinist biases in the conventional realist paradigm.
This document discusses concepts related to states, governments, and political authority. It defines a state as a compulsory political organization with a centralized government maintaining a monopoly on legitimate use of force within a territory. Governments are systems that govern organized communities, often with the purpose of providing services like law, military, education. Max Weber identified three types of legitimate political authority: traditional (based on long-established customs), legal-rational (based on established laws and rules), and charismatic (based on an individual's extraordinary personal qualities).
The judicial system of China consists of three branches: the courts, procuratorates, and public security organs. The courts are headed by the Supreme People's Court in Beijing and include local people's courts at higher, intermediate, and basic levels. Special courts also exist for military, railway transport, and maritime cases. Judges are appointed by people's congresses. Courts use collegial panels of judges to hear cases, with at least one retrial allowed. Procuratorates oversee legal proceedings. Public security organs handle law enforcement. The system aims to balance judicial independence with Communist Party oversight.
This document discusses various topics related to state security including theories of security, defense, law and order, and limitations of state protection. It outlines Hobbes' argument that the main task of the state is to provide physical security for citizens through a monopoly on force. It also discusses defense against external threats, conflict resolution methods, military spending, crime and punishment, product safety regulations, and challenges like terrorism and international crime. Realism and idealism are presented as competing theories of international relations with realism emphasizing self-interest and power.
Democracy is a system of government where power is held by elected representatives or directly by the people. It is based on principles of freedom, equality, and power held by the consent of the majority. Several 18th century philosophers helped establish pro-democracy principles like freedom of press, religious liberty, and universal suffrage. Laws and technologies can help strengthen democracy by increasing voter participation, transparency in political funding and spending, and giving citizens a more direct role in the political process through initiatives and civic participation online and offline.
This document provides definitions and descriptions of diplomacy. It defines diplomacy as the management of international relations through negotiation between representatives of states. It discusses the functions of diplomacy, including representation, negotiation, obtaining information, reporting, and protecting national interests. It also describes different types of diplomacy, such as political diplomacy, military diplomacy, and cultural diplomacy.
The document discusses various topics related to humanitarian intervention and sovereignty including:
1. The responsibility to protect principle holds that states have a primary responsibility to protect civilians, and the international community has a secondary responsibility to assist or intervene if the state is unwilling or unable to protect its population from mass atrocities.
2. There is debate around when and how humanitarian intervention should take place, with questions around the role of the UN Security Council and criteria for determining just cause.
3. While humanitarian intervention has become more accepted, it remains a highly political issue and requires balancing concerns of sovereignty and preventing mass atrocities or genocide. Global consensus and prevention should be the ultimate goals.
This document proposes governance targets and indicators for inclusion in the UN's Post-2015 development framework. It argues that open, inclusive, accountable and effective governance should be a stand-alone goal and integrated into other goals. Five specific governance targets are outlined: 1) ensuring access to development information, 2) curbing corruption and illicit flows, 3) enhancing public institution effectiveness and accountability, 4) increasing citizen participation, and 5) ensuring corporate transparency and accountability. Global minimum standards and possible indicators are suggested for each target to balance diversity and comparability. The proposal is endorsed by over 50 civil society organizations.
This document discusses political conflict. It defines political conflict as an expressed struggle by a community or group arising from a perceived or actual threat to their interests or ability to acquire and exercise governance. Political conflict can emerge due to faulty amalgamation of groups, breakdown of social contracts, weak state institutions, and inequality. The major actors in political conflicts are countries, religious groups, individuals sharing ideologies, and cultural groups. Political conflict affects development and lifestyles through its human toll, impact on political governance, and socioeconomic costs. Conflicts can be resolved through culturally adapted approaches that integrate prejudice reduction, mediation, and community building. Mediators play important roles in political conflicts such as facilitating communication between parties and clarifying issues
This document defines and describes different types of governments:
- A democracy is a government elected by the people, whereas an autocracy is ruled by a single person with unlimited power. An oligarchy is ruled by a small, powerful group.
- A monarchy has a king or queen as the ruler, though some have limited power. A dictatorship is ruled by a single unelected leader who maintains control through force.
- Other forms discussed include anarchy (no government), capitalist (free market economy), communist (government owns property/industry), and republic (elected president, no monarch).
moral and citizen ship education chapter 5 jimmachap 5.pptxdnzereabiruk
This document provides an overview of constitutions and democracy. It defines a constitution as the fundamental law that sets out the structure of government, lists citizen rights, and limits government power. Constitutions can be written or unwritten. The document then discusses Ethiopia's traditional and modern constitutions, including the 1931, 1955, 1987, and 1995 constitutions. It also defines democracy as government by the majority, and can be direct or indirect. The core values of democracy are identified as liberty, justice, and equality. Fundamental principles of democracy include popular sovereignty, constitutional supremacy, rule of law, and protection of human rights.
This document provides an overview of the conceptual framework and historical development of constitutions in Ethiopia. It discusses key concepts like the meaning of a constitution and constitutionalism. It then outlines the historical origins and evolution of constitutions from early civilizations like the Babylonians, Hebrews, Romans, and Greeks. It notes that the first written constitution in Ethiopia was introduced in 1931 to gain international recognition, but it did not provide genuine freedoms. The 1931 constitution was revised in 1955 due to factors like the federation of Eritrea with Ethiopia. The document also describes the traditional Ethiopian constitutional documents of Fetha Negest and Kibre Negest, and outlines the purposes and forms that constitutions can take.
The document discusses the definition and key characteristics of a constitution. It states that a constitution establishes the fundamental powers and framework of government by distributing powers among branches for the benefit of citizens. A constitution serves as the supreme law that all other laws and governmental actions must conform to. The Philippine constitution specifically is a written, conventional, and rigid constitution.
This document discusses the key concepts and classifications of constitutions. It defines a constitution as a written document that establishes the fundamental powers and principles of government. The document then summarizes the key sections and purposes of the Philippine constitution, including defining the structure of government, rights of citizens, and processes for amendment. It also briefly outlines the history of Philippine constitutions, including the Malolos Constitution, 1935 Constitution, 1973 Constitution, and the current 1987 Constitution.
This document discusses the key concepts and classifications of constitutions. It defines a constitution as a written document that establishes the fundamental powers and principles of government. The document then summarizes the key sections and purposes of the Philippine constitution, including defining the structure of government, rights of citizens, and processes for amendment. It also briefly outlines the history of Philippine constitutions, including the Malolos Constitution, 1935 Constitution, 1973 Constitution, and the current 1987 Constitution.
The document discusses the concept of a constitution, including its meaning, nature, purpose, and types. It provides details on the Philippine Constitution of 1935, including its framing, ratification, sources of influence, scope, and amendments. Specifically, it notes that the 1935 Constitution was drafted by a constitutional convention authorized by the Philippine Independence Act, was ratified by the Filipino people, and drew influence from sources like the US Constitution and previous organic laws in the Philippines. The Constitution was intended for both the Commonwealth and eventual Republic of the Philippines.
This document provides an overview of constitutions and constitutionalism. It defines a constitution as the supreme law that establishes the framework for how a country is governed. Constitutions can be written, like in the US and Rwanda, or unwritten and based on traditions as in the UK. The document discusses the key elements and features of different types of constitutions, including flexible vs rigid and unitary vs federal systems. It provides historical context and examples to explain the concepts of constitution and constitutionalism.
The document provides an overview of the Philippine constitution, including definitions, purposes, types, and historical constitutions. It begins by defining what a constitution is, noting that every state has some form of fundamental rules or document that establishes how government power is exercised. It then discusses key aspects of the Philippine constitution like the preamble, territory, declaration of principles, and separation of powers. The 1987 constitution established a democratic government, separated church and state, recognized national sovereignty, and instituted civilian control over the military. The document also covers constitutional law and different ways constitutions can be classified based on origin, form, and amendment process.
STS 211 SLT DIP 2 BY WILLIAMS AHMED GAMGUM.pdfDonpedroAni1
Dr. Williams Ahmed-Gamgum provides lecture notes on Citizenship Education covering several topics:
1) The Nigerian Constitution, defining it and outlining its key features.
2) Federalism in Nigeria, explaining the concepts and importance of adopting a federal system.
3) Citizenship, defining what it means to be a Nigerian citizen and the various ways one can acquire citizenship.
The lecture aims to teach students about their rights and responsibilities as Nigerian citizens and increase national identity and unity.
The document discusses the Philippine constitution, defining what a constitution is and outlining the key features and principles of the 1987 Philippine Constitution. It describes how the Philippine Constitution establishes the basic framework of government, assigns powers to different branches, and aims to preserve citizens' rights while pursuing principles like democracy, justice, and human rights. The document also provides overviews of previous 1935 and 1973 Philippine Constitutions.
1. The document outlines the key principles and provisions of the 1987 Philippine Constitution, including establishing a democratic republic, protecting civil liberties, separating church and state, and devolving power to local governments.
2. It also classifies different types of constitutions based on their origin, form, and amendment process and summarizes the key features of the 1935, 1973, and 1987 Philippine Constitutions.
3. The document discusses the purpose and value of preambles, the national territory as defined in the constitution, and several articles outlining principles of government, state policies, and protections of basic rights.
The document discusses the key concepts of a constitution including that:
1) A constitution serves as the supreme law of the land, establishing the framework and principles of government as well as defining the rights of citizens and limitations of state power.
2) Constitutions can be written, unwritten, rigid/inflexible, or flexible depending on factors like whether the principles are codified in law and how easily the constitution can be amended.
3) The key purpose of a constitution is to protect citizens from government overreach and abuse by dividing power between branches and outlining protected rights and liberties.
Towards Intergovernmental Balance Of Power in Zimbabwe. Opportunities, Challe...iosrjce
The study of inter-government relations (IGR) presents a dynamic and complex discourse aimed at
understanding political and administrative power dimensions and distribution between different tiers, spheres
or levels of government. IGR reflects the horizontal and vertical power dynamics between central, state/
provincial/ regional and local government and the consequences of this relationship on the degree of autonomy
and discretion that sub national government tiers enjoy from central government control and direction.
Anderson (1960) argued that the term IGR designate a body of activities or interactions between governmental
units of all types and levels or the totality of all permutations and combinations of relations among units of
government in a government system either unitary or federal. The context of IGR discourse is undergoing
radical change and transformation affecting perceptions about the role and functions of different tiers of
government. This discourse is occurring in the context of ongoing global change on the relative efficacy and the
relevance of the nation state vis a vis growing appreciation of local government capacity given increasing
challenges of globalization. National governments in the face of these dynamics and in search of policy and
administrative efficiency are exiting from their traditional roles with massive shifts from centralization,
overregulation and other protectionist tendencies
Meaning of Constitution
In broad sense, the term constitution
refers to that body of rules and principles
in accordance with which the powers of
sovereignty are regularly exercised.
It maybe defined as that written
instrument by which the fundamental
powers of the government are established,
limited, and defined and by which these
powers are distributed among the several
departments or branches for their safe
and useful exercise for the benefit of the
people. Nature and purpose or function of
constitution
the charter creating the government. It has the
status of a supreme or fundamental law as it
speaks for the entire people from whom it derives
its claim to obedience.
It is binding on all individual citizens and all
organs of the government.
It is the law to which other laws must conform
and in accordance with which all private rights
must be determined and all public authority
administered.
It is a test of the legality of all government
action, whether proceeding from the highest
official or lowest functionary.
The document discusses various forms of government including presidential systems, parliamentary systems, federations, unitary systems, republics, and monarchies. It provides definitions and examples for each type. A presidential system has a separately elected executive president and independent legislature, while a parliamentary system has an executive branch drawn from the legislature. Federations involve a division of power between central and regional/state governments. Unitary systems concentrate power in a central government. Republics are forms of government where the head of state is not a monarch. Monarchies can be absolute, with total monarchal power, or constitutional/limited with monarchal authority constrained by law or convention.
lONG QUESTION ANSWER PAKISTAN STUDIES10.docxon friday.docxlodhisaajjda
The Assembly passed the bill on 10th April, 1973 and at last the constitution came into force on 14th August 1973. The present constitution (1973) provides for the protection and preservation of Islamic Concept of life. It also attempts to propagate and implement the basic teachings of Islamhe Constitution of Pakistan (Urdu: آئینِ پاکستان ; ISO: Āīn-ē-Pākistān), also known as the 1973 Constitution, is the supreme law of Pakistan. The document guides Pakistan's law, political culture, and system. It sets out the state's outline, the fundamental rights of the population, the state's law and orders, and also the structure and establishment of the institutions and the armed forces.[2] Drafted by the government of Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, with additional assistance from the country's opposition parties, it was unanimously approved by the 5th Parliament on 10 April and ratified on 14 August 1973.[3][4] The first three chapters establish the rules, mandate, and separate powers of the three branches of the government: a bicameral legislature; an executive branch governed by the Prime Minister as chief executive; and an apex federal judiciary headed by Supreme Court.[4] The Constitution designates the President of Pakistan as a ceremonial Head of State who is to represent the unity of the state.[5] The first six articles of the constitution outline the political system as federal parliamentary republic system; as well as Islam as its state religion.[6] The Constitution also encapsulates provisions stipulating the legal system's compliance with Islamic injunctions contained in the Quran and Sunnah.[7]
The Parliament cannot make any laws which may be repugnant or contrary to the Constitution; however, the Constitution itself may be amended by a two-thirds majority in both the houses of the bicameral Parliament, unlike the previous legal documents of 1956 and 1962.[8] It has been amended over time, and most recent impulses for political upgrades and reforms has been amended. Although enforced in 1973, Pakistan, however, celebrates the adoption of the constitution on 23 March—when the first set was promulgated in 1956 each and every year as Republic Day.[9] Technically there are 26 amendments but 23 amendments were made in constitution and three were not passed by the parliament as the three amendments collapsed.
Currently the promulgated Constitution of Pakistan, in its amended form, stands as the 7th lengthiest constitution of the world with a word count of 56,240 Words.
Origins and historical background
This document defines key concepts related to constitutions and the nature and purpose of the Philippine Constitution. It discusses that a constitution is the fundamental law that establishes the framework and principles of government. The Philippine Constitution specifically serves as the supreme law, binding on all citizens and government bodies. It also establishes the basic division of powers and protects individual rights from arbitrary actions of those in authority. The document further describes that the Philippine Constitution is a written, conventional, and rigid constitution, as it was drafted by a constitutional commission and can only be amended through a difficult process.
Constitution refers to the official document that establishes a country's political system and protects citizens' rights, while constitutionalism is the principle that government power should be limited under the rule of law. A constitution defines the structure of government and sets limits, while constitutionalism operates as a system opposing authoritarian rule. Both concepts aim to limit abuse of power and protect freedoms, but constitution is a written text while constitutionalism is an unwritten principle based on constitutional values.
This document summarizes a presentation on constitutions. It defines a constitution as the fundamental law of a state that determines legal relations between the government and its subjects. There are different types of constitutions including evolved/enacted, legal/real, written/unwritten, and flexible/rigid. Qualities of a good constitution include clarity, brevity, comprehensiveness, and flexibility. A constitution establishes the structure of government, protects fundamental rights, and can be amended through various processes like referendums. In conclusion, the constitution is important for both citizens and the state by providing social protections and serving as the framework for governance.
Article 2 constitution of the philippines Zimm Basubas
The document provides an overview of the Philippine constitution, including its origins, nature, purposes and key principles. It defines a constitution as the fundamental law that establishes the framework of government. The 1987 Philippine constitution is described as a conventional, written and rigid document. Key features of the 1935, 1973 and 1987 Philippine constitutions are outlined. The preamble expresses the goals of justice, democracy and human rights. Article 1 covers the national territory and Articles 2 outlines principles like sovereignty, civil supremacy over the military, and protection of life, family and youth.
This document discusses various types of resins and their properties. It defines resins as amorphous mixtures produced by plants that are insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents. Resins are classified based on their combination with other substances, such as glycoresins which contain glycosides, oleoresins which contain volatile oils, oleo-gum resins containing gums and oils, and gum resins containing gums. Examples of specific resins discussed include rosin, cannabis, podophyllum, jalap, turpentine, capsicum, ginger, and myrrh. For each resin, the source plant, active chemical constituents, and common uses are provided.
Plasma proteins play important roles in blood including transportation, protection, and regulation. The three major categories of plasma proteins are albumin, globulins, and fibrinogen. Albumin maintains blood volume and transports molecules. Globulins include antibodies that are part of the immune system. Fibrinogen is essential for blood clotting. Abnormal levels of these proteins can indicate conditions such as liver or kidney disease. Testing plasma proteins provides information about nutrition, immunity, and organ function.
This document discusses shock, which is defined as cardiovascular collapse and systemic hypoperfusion that impairs the body's ability to adequately perfuse tissues. Shock can be caused by reductions in cardiac output or circulating blood volume and clinically presents as hypotension, impaired tissue perfusion, organ dysfunction, and hemodynamic disturbances. The causes of shock include cardiogenic shock, distributive shock such as septic or anaphylactic shock, hypovolemic shock from bleeding or fluid loss, and obstructive shock from pulmonary embolism or cardiac tamponade. Shock progresses through compensated, decompensated, and irreversible stages if left untreated and can result in multiple organ failure and death.
1. CNS infections can be caused by bacteria, viruses, fungi, parasites, or prions. Common bacterial infections include meningitis caused by streptococcus pneumoniae, neisseria meningitidis, and listeria monocytogenes.
2. Viruses that can cause CNS infections include poliovirus, rabies virus, herpes simplex virus, measles (subacute sclerosing panencephalitis), and JC virus (progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy).
3. Fungal infections like cryptococcosis and parasitic infections including malaria, toxoplasmosis, and trypanosomiasis can also infect the CNS.
The document discusses respiratory pharmacology and diseases. It covers the autonomic innervation of the airways, commonly encountered respiratory diseases like asthma, COPD and allergic rhinitis. It then focuses on asthma, describing its clinical features, pathophysiology, risk factors, and treatment approaches including bronchodilators, corticosteroids, mast cell stabilizers and leukotriene antagonists. Treatment for an acute severe asthma attack is also outlined. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease is briefly introduced.
Histamine is a chemical messenger that acts as a local hormone. It is synthesized in mast cells and basophils and signals through four receptor types, H1-H4. Antihistamines are drugs that block the effects of histamine by competing for binding at histamine receptors. There are three classes of H1 receptor antagonists: first generation cause sedation; second generation are more selective; third generation are enantiomers of second generation drugs with fewer side effects. Common first generation drugs include diphenhydramine; second generation include loratadine and cetirizine; third generation include levocetirizine. H2 receptor antagonists like cimetidine are used to treat gastric ul
TEST BANK For Katzung's Basic and Clinical Pharmacology, 16th Edition By {Tod...rightmanforbloodline
TEST BANK For Katzung's Basic and Clinical Pharmacology, 16th Edition By {Todd W. Vanderah, 2024,} Verified Chapter
TEST BANK For Katzung's Basic and Clinical Pharmacology, 16th Edition By {Todd W. Vanderah, 2024,} Verified Chapter
TEST BANK For Katzung's Basic and Clinical Pharmacology, 16th Edition By {Todd W. Vanderah, 2024,} Verified Chapter
A comparative study on uroculturome antimicrobial susceptibility in apparentl...Bhoj Raj Singh
The uroculturome indicates the profile of culturable microbes inhabiting the urinary tract, and it is often required to do a urine culture to find an effective antimicrobial to treat UTIs. This study targeted to understand the profile of culturable pathogens in the urine of apparently healthy (128) and humans with clinical UTIs (161). In urine samples from UTI cases, microbial counts were 1.2×104 ± 6.02×103 colony-forming units (cfu)/ mL, while in urine samples from apparently healthy humans, the average count was 3.33± 1.34×103 cfu/ mL. In eight samples (six from UTI cases and two from apparently healthy people) of urine, Candida (C. albicans 3, C. catenulata 1, C. krusei 1, C. tropicalis 1, C. parapsiplosis 1, C. gulliermondii 1) and Rhizopus species (1) were detected. Candida krusei was detected only in a single urine sample from a healthy person and C. albicans was detected both in urine of healthy and clinical UTI cases. Fungal strains were always detected with one or more types of bacteria. Gram-positive bacteria were more commonly (OR, 1.98; CI99, 1.01-3.87) detected in urine samples of apparently healthy humans, and Gram -ve bacteria (OR, 2.74; CI99, 1.44-5.23) in urines of UTI cases. From urine samples of 161 UTI cases, a total of 90 different types of microbes were detected and, 73 samples had only a single type of bacteria. In contrast, 49, 29, 3, 4, 1, and 2 samples had 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7 types of bacteria, respectively. The most common bacteria detected in urine of UTI cases was Escherichia coli detected in 52 samples, in 20 cases as the single type of bacteria, other 34 types of bacteria were detected in pure form in 53 cases. From 128 urine samples of apparently healthy people, 88 types of microbes were detected either singly or in association with others, from 64 urine samples only a single type of bacteria was detected while 34, 13, 3, 11, 2 and 1 samples yielded 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and seven types of microbes, respectively. In the urine of apparently healthy humans too, E. coli was the most common bacteria, detected in pure culture from 10 samples followed by Staphylococcus haemolyticus (9), S. intermedius (5), and S. aureus (5), and similar types of bacteria also dominated in cases of mixed occurrence, E. coli was detected in 26, S. aureus in 22 and S. haemolyticus in 19 urine samples, respectively. Gram +ve bacteria isolated from urine samples' irrespective of health status were more often (p, <0.01) resistant than Gram -ve bacteria to ajowan oil, holy basil oil, cinnamaldehyde, and cinnamon oil, but more susceptible to sandalwood oil (p, <0.01). However, for antibiotics, Gram +ve were more often susceptible than Gram -ve bacteria to cephalosporins, doxycycline, and nitrofurantoin. The study concludes that to understand the role of good and bad bacteria in the urinary tract microbiome more targeted studies are needed to discern the isolates at the pathotype level.
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Exploring Alternatives- Why Laparoscopy Isn't Always Best for Hydrosalpinx.pptxFFragrant
Not all women with hydrosalpinx should choose laparoscopy. Natural medicine Fuyan Pill can also be a nice option for patients, especially when they have fertility needs.
Why Does Seminal Vesiculitis Causes Jelly-like Sperm.pptxAmandaChou9
Seminal vesiculitis can cause jelly-like sperm. Fortunately, herbal medicine Diuretic and Anti-inflammatory Pill can eliminate symptoms and cure the disease.
Chair and Presenter, Stephen V. Liu, MD, Benjamin Levy, MD, Jessica J. Lin, MD, and Prof. Solange Peters, MD, PhD, prepared useful Practice Aids pertaining to NSCLC for this CME/MOC/NCPD/AAPA/IPCE activity titled “Decoding Biomarker Testing and Targeted Therapy in NSCLC: The Complete Guide for 2024.” For the full presentation, downloadable Practice Aids, and complete CME/MOC/NCPD/AAPA/IPCE information, and to apply for credit, please visit us at https://bit.ly/4bBb8fi. CME/MOC/NCPD/AAPA/IPCE credit will be available until July 1, 2025.
Chair, Benjamin M. Greenberg, MD, MHS, discusses neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorder in this CME activity titled “Mastering Diagnosis and Navigating the Sea of Targeted Treatments in NMOSD: Practical Guidance on Optimizing Patient Care.” For the full presentation, downloadable Practice Aids, and complete CME information, and to apply for credit, please visit us at https://bit.ly/4av12w4. CME credit will be available until June 27, 2025.
Causes Of Tooth Loss
PERIODONTAL PROBLEMS ( PERIODONTITIS, GINIGIVITIS)
Systemic Causes Of Tooth Loss
1. Diabetes Mellitus
2. Female Sexual Hormones Condition
3. Hyperpituitarism
4. Hyperthyroidism
5. Primary Hyperparathyroidism
6. Osteoporosis
7. Hypophosphatasia
8. Hypophosphatemia
Causes Of Tooth Loss
CARIES/ TOOTH DECAY
Causes Of Tooth Loss
CAUSES OF TOOTH LOSS
Consequence of tooth loss
Anatomic
Loss of ridge volume both height and width
Bone loss :
mandible > maxilla
Posteriorly > anteriorly
Anatomic consequences
Broader mandibular arch with constricting maxilary arch
Attached gingiva is replaced with less keratinised oral mucosa which is more readily traumatized.
Anatomic consequences
Tipping of the adjacent teeth
Supraeruption of the teeth
Traumatic occlusion
Premature occlusal contact
Anatomic Consequences
Anatomic Consequences
Physiologic consequences
Physiologic Consequences
Decreased lip support
Decreased lower facial height
Physiologic Consequences
Physiologic consequences
Education of Patient
Diagnosis, Treatment Planning, Design, Treatment, Sequencing, and Mouth Preparation
Support for Distal Extension Denture Bases
Establishment and Verification of Occlusal Relations and Tooth Arrangements
Initial Placement Procedures
Periodic Recall
Education of Patient
Informing a patient about a health matter to
secure informed consent.
Patient education should begin at the initial
contact with the patient and should continue throughout treatment.
The dentist and the patient share responsibility for the ultimate success of a removable partial denture.
This educational procedure is especially important when the treatment plan and prognosis are discussed with the patient.
Diagnosis, Treatment Planning, Design, Treatment, Sequencing, and Mouth Preparation
Begin with thorough medical and dental histories.
The complete oral examination must include both clinical and radiographic interpretation of:
caries
the condition of existing restorations
periodontal conditions
responses of teeth (especially abutment teeth) and residual ridges to previous stress
The vitality of remaining teeth
Continued…..
Occlusal plan evaluation
Arch form
Evaluation of Occlusal relationship through mounting the diagnostic cast
The dental cast surveyor is an absolute necessity in which patients are being treated with removable partial dentures.
Mouth preparations, in the appropriate sequence, should be oriented toward the goal of
providing adequate support, stability,
retention, and
a harmonious occlusion for the partial denture.
Support for Distal Extension Denture Bases
A base made to fit the anatomic ridge form does not provide adequate support under occlusal loading.
The base may be made to fit the form of the ridge when under function.
Support for Distal Extension Denture Bases
This provides support
Ventilation Perfusion Ratio, Physiological dead space and physiological shuntMedicoseAcademics
In this insightful lecture, Dr. Faiza, an esteemed Assistant Professor of Physiology, delves into the essential concept of the ventilation-perfusion ratio (V˙/Q˙), which is fundamental to understanding pulmonary physiology. Dr. Faiza brings a wealth of knowledge and experience to the table, with qualifications including MBBS, FCPS in Physiology, and multiple postgraduate degrees in public health and healthcare education.
The lecture begins by laying the groundwork with basic concepts, explaining the definitions of ventilation (V˙) and perfusion (Q˙), and highlighting the significance of the ventilation-perfusion ratio (V˙/Q˙). Dr. Faiza explains the normal value of this ratio and its critical role in ensuring efficient gas exchange in the lungs.
Next, the discussion moves to the impact of different V˙/Q˙ ratios on alveolar gas concentrations. Participants will learn how a normal, zero, or infinite V˙/Q˙ ratio affects the partial pressures of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the alveoli. Dr. Faiza provides a detailed comparison of alveolar gas concentrations in these varying scenarios, offering a clear understanding of the physiological changes that occur.
The lecture also covers the concepts of physiological shunt and dead space. Dr. Faiza defines physiological shunt and explains its causes and effects on gas exchange, distinguishing it from anatomical dead space. She also discusses physiological dead space in detail, including how it is calculated using the Bohr equation. The components and significance of the Bohr equation are thoroughly explained, and practical examples of its application are provided.
Further, the lecture examines the variations in V˙/Q˙ ratios in different regions of the lung and under different conditions, such as lying versus supine and resting versus exercise. Dr. Faiza analyzes how these variations affect pulmonary function and discusses the abnormal V˙/Q˙ ratios seen in chronic obstructive lung disease (COPD) and their clinical implications.
Finally, Dr. Faiza explores the clinical implications of abnormal V˙/Q˙ ratios. She identifies clinical conditions associated with these abnormalities, such as COPD and emphysema, and discusses the physiological and clinical consequences on respiratory function. The lecture emphasizes the importance of understanding these concepts for medical professionals and students, highlighting their relevance in diagnosing and managing respiratory conditions.
This comprehensive lecture provides valuable insights for medical students, healthcare professionals, and anyone interested in respiratory physiology. Participants will gain a deep understanding of how ventilation and perfusion work together to optimize gas exchange in the lungs and how deviations from the norm can lead to significant clinical issues.
Case presentation of a 14-year-old female presenting as unilateral breast enlargement and found to have a giant breast lipoma. The tumour was successfully excised with the result that the presumed unilateral breast enlargement reverting back to normal. A review of management including a photo of the removed Giant Lipoma is presented.
Coronary Circulation and Ischemic Heart Disease_AntiCopy.pdfMedicoseAcademics
In this lecture, we delve into the intricate anatomy and physiology of the coronary blood supply, a crucial aspect of cardiac function. We begin by examining the physiological anatomy of the coronary arteries, which lie on the heart's surface and penetrate the cardiac muscle mass to supply essential nutrients. Notably, only the innermost layer of the endocardial surface receives direct nourishment from the blood within the cardiac chambers.
We then explore the specifics of coronary circulation, including the dynamics of blood flow at rest and during strenuous activity. The impact of cardiac muscle compression on coronary blood flow, particularly during systole and diastole, is discussed, highlighting why this phenomenon is more pronounced in the left ventricle than the right.
Regulation of coronary circulation is a complex process influenced by autonomic and local metabolic factors. We discuss the roles of sympathetic and parasympathetic nerves, emphasizing the dominance of local metabolic factors such as hypoxia and adenosine in coronary vasodilation. Concepts like autoregulation, active hyperemia, and reactive hyperemia are explained to illustrate how the heart adjusts blood flow to meet varying oxygen demands.
Ischemic heart disease is a major focus, with an exploration of acute coronary artery occlusion, myocardial infarction, and subsequent physiological changes. The lecture covers the progression from acute occlusion to infarction, the body's compensatory mechanisms, and the potential complications leading to death, such as cardiac failure, pulmonary edema, fibrillation, and cardiac rupture.
We also examine coronary steal syndrome, a condition where increased cardiac activity diverts blood flow away from ischemic areas, exacerbating the condition. The long-term impact of myocardial infarction on cardiac reserve is discussed, showing how the heart's capacity to handle increased workloads is significantly reduced.
Angina pectoris, a common manifestation of ischemic heart disease, is analyzed in terms of its causes, presentation, and referred pain patterns. We identify factors that exacerbate anginal pain and discuss both medical and surgical treatment options.
Finally, the lecture includes a case study to apply theoretical knowledge to a practical scenario, helping students understand the real-world implications of coronary circulation and ischemic heart disease. The role of biochemical factors in cardiac pain and the interpretation of ECG changes in myocardial infarction are also covered.
JMML is a rare cancer of blood that affects young children. There is a sustained abnormal and excessive production of myeloid progenitors and monocytes.
EXPERIMENTAL STUDY DESIGN- RANDOMIZED CONTROLLED TRIALRishank Shahi
Randomized controlled clinical trial is a prospective experimental study.
It essentially involves comparing the outcomes in two groups of patients treated with a test treatment and a control treatment, both groups are followed over the same period of time. Prepare a plan of study or protocol
a. Define clear objectives
b. State the inclusion and exclusion criteria of case
c. Determine the sample size, place and period of study
d. Design of trial (single blind, double blind and triple blind method)
2. Define study population: Most often the patients are chosen from hospital or from the community. For example, for a study for comparison of home and sanatorium treatment, open cases of tuberculosis may be chosen.
3. Selection of participants by defined criteria as per plan:
Selection of participants should be done with precision and should be precisely stated in writing so that it can be replicated by others. For example, out of open cases of tuberculosis those who fulfill criteria for inclusion may be selected (age groups, severity of disease and treatment taken or not, etc.)
Randomization ensures that participants have an equal chance to be assigned to one of two or more groups:
One group gets the most widely accepted treatment (standard treatment/ gold standard)
The other gets the new treatment being tested, which researchers hope and have reason to believe will be better than the standard treatment
Subject variation: First, there may be bias on the part of the participants, who may subjectively feel better or report improvement if they knew they were receiving a new form of treatment.
Observer bias: The investigator measuring the outcome of a therapeutic trial may be influenced if he knows beforehand the particular procedure or therapy to which the patient has been subjected.
Evaluation bias: There may be bias in evaluation - that is, the investigator(Analyzer) may subconsciously give a favorable report of the outcome of the trial.
Co-intervention:
participants use other therapy or change behavior
Study staff, medical providers, family or friends treat participants differently.
Biased outcome ascertainment:
participants may report symptoms or outcomes differently or physicians
Investigators may elicit symptoms or outcomes differently
A technique used to prevent selection bias by concealing the allocation sequence from those assigning participants to intervention groups, until the moment of assignment.
Allocation concealment prevents researchers from influencing which participants are assigned to a given intervention group.
All clinical trials must be approved by Institutional Ethics Committee before initiation
It is mandatory to register clinical trials with Clinical Trials Registry of India
Informed consent from all study participants is mandatory.
A preclinical trial is a stage of research that begins before clinical trials, and during which important feasibility and drug safety data are collected.
Following points high.
Westgard's rules and LJ (Levey Jennings) Charts.Reenaz Shaik
Quality Control is a process used to monitor and evaluate the analytical process that produces patients results. Planning, documenting and agreeing on a set of guidelines ensures quality.
2. Constitution and Constitutionalism
Constitution is figuratively defined as the fundamental or basic
law of a state which sets out the structure of the state and also
lists the rights of citizens alongside the limits on the power
exercise of a government.
It is a blue print placed on top the hierarchy of laws on
constitutional governments.
A constitution may be said to be a collection of principles
according to which the powers of the government, the rights of
the governed, and the relation between the two are adjusted.
3. Cont--d
It refers to body of rules and laws that:
determine the organization of government and the distribution of powers and
functions to various organs of government
regulate the relationship among themselves and also between the state and
its individuals through general principles on which these powers are to be
exercised.
Constitution is the mothers of all laws; all other ordinary laws are derived
from and subjected to this blue print.
Hence, since constitution is supreme law of a land, any other law
contradicted with the provisions of the constitution becomes void or invalid.
4. Peculiar Features of Constitution
Constitution has distinctive features that distinguish it from any other
laws. These are:-
A. Generality: constitution provides general principles where as laws
provide the details of the subject for which they are created,
It serves as a guidelines for others laws.
B. Permanency: unlike laws constitution is made for undefined period
of time. It is purposely made to be stable and permanent. It is made to be
stable. On the contrary, other laws are tentative, occasional and in the
nature of temporary existence.
5. Cont---d
C. Supremacy: Constitutions are supreme laws.
It is original because it is directly made by the people.
All other laws are secondary or derivate being commands of
representatives of the sovereign.
D. Codified document: they are written down; often in a single
document.
E. Allocation of powers: This is probably the most crucial part
because it allocates powers and functions to government and
specifies the rights and duties of governments and citizens-who
can do what, to whom, and under what circumstances.
6. Major Purposes and Functions of Constitution
The following are some of the major purposes and functions of
constitution.
It serves as a framework for Government: it is a brief and a
general outline of duties and rights of governments and citizens.
It Limits the Powers of Government
It protects individual and collective rights of citizens
It serves as the Supreme (Highest) Law of a Country
It provides Government legitimacy/stability
It serves as blue Prints for establishing Values and Goals
7. Classification of Constitutions
Constitutions are classified into different categories using the
following criteria: form, amendment procedure and degree of
implementation/practice.
A. Constitution based on form: based on form/appearance
constitutions can be classified as written and unwritten.
B. Constitution based on complexity of amending process: On the
basis of the distinction in the process of amendment,
constitutions may be classified as rigid and flexible.
8. Rigid Constitution
The process of amendment is difficult.
It does not adapt itself to changing circumstances immediately and
quickly or simply one whose amendment procedures are relatively
complex or difficult.
A more difficult procedure of constitutional amendment is the one
which requires a national referendum.
A referendum is the process of direct voting by citizens to support or
rejects at constitutional amendment or other major national issues.
Countries like USA, Australia, Denmark and Switzerland are known
to have rigid constitutions.
9. Flexible Constitution
There is no special required procedure for amending a constitution.
The simplest and commonest amendment procedure is the one which
requires an absolute majority (two thirds support) in the parliament.
If it is very simple and convenient, the constitution is flexible.
It adapts easily and immediately to changing circumstances or simply
one whose amendment procedures are relatively simple.
The United Kingdom and New Zealand, may be altered by a simple
majority vote in the legislature.
10. Constitution based on degree of practice
On the basis of the degree to which constitution of state observed in
practice, it can be classified as effective and Nominal Constitution.
Based on the kind of state structure: a constitution is classified as unitary
and federal.
1. Federal constitution
It distributes power among the different units of a state administration.
it classifies and decentralizes power between the central government and
regional/local units
Example: the United States of America, Canada, Australia and Malaysia
11. 2. Unitary Constitution
State power is concentrated in the hands of the central
government.
The central government can establish or abolish the
lower levels of government; determine their
composition, and their power and functions.
In this case the local government has no guarantee for
their existence.
Powers and responsibilities are delegated to them by
the central government.
12. Constitutionalism
Constitutionalism does not merely require the existence of
constitution
It needs effective implementation of the constitutional provisions.
The main difference between constitution and constitutionalism
lies in the fact that the constitution is generally a written
document, created by the government, while constitutionalism is a
principle and a system of governance that respects the rule of law
and limits the power of the government.
13. The Constitutional Experience of Ethiopia: Pre and Post 1931
Traditional Constitution (Pre- 1931)
Ethiopia is one of the oldest states in Africa to experience statehood and
an organized government.
During its long history, however, it didn’t have any written document that
can be taken as a constitution.
The traditional constitutional experience was characterized by the
dominance of myths and legends that were used to provide legitimacy to
the monarchs.
Fetha Negest (glory of kings) which served as the country’s constitution.
Kibre Negest was a religious and secular legal provision.
It was used as the sources of constitutional, civil, and criminal laws.
14. Cont---d
The Kibre Negest (The Glory of Kings), written during the
13th Century, mystifies that the Ethiopian monarchs derived
their power to rule from God and, therefore, they could not be
accountable to any power.
This document takes the Ethiopian history back to the
Solomonic dynasty, where the queen of Sheba made romantic
tripe to King Solomon of Israel and gave birth to the first
Ethiopia king Menelik I.
Lack of written constitution does not necessarily implicate the
total absence of constitutional rules and principles in the legal
history of the country.
15. Ser’ate Mengist
It was another traditional document that had been used as
constitution by the traditional rulers before 1931.
The ser’ate Mengist was one of the traditional documents of
the nineteenth century that provided certain administrative
protocol and directives in the 19th century.
The Ser’ate Mengist can hardly be considered to be a
document of Constitutional Law in its widest sense.
16. The 1931 First Written Constitution
In 1931 following the coronation of Emperor Hailesilassie I, the first
written constitution was introduced, which was the first modern
constitution for the country.
The emperor introduced this constitution for two basic purposes:
1) To give Ethiopia the image of modernity in the face of the
international community; and
2) To strengthen and centralize his absolute power by extending
his power over the regional feudal rulers.
17. Cont---d
It is believed that both internal and external factors forced the
development of the 1931 constitution.
Externally: it was the result of the growing interaction between Ethiopia
and the external world, particularly the western European countries.
To became a member of League of Nations
To show the image of modernity
However, the 1931 constitution was failed to achieve external goals as
intended by the emperor.
Internally: It was designed to unify and centralize all state power in the
hands of the monarch.
18. The Revised Constitution of 1955
After 24 years of experimentation, the 1931 constitution
was revised.
There were two basic reasons that forced the emperor to
revise the constitution.
1. The first reason was the federation of Eritrea with Ethiopia
in 1952. Eritrea had its own constitution with some
democratic elements. Therefore, if the federation is to work,
the Ethiopian constitution had to be revised to accommodate
those democratic ideals.
19. Cont--d
Secondly, during the 24 years of the emperor’s rule, the country had
witnessed some economic and social changes.
This included: closer ties with the outside world; membership in the
UNO; signs of modernity; movement of people and development of
commerce with the outside world.
Such development forced the emperor to revisit the constitution.
The third factor that forced the emperor to revise the constitution was
pressure from educated Ethiopians.
These Ethiopians who were educated abroad were making demands to
revise the constitution so as to incorporate democratic ideals.
20. The 1987 Constitution of People’s Democratic Republic
Ethiopia (PDRE)
With the downfall of the imperial regime, the Dergue setup the
Provisional Military Administrative Council (PMAC) type of temporary
government.
Derg suspended the 1955 constitution and began to rule the country by a
series of decrees and proclamations.
Though it was late, during the Dergue regime a new constitution was
adopted in 1987.
In accordance to the provisions of this constitution, a government with a
new name, People’s Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (PDRE) came into
existence.
21. Cont---d
The People’s Democratic Republic Ethiopia constitution (1987) was different
from the 1931 and the 1955 imperial constitutions in that constitution:
State and religion were separated (issue of secularism was included in the
constitution) for the first time;
contains provisions on democratic and human rights;
recognized the different cultural identities and the equality of Nation and
Nationalities;
Introduced a party system by giving recognition to the workers party of Ethiopia.
Thus, leading to a transition from a none party system to a single party system;
aimed at the principles of Marxist and Leninist ideology;
Aimed at giving power to the peoples so that they exercise through referendum,
local and national assembly.
22. The 1995 (FDRE) Constitution
The FDRE constitution has a wider coverage of both human and
democratic rights.
Of the total 106 articles of the constitution just about one third
(approximately 33 articles) is devoted to the discussion of rights.
The 1995 Constitution has some salient features.
It introduces a federal form of governance
It declares the rights of nations, nationalities and peoples of Ethiopia to
exercise their self determination including the right to secession.
It gives recognition to five fundamental principles
23. Democracy and Democratization
• Democracy literally means the government of the people
or government of the majority.
• Democracy is the form of government in which the
highest power of the state is vested with the people.
• According to Abraham Lincoln, “democracy is the
government of the people, by the people and for people”.
• There are two broad ways of exercising democracy:
Direct and Indirect/Representative democracy.
24. Cont---d
Direct democracy implies a form of
government in which the right to make
political decisions is exercised directly by the
whole body of citizens acting under procedures
of majority rule.
It is also known as pure/classical democracy.
Every decision concerning the government is
decided based on popular vote.
This kind of democracy was mainly practiced
in Ancient Greece city states.
25. Cont--d
Indirect democracy refers to a form of government in
which citizens exercise their rights and freedoms and
discharge their obligations not in person but through
representatives chosen by themselves.
Citizens will submit their sovereignty for their
representatives.
The representatives will act on the behalf of the citizens
they are representing.
26. Values and Principles of Democracy
There are three core values that are central in the discussion of the
concept of democracy.
o Liberty:
This value includes personal freedom to mean that Individuals should
be free from arbitrary arrest and detention.
Political freedom implies that people of a nation have the right to
participate freely in the political process.
Economic freedom to mean that citizens should have the right to
acquire, use, transfer and dispose of private property without
unreasonable governmental interference.
27. Cont--d
o Justice: This value of democracy can be understood in three
general senses of fairness.
Distributive Justice: the sense of distributing benefits and
burdens
Corrective Justice: the sense that a proportional response should
be in place to correct wrongs and injuries.
Procedural justice: the idea that procedures used for gathering
information and making decisions should be guided by principles
such as impartiality and openness of proceedings.
28. Cont--d
o Equality: There are three notions of equality. These are:
Political equality: implying that all people who attain the
status of adult hood have equal political rights.
Social equality: implying that there should be no social
hierarchy at individual and collective level or no
discrimination what so ever.
Economic equality: peoples of a country deserve equal and
fair assessment to the national resources services.
29. Cont--d
Some of the fundamental principles of democracy are: These are:
A. Popular Sovereignty: associated with power and legitimacy.
Popular sovereignty also means that the people have the right to
withdraw their consent when the government fails to fulfill its
obligations under the constitution.
B. Constitutional Supremacy: puts the constitution at the highest level in
the hierarchy of laws.
This principle dictates all laws and governmental or non-governmental
acts to be under the constitution.
30. Cont--d
C. Rule of Law: There are two aspects of the rule of law.
I. The law should govern the people and the people should obey
the law.
II. The law must be capable of being obeyed (‘good’ laws).
The rule of law is the principle under which a government
exercises its authority in accordance with clear, objective, and
publicly disclosed laws.
The principle is intended to be a safeguard against arbitrary rule.
31. Cont--d
D. Secularism: the separation of state and religion.
E. Separation of Powers: It is an essential feature of
constitutional government.
F. Free, Fair and Periodic Election
G. Majority Rule Minority Right
H. Protection and Promotion of Human Rights
I. Multiparty System: having several political parties
working together in one political system.
32. Democratization
Democratization is the process of transitions from nondemocratic
to democratic regimes that occur within a specified period of
time.
There are three main elements in democratization such as the
removal of the authoritarian regime, installation of a democratic
regime, and the consolidation, or long-term sustainability of the
democratic regime.
It involves the full-scale transition from authoritarian regime and
its replacement by democratically elected regime.
33. Actors of Democratization
I. Political Parties
It has been argued that parties are ―endemic to democracy, an unavoidable
part of democracy.
In a democratic system, political parties provide the proper mode of
functioning for the government so that the majority party or a combination
of parties controls the government, while other parties serve as the
opposition and attempt to check the abuses of power by the ruling party.
The existence of a strong and viable opposition keeps the ruling party alert.
It is also the duty of political parties to promote policies that will educate
the people about how a democratic system functions and offer different
policy packages to the electorates.
34. Cont--d
II. Media
Media has an influential role in strengthening democracy.
Media and democracy have strong association.
Countries which are strong democracies always have strong and
free media.
Media in all countries serves as a watchdog, monitoring those in
power, as a source of information, to hold governments
accountable for their actions, a civic forum and an agenda setter.
35. Cont--d
III. Civic Societies
It is a the backbone of democracy.
Civil societies have a potential of playing numerous momentous
roles for democratic development and consolidation.
To mention some: limiting the power of the state, including
challenging the abuses of authority; monitoring human rights and
strengthening the rule of law; monitoring elections and enhancing
the overall quality and credibility of the democratic process;
educating citizens about their rights and responsibilities; building a
culture of tolerance and civic involvement etc.
36. Human Rights
It is also common to call them ‘natural’ rights, since they are
natural entitlements to everyone.
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR, Article
2), stipulates that human rights belong to every human being
“without distinction of any kind, such as race, color, sex,
language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social
origin, property, birth or other status” (Art. 2).
The only criteria someone must fulfill to enjoy these rights is
being a human.
37. Cont--d
Human rights are not just theoretical; they are recognized standards to which
governments are to be held accountable.
Human rights are entitlements naturally endowed to all persons equally,
universally and for a life time.
These are entitlements everyone can claim just because they are human beings.
The only precondition someone needs to fulfill in order to claim human rights is
being a human. Hence, they are necessarily imperative in forming and
preserving a fair and civilized society.
Human rights are established upon some main principles including universality,
inalienability, indivisibility and interdependence.
38. Principles of Human Rights
Human rights are universal: This means all rights are expected to be
applied equally everywhere, every-time and to everyone in this
world.
Article one of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR)
stipulated that “All human beings are born free and equal in dignity
and rights.”
It also stated that human rights belong to every human being
“without distinction of any kind, such as race, color, sex, language,
religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property,
birth or other status” (Art. 2).
39. Cont--d
Human rights are inalienable.
That means you cannot lose these rights any more than you
can stop to be a human being.
Human rights are not luxury or privileges we only enjoy
after some preconditions are met, rather part of our basic
necessities.
Human rights are indivisible.
This implies that human rights are inherent to the dignity of
every human person.
40. Cont--d
Human rights are interdependent and interrelated.
This is to mean that all rights have equal weight/importance and it is not possible for one
to fully enjoy any of his/her right without the others.
For instance, one cannot enjoy his/her right to life without his/her rights of health,
education, freedom from torture and inhuman treatment, right to an adequate standard of
living and the like.
The violation of all these rights threatens one’s life and existence in general. That is true
for all our human rights, not possible to enjoy the one ignoring the other.
That means we cannot prioritize one right from others, because no right can stand on
itself.
The fulfillment of one right often depends, wholly or in part, upon the fulfillment of
others.
41. Cont--d
The principle of equality and non-discrimination.
This means that all individuals are equal as human beings
and by virtue of the inherent dignity of each human person.
Accordingly, no one should face discrimination on the basis
of race, color, ethnicity, gender, age, language, sexual
orientation, religion, political or other opinion, national,
social or geographical origin, disability, property, birth or
other status as recognized by many of the international and
regional, national human rights frameworks.
42. Categories of Human Rights
The common way of categorization is the one developed by Karl
Vasak (1982) who have classified Human Rights into three: First,
Second and Third generation rights.
I. Civil and Political Rights
Civil and political rights are the first generation rights which uphold
the sanctity of the individual before the law and guarantee his or her
ability to participate freely in civil, economic, and political society.
Civil rights include such rights as the right to life, liberty and
personal security, equality before the law, protection from arbitrary
arrest and the right to religious freedom and worship.
43. Cont--d
Political rights include such rights as the right to speech and
expression, assembly and association, vote and political participation.
Political rights thus guarantee individual rights to involvement in
public affairs and the affairs of state.
Civil and political rights are seen as an immediately realizable
rights. No precondition could be acceptable for any violations of civil
and political rights.
They have also been called as ‘negative’ rights to indicate the fact
that they simply entail the absence of their violation in order to be
upheld.
44. II. Social and Economic Rights
It is the second generation (social, economic, and cultural) rights
It is an aspirational and programmatic set of rights.
It can achieve through progressive implementation.
They are called ‘positive’ rights to indicate that whose realization is highly
subjected to the economic capability of states.
They are considered as “less fundamental” or unrealistic rights because of
the issues of justicialibility.
Justiciability is not obviously the quality of economic, social and cultural
rights.
Social and economic rights include such rights as the right to education, health
and wellbeing, work and fair remuneration, form trade unions etc.
45. III. Peace, Development and Environmental Rights
It is third generation (solidarity) rights.
It is aimed to guarantee that all individuals and groups have the right to share in the
benefits of the earth's natural resources, as well as those goods and products that are
made through processes of economic growth, expansion, and innovation.
Many of these rights are transnational in nature.
They requires redistribution of wealth, resources from developed to developing
nations.
Solidarity rights also require global cooperation and shared responsibility to world
peace, development and the environment. Third Generation (solidarity) rights
include rights to public goods such as the right to development, the environment
and peace.
The third generation rights are still considered as an emerging rights.
46. The summary of the classification of rights
Generation First generation
rights
Second generation
rights
Third generation
rights
Category of
rights
Civil and political
rights
Socio-economic
rights
Solidarity rights
State obligation Promoting and
protecting
Providing and
fulfilling
?
What is expected
from the State
Non-interference Positive
interference
Positive
involvement
Realization Immediate Progressive Progressive
Right holders Individuals
(mostly)
Groups (mostly) ?