Environmental impact assessment

M.ARCH. (ENVIRONNEMENTAL ARCHITECTURE)
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT
ANNA UNIVERSITY
SEMESTER - I
CONTENTS
UNIT I INTRODUCTION
 Historical development of Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA).

 EIA in Project Cycle.
 Legal and Regulatory aspects in India.
 Types and limitations of EIA
 Cross sectoral issues and terms of reference in EIA
 Public Participation in EIA.
 EIA process- screening – scoping – setting – analysis – mitigation
UNIT II COMPONENTS AND METHODS
 Matrices
 Networks
 Checklists
 Connections and combinations of processes
 Cost benefit analysis
 Analysis of alternatives
 Software packages for EIA
 Expert systems in EIA.
 Prediction tools for EIA
 Mathematical modelling for impact prediction
 Assessment of impacts – air – water – soil – noise – biological ––
 Cumulative Impact Assessment
 Documentation of EIA: findings – planning – organization of information and visual
display materials – Report preparation.
 EIA methods in other countries.
UNIT III IMPACT ON SOCIO-ECONOMIC SYSTEMS
 Definition of social impact assessment.
 Social impact assessment model and the planning process.
 Rationale and measurement for SIA variables.
 Relationship between social impacts and change in community and institutional
arrangements. Individual and family level impacts.
 Communities in transition –
 neighbourhood and community impacts.
 Selecting, testing and understanding significant social impacts.
 Mitigation and enhancement in social assessment.
 Environmental costing of projects.
UNIT IV ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT PLAN
 Environmental Management Plan - preparation, implementation and review
 Mitigation and Rehabilitation Plans
 Policy and guidelines for planning and monitoring programmes
 Post project audit
 Ethical and Quality aspects of Environmental Impact Assessment.

UNIT V SECTORAL EIA
EIA related to the following sectors
 Infrastructure
 construction and housing
 Mining
 Industrial
 Thermal Power
 River valley and Hydroelectric
 coastal projects
 Nuclear Power,
 Hill area Development
 CRZ.
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT
UNIT I INTRODUCTION
 Environmental Impact Assessment
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is a process of evaluating the likely environmental impacts of a proposed
project or development, taking into account inter-related socio-economic, cultural and human-health impacts, both
beneficial and adverse.

UNEP defines Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) as a tool used to identify the environmental, social and
economic impacts of a project prior to decision-making.
It aims to predict environmental impacts at an early stage in project planning and design, find ways and means to
reduce adverse impacts, shape projects to suit the local environment and present the predictions and options to
decision-makers.
By using EIA both environmental and economic benefits can be achieved, such as reduced cost and time of project
implementation and design, avoided treatment/clean-up costs and impacts of laws and regulations.
Although legislation and practice vary around the world, the fundamental components of an EIA would necessarily
involve the following stages:
a. Screening to determine which projects or developments require a full or partial impact assessment study;
b. Scoping to identify which potential impacts are relevant to assess (based on legislative requirements,
international conventions, expert knowledge and public involvement), to identify alternative solutions that avoid,
mitigate or compensate adverse impacts on biodiversity (including the option of not proceeding with the
development, finding alternative designs or sites which avoid the impacts, incorporating safeguards in the design
of the project, or providing compensation for adverse impacts), and finally to derive terms of reference for the
impact assessment;
c. Assessment and evaluation of impacts and development of alternatives, to predict and identify the likely
environmental impacts of a proposed project or development, including the detailed elaboration of alternatives;
d. Reporting the Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) or EIA report, including an environmental
management plan (EMP), and a non-technical summary for the general audience.
e. Review of the Environmental Impact Statement (EIS), based on the terms of reference (scoping) and public
(including authority) participation.
f. Decision-making on whether to approve the project or not, and under what conditions; and
g. Monitoring, compliance, enforcement and environmental auditing. Monitor whether the predicted impacts
and proposed mitigation measures occur as defined in the EMP. Verify the compliance of proponent with the
EMP, to ensure that unpredicted impacts or failed mitigation measures are identified and addressed in a timely
fashion.
Strategic Environmental Assessment
Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) as the formalized, systematic and comprehensive process of identifying
and evaluating the environmental consequences of proposed policies, plans or programmers to ensure that they are
fully included and appropriately addressed at the earliest possible stage of decision-making on a par with economic
and social considerations.
 Historical development of Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA).
The post-World War II scenario was a period of extraordinary economic development and
environmental change. The upcoming development of jobs, housing, transportation,
and energy systems were accompanied by widespread negative environmental changes including
air and water pollution, destruction of ecosystems, the alteration of farmlands, and major
redevelopment of historic urban centers.

The Environmental Movement of 1960s played a major role in ratification of governments
fundamental new Environmental Laws. Each Law typically, addressed a specific problem. For
example, the U.S. Clean Air Act, and Clean Water Act were formulated to regulate pollution by
specifying allowable concentration limits on lists of specific toxic chemicals in air, water, and on
land. While other laws focused on issues such as wetlands, endangered species, and historic
preservation.
EIAs was firstly used in the 1960s as part of a rational decision making process.
It involved a technical evaluation that would lead to objective decision making. Finally EIA was
accepted as legislation in the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) 1969 of USA. This was
the first legislation to provide a robust framework for allowing all recognized environmental
concerns to be addressed simultaneously.
Thus EIA process was used as a means to integrate the generation and dissemination of
environmental information, and foster collaboration among the diverse set of public and private
actors and stakeholders which characterize major, environmentally controversial decisions.
EIA in Project Cycle.
Project Life Cycle
• Desktop phase
• Conceptual phase
• Pre-feasibility phase
• Feasibility phase
• Implementation phase
Desktop Study
• Carried out in very early stages
• High-level and low cost review of key environmental risks
Conceptual Study
• Some initial ideas of what the project may consist of
• Initial input/outputs
• Initial layouts of project sites and associated infrastructure
Pre-feasibility Study
• Capital and operating cost estimates
• Layout drawings of project and infrastructure, initial engineering etc
• Consideration of Alternatives
• Project not yet “frozen” or detailed

Feasibility Study
• Properly defined and frozen design
• Full financial model
• Technology selection fully resolved
• Project execution and time-schedule finalized
Implementation
• Frozen scope of work and Feasibility cost estimates
• Achievable design and construction schedule
• Detailed execution strategy
• Safety risk management, community and environmental plan, marketing plan
• Engineering Procurement Construction Management (EPCM) contractor takes ownership of above from
the outset
• Commissioning and handover
 Legal and Regulatory aspects in India.
Introduction
Even before India independence in 1947, several environmental legislation existed but the real
impetus for bringing about a well-developed framework came only after the UN Conference on
the Human Environment (Stockholm, 1972). Under the influence of this declaration, the National
Council for Environmental Policy and Planning within the Department of Science and

Technology was set up in 1972. This Council later evolved into a full-fledged Ministry of
Environment and Forests (MoEF) in 1985 which today is the apex administrative body in the
country for regulating and ensuring environmental protection. After the Stockholm Conference,
in 1976, constitutional sanction was given to environmental concerns through the
42nd
Amendment, which incorporated them into the Directive Principles of State Policy and
Fundamental Rights and Duties.
Legislation for environmental protection in India
Water
Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974
This Act represented India’s first attempts to comprehensively deal with environmental issues.
The Act prohibits the discharge of pollutants into water bodies beyond a given standard, and lays
down penalties for non-compliance.
Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Act, 1977
This Act provides for a levy and collection of a cess on water consumed by industries and local
authorities. It aims at augmenting the resources of the central and state boards for prevention and
control of water pollution.
Air
Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981
To counter the problems associated with air pollution, ambient air quality standards were
established, under the 1981 Act. The Act provides means for the control and abatement of air
pollution. The Act seeks to combat air pollution by prohibiting the use of polluting fuels and
substances, as well as by regulating appliances that give rise to air pollution. The boards are also
expected to test the air in air pollution control areas, inspect pollution control equipment, and
manufacturing processes.
Forests and wildlife
The Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972, Amendment 1991
The WPA (Wildlife Protection Act), 1972, provides for protection to listed species of flora and
fauna and establishes a network of ecologically-important protected areas. The WPA empowers
the central and state governments to declare any area a wildlife sanctuary, national park or closed
area. There is a blanket ban on carrying out any industrial activity inside these protected areas.
The Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980
This Act was adopted to protect and conserve forests. The Act restricts the powers of the state in
respect of de-reservation of forests and use of forestland for non-forest purposes (the term non-
forest purpose includes clearing any forestland for cultivation of cash crops, plantation crops,
horticulture or any purpose other than re-afforestation).
General
Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 (EPA)
This Act is an umbrella legislation designed to provide a framework for the co-ordination of
central and state authorities established under the Water (Prevention and Control) Act, 1974 and

Air (Prevention and Control) Act, 1981. Under this Act, the central government is empowered to
take measures necessary to protect and improve the quality of the environment by setting
standards for emissions and discharges; regulating the location of industries; management of
hazardous wastes, and protection of public health and welfare.
Hazardous wastes
o Hazardous Wastes (Management and Handling) Rules, 1989, which brought out a
guide for manufacture, storage and import of hazardous chemicals and for
management of hazardous wastes.
o Biomedical Waste (Management and Handling) Rules, 1998, were formulated along
parallel lines, for proper disposal, segregation, transport etc. of infectious wastes.
o Municipal Wastes (Management and Handling) Rules, 2000, whose aim was to enable
municipalities to dispose municipal solid waste in a scientific manner.
o Hazardous Wastes (Management and Handling) Amendment Rules, 2000, a recent
notification issued with the view to providing guidelines for the import and export of
hazardous waste in the country.
Factories Act, 1948 and its Amendment in 1987
Public Liability Insurance Act (PLIA), 1991
National Environment Tribunal Act, 1995
 Types and limitations of EIA
TypesofEIA
EIA can be classified based on the purpose and the theme of development.
EIA can be climate impact assessment, demographic impact assessment, development impact
assessment, ecological impact assessment, economic and fiscal impact assessment, health impact
assessment, risk assessment, social impact assessment, strategic impact assessment, technology
assessment.
Environmental assessments could be classified into four types i.e.,
Strategic environmental assessment, regional EIA, sectoral EIA and project level EIA.
These are precisely discussed below:
Strategicenvironmentalassessment
Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) refers to systematic analysis of the environmental
effects of development policies, plans, programmes and other proposed strategic actions.
SEA represents a proactive approach to integrating environmental considerations into the higher
levels of decision-making beyond the project level, when major alternatives are still open.

RegionalEIA
EIA in the context of regional planning integrates environmental concerns into development
planning for a geographic region, normally at the sub-country level.
Regional EIA addresses the environmental impacts of regional development plans and thus, the
context for project-level EIA of the subsequent projects, within the region.
SectoralEIA
Instead of project-level-EIA, an EIA should take place in the context of regional and sectoral
level planning.
Sectoral EIA will helps in to addressing specific environmental problems that may be
encountered in planning and implementing sectoral development projects
Project Level EIA:
Project level EIA refers to the developmental activity in isolation and the impacts that it exerts on
the receiving environment. Thus, it may not effectively integrate the cumulative effects of the
development in a region.
Limitations of EIA
1. Should undertake at policy and planning level rather than the project level.
2. Possible alternatives is often small
3. There are no criteria to decide what types of projects undergo EIA. Because many
projects do not require in depth EIA.
4. Lack of comprehensive environmental information, base limitations of time,
manpower, financial resources.
5. More research and development of improved methodologies required to overcome
limitations relating in data.
6. EIA report too academic, bureaucratic and lengthy. Difficult to understand for
common people.
7. In actual, EIA ends immediately after project clearance, no follow up taken.
 Cross sectoral issues and terms of reference in EIA
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is a planning tool now generally accepted as an integral
component of sound decision-making. The Environmental Clearance [EC] process for majority
of projects will comprise of a maximum of four stages – Screening, Scoping, Public Consultation
& Appraisal.
The sector specific documentation designed to consist of the following:
I] Sector Specific Terms of Reference (TOR)
II] Sector Specific Guidance Manuals for preparation of EIA report.
The purpose of TOR is to enable the project proponent for planning and designing EIA.
TOR is expected to provide a format and structure.
The purpose of the Sector Specific Guidance manual is to enable the project proponent to have
all detailed information to address all issues and implement field data collection and identify
impacts and mitigation measures and EMP.

The sectors falling under Group I and II are as follows:
Project activities: Group I
• Highways, Ports & Harbours, Airports, Arial Passenger Ropeways
• Building & Construction Projects and Townships and Area Development Projects
Project Activities: Group II
• Nuclear Fuel Processing and Power Generation.
• Mining & Minerals, Asbestos Based Products, Coal Washaries, Mineral Beneficiation
The TORs address sector specific issues relating to environmental impact assessment studies.
The common format or generic structure essentially comprises of 11 sections
i Objectives,
ii General Information,
o Introduction,
o Project Description,
o Analysis of Alternatives,
o Description of Environment [Land Air, Water, Noise],
o Anticipated Environmental Impacts and Mitigation Measures,
o Environmental Monitoring Program,
o Additional Studies,
o Project Benefits,
o Environmental Management Plan,
o Summary and Conclusions, and
o Disclosure of consultants.
Terms of Reference (TOR) for all the sectors prepared by the experts were presented to the
members of the Core and Peer committees.
 Public Participation in EIA.
The purpose of EIA should not be just to assess impacts and complete an environmental impact
statement (EIS); it is to improve the quality of decisions
Another purpose of EIA is to inform the public of the proposed project and its impacts. Through
informing the public the project proponent can make environmentally sensitive decision by being
aware of a project's potential adverse impacts on the environment.
First, public participation is regarded as proper, fair conduct of democratic government in public
decision-making activities.
Second, public participation is widely accepted as a way to ensure that projects meet citizens'
needs and are suitable to the affected public
Third, the project carries more legitimacy, and less hostility, if potentially affected parties can
influence the decision-making process
Finally, the final decision is `better' when local knowledge and values are included and when
expert knowledge is publicly examined

 EIA process- screening – scoping - setting – analysis – mitigation
Stage of EIA process
Screening
o Identification of significant impacts, include the Terms of Reference
o Whether or not EIA is required for a particular project
o What level of EIA is required?
Screening Outcomes:
o Full or comprehensive EIA required
o Limited EIA required
o No EIA required
Scoping
o Identification of public's interest and values
o Identification of priorities for assessment
o Encouraging public understanding of the proposed project
o Begins once screening is completed
o The most important step in EIA
o Establishes the content and scope of an EIA report
Outcome:
o Identifies key issues and impacts to be considered
o Lays the foundation of an effective process, saves time and money, and reduces conflict
Setting/Analysis
→ Type = biophysical, social, health or economic
→ Nature = direct or indirect, cumulative, etc.
→ Magnitude or severity = high, moderate, low
→ Extent = local, regional, trans-boundary or global
→ Timing = immediate/long term
→ Duration = temporary/permanent
→ Uncertainty = low likelihood/high probability
→ Reversibility = reversible/irreversible
→ Significance* = unimportant/important
Mitigation
o To avoid, minimize or remedy adverse impacts
o To ensure that residual impacts are within acceptable levels
o To enhance environmental and social benefits

UNIT II COMPONENTS AND METHODS
EIA Methods based on equality, openness, cost-effectiveness and efficiency approach and should
also be:
o Comprehensive: Recognize intricate systems and bound complex interrelationships;
o Selective: Pinpoint critical (significant) impacts and eliminate as early as possible
unimportant impacts;
o Comparative: Determine environmental changes resulting from the project compared by
that occur under existing conditions;
o Objective: Provide unbiased measurements free from political and external influences.

Commonly Used EIA Tools
o Checklists
o Matrices
o Networks
o Map overlays
o Geographic information systems (GIS)
o Task-specific computer modeling
o Expert systems
Successful utilization of analytical tools depends on:
o Nature of the project and competence of the users.
o Scale and scope of anticipated impacts
For example, the use of costly GIS technology and expertise may not be justified for a small
project of limited environmental scope.
 Matrices –
Most Commonly Used Method of Impact Identification
What are Matrices?
 Matrices are two-dimensional tables which facilitate the identification of impacts arising from
the interaction between project activities and specific environmental components.
 the entries in the cell of the matrix can be either qualitative or quantitative estimates of impact.
Matrices Types:
o Simple Matrices
o Time Dependent Matrices
o Magnitude Matrices
o Quantified Matrix (Leopold Matrix)
o Weighted Matrices
Matrices advantages:
• Visually describe relationship between two sets of factors,
• Expanded or contracted to meet needs of the proposal being assessed,

• Identify impacts of different phases of project, construction, operation….
• Help separate site-specific impacts from impacts affecting region
 Networks –
• Matrices are limited to identifying cause-effect linkages (direct impact).
Network diagram visually describes these linkages, providing some indication of how an
ecosystem operates.
• Different levels of information can be displayed in a network diagram to study
• “Holistic" characteristic approach of network is to recognize series of impacts may be activated
by a single project action.
• This method provides a guide to identification of second and third order effects (indirect
impact).

Limitations of Networks
• A network may be an unnecessary and generalization of reality unless relationships between
individual ecosystem components are adequately understood.
• Individual ecosystem or social system elements may not be easily recognized or found in the
diagram, especially as the level of detail increases.
• Networks cannot describe temporal aspects of ecosystem dynamics.
 Checklists –
A list of items required, things to be done, or points to be considered, used as a reminder.
What are Checklists?
o Structured list to identify relevant environmental factors for consideration in EIA,
o Encourage discussion during the early stages
o Represent the collective knowledge and judgment
o Ensure nothing has been left out;
o Do not require the clear establishment of direct cause effect links to project activities.
o Checklists cannot represent the interdependence, connectivity, or synergism between
interacting
Checklists Types:
o Simple Checklists
o Descriptive Checklists
o Questionnaire Checklists
o Threshold of Concern Checklists
Checklists Advantages:
1. Can structure initial stages of assessment
2. Help to ensure that vital factors are not neglected
3. Easy to apply, particularly by non-experts

 Connections and combinations of processes –

 Cost benefit analysis –
The most contentious analysis in an EIS is the cost benefit analysis.
In an EIS the cost-benefit analysis is part of the justification for the project.
Cost-benefit analysis is a tool which decision-makers use to choose between alternative courses
of action and in deciding whether a proposed project should go ahead or not.
Cost-benefit analysis is undertaken to weigh the costs of proceeding with a project against the
benefits that would arise from it.
In order to weigh costs against benefits, cost-benefit analysis usually attempts to put a monetary
value on both costs and benefits so that they are expressed in the same units.
The costs of a road project would include the cost of labour and materials used in construction,
as well as other costs such as the loss of parkland and homes, pollution, disruption to
neighborhoods or the loss of peace and quiet.
The benefits of a such a project might include time saved to motorists, increased predictability of
journey times and increased accessibility to a particular location.
Identifying all the consequences of a particular project or policy option is difficult because it
involves predicting the future and dealing with the uncertain' interactions between human
activities and the ecosystems in which they take place.

Obviously, some costs and benefits are not easy to put into monetary terms. These include
environmental values such as the value of clean air and water, unspoilt wilderness areas,
ecological balance and diversity. Different people will put different valuations on these.
Valuations can include economic, ecological, aesthetic and ethical components.
 Analysis of alternatives –
The role of alternatives is to find the most effective way of meeting the need and purpose of the
proposal, either through enhancing the environmental benefits of the proposed activity, and or
through reducing or avoiding potentially significant negative impacts.
TYPES OF ALTERNATIVES
A range of types of alternatives exists, not all of which are necessarily appropriate for each EIA.
Consideration should be given to those that are most appropriate for the potential project.
An important starting point for determining appropriate alternatives is to consider the following
aspects:
* Who is the proponent? (Private or public sector)
* Who are the intended beneficiaries? (General public, select groups or individuals)
* Where is the proposal to occur? (Zoned land use, common property or private property)
Projects that are proposed on public land and/or for the public good should consider the major
development alternatives that would meet the stated need for and purpose of the project.
The nature and location of the proposed project would require interrogation through activity and
location alternatives.
The following types or categories of alternatives can be identified:
1. Activity alternatives
2. Location alternatives
3. Process alternatives
4. Demand alternatives
5. Scheduling alternatives
6. Input alternatives
7. Routing alternatives
8. Site layout alternatives
9. Scale alternatives
10. Design alternatives.
Activity Alternatives
These are sometimes referred to as project alternatives, although the term activity can be used in
a broad sense to embrace policies, plans and programmes as well as projects. Consideration of
such alternatives requires a change in the nature of the proposed activity.

An example is incineration of waste rather than disposal in a landfill, or the provision of public
transport rather than increasing the capacity of roads. In view of the substantive differences in
the nature of the proposed activities, it is likely that this category is most appropriate at a
strategic decision-making level, such as in a Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA).
Location Alternatives
Location alternatives could be considered for the entire proposal or for a component of a
proposal, for example the location of a processing plant. The latter is sometimes considered
under site layout alternatives. A distinction should also be drawn between alternative locations
that are geographically quite separate, and alternative locations that are in close proximity.
Process Alternatives
Various terms are used for this category, including technological alternative and equipment
alternative. The purpose of considering such alternatives is to include the option of achieving the
same goal by using a different method or process. An industrial process could be changed or an
alternative technology could be used.
For example, 1000 megawatt of energy could be generated using a coal-fired power station or an
array of wind turbines. At a smaller scale, usually at the scale of a single plant, process
alternatives could include the recycling of process water or the minimization of wastes.
Demand Alternatives
Demand alternatives arise when a demand for a certain product or service can be met by some
alternative means.
Thus, for example, the demand for electricity could be met by supplying more energy or through
using energy more efficiently by managing demand.
Scheduling Alternatives
These are sometimes known as sequencing or phasing alternatives. In this case an activity may
comprise a number of components, which can be scheduled in a different order or at different
times and as such produce different impacts.
For example, activities that produce noise could be scheduled during the day to minimize
impacts, and activities that may impact on birds could be scheduled to avoid the migratory
season.
Input Alternatives
By their nature, input alternatives are most applicable to industrial applications that may use
different raw materials or energy sources in their processes.
For example, an industry may consider using either high sulphur coal or natural gas as a source
of fuel. Again, such alternatives could be incorporated into the project proposal and so be part of
the project description, and need not necessarily be evaluated as separate alternatives.
Routing Alternatives
Consideration of alternative routes generally applies to linear developments such as power lines,
transport and pipeline routes. In route investigations, various corridors are investigated and
compared in terms of their impacts.

Site Layout Alternatives
Site layout alternatives permit consideration of different spatial configurations of an activity on a
particular site. This may include particular components of a proposed development or may
include the entire activity.
For example, siting of a noisy plant away from residences; and secondly, siting of a particular
structure either prominently to attract attention or screened from view to minimize aesthetic
impacts.
Scale Alternatives
In some cases, activities that can be broken down into smaller units can be undertaken on
different scales.
For example, in a housing development there could be the option of 100, 150 or 200 housing
units. Each of these scale alternatives may have different impacts.
Design Alternatives
Consideration of different designs for aesthetic purposes or different construction materials in an
attempt to optimise local benefits and sustainability would constitute design alternatives.
Appropriate applications of design alternatives are communication towers. In such cases, all
designs are assumed to have different impacts. Generally, the design alternatives could be
incorporated into the project proposal and so be part of the project description, and need not be
evaluated as separate alternatives.
 Software packages for EIA –
 Expert systems in EIA.
 Prediction tools for EIA –
What to predict?

The object of prediction is to identify the magnitude and other dimensions of identified change in
the environment with a project or action, in comparison with the situation without that project or
action.
• How any project component may give rise to an impact
• Probability of impacts occurring
• Magnitude of each impact
• Spatial and temporal of each impact
Important Considerations for Impact Prediction
1. Baseline condition (surrounding environment)
2. Uncertainty (anything can be happened)
3. Spatial limits (place limitation)
4. Temporal boundaries (change of time)
5. Incremental condition
Methods for impact prediction
1. Extrapolative methods
2. Normative methods
Other
1. Mathematical model
2. Statistical models
3. Geography information system
4. Field and laboratory experimental methods
5. Physical models
6. Expert judgments
 Mathematical modeling for impact prediction –
• Based on cause-effect relationships

• usually expressed in the form of mathematical functions. (they may be
Simple input-output models or of complex dynamic types.)
• such models are primarily used for predicting the impact only partially
(e.g., model for phosphorus retention in a lake, or model to predict the
Economic multiplier in a particular area).
Types
1. Deterministic models
2. Stochastic model
Assessment of impacts – air
Identification of Air Quality Impacts
During the construction phase of the project, there is a potential for dust generation arising
during demolition, earthworks, stockpiling of materials and vehicle movements.
The potential dust generation sources during the works are as follows:
1. demolition work including breaking concrete;
2. earthworks, including excavation, soil stripping, re-grading;
3. site clearance, including removal of vegetation and topsoil;
4. unloading and handling of excavated materials;
5. truck movements on unpaved haul roads;
6. windblown dust from stockpiled materials;
7. deposition of dust from haulage trucks onto local roads.
In addition, there are also gaseous emissions from construction vehicles and Powered
Mechanical Equipment (PME) such as air compressors and generators.
Mitigation Measures
Typical dust control measures during the construction phases will include:
• restricting heights from which materials are dropped, as far as practicable to minimize the
fugitive dust arising from unloading/loading;
• all stockpiles of excavated materials or spoil of more than 50m3 should be enclosed, covered or
dampened during dry or windy conditions;
• effective water sprays should be used to control potential dust emission sources such as
unpaved haul roads and active construction areas;
• all spraying of materials and surfaces should avoid excessive water usage;
• vehicles that have the potential to create dust while transporting materials should be covered,
with the cover properly secured and extended over the edges of the side and tail boards;
• materials should be dampened, if necessary, before transportation;
• travelling speeds should be controlled to reduce traffic induced dust dispersion and
resuspension within the site from the operating haul trucks; and
• vehicle washing facilities will be provided to minimize the quantity of material deposited on
public roads.
Assessment of impacts– water
Assessment of impacts – soil

Assessment of impacts –noise
Assessment of impacts – biological
Cumulative Impact Assessment –
Cumulative environmental effects can be defined as effects on the environment which are
caused by the combined results of past, current and future activities.
Cumulative impacts are those that result from the successive, incremental, and/or combined
effects of an action, project, or activity when added to other existing, planned, and/or reasonably
anticipated future ones.
For practical reasons, the identification and management of cumulative impacts are limited to
those effects generally recognized as important on the basis of scientific concerns and/or
concerns of affected communities.
Examples of cumulative impacts include the following:
• Effects on ambient conditions such as the incremental contribution of pollutant emissions in an
airshed.
• Increases in pollutant concentrations in a water body or in the soil or sediments, or their
bioaccumulation.
• Reduction of water flow in a watershed due to multiple withdrawals.
• Increases in sediment loads on a watershed or increased erosion.
• Interference with migratory routes or wildlife movement.
• Increased pressure on the carrying capacity or the survival of indicator species in an ecosystem.
• Wildlife population reduction caused by increased hunting, road kills, and forestry operations. •
Depletion of a forest as a result of multiple logging concessions.
• Secondary or induced social impacts, such as in-migration, or more traffic congestion and
accidents along community roadways owing to increases in transport activity in a project’s area
of influence.
CIA is the process of
(a) analyzing the potential impacts and risks of proposed developments in the context of the
potential effects of other human activities and natural environmental and social external drivers
on the chosen valued ecosystem components (VECs) over time, and
(b) proposing concrete measures to avoid, reduce, or mitigate such cumulative impacts and risk
to the extent possible.
Documentation of EIA: Findings – planning – organization of information and visual display
materials – Report preparation.

EIA methods in other countries.
UNIT III IMPACT ON SOCIO-ECONOMIC SYSTEMS
 Definition of social impact assessment.
Social impact assessment (SIA) is a methodology to review the social effects of infrastructure projects
and other development interventions.
Although SIA is usually applied to planned interventions, the same techniques can be used to evaluate the
social impact of unplanned events, for example disasters, demographic change and epidemics.

for example, new roads, industrial facilities, mines, dams, ports, airports, and other infrastructure projects.
Ten Principles Underlying the SIA Process:
1. Public Involvement: Identify and involve all potentially affected stakeholders.
2. Data Collection: Develop a plan for gathering necessary baseline data and managing and effectively
dealing with unknowns and gaps in the data.
3. Consider use of an adaptive management process.
4. Objective Analysis of Impacts: Clearly and objectively identify who will benefit or be negatively
impacted.
5. Focusing on Significant Impacts: Focus on truly significant issues and public concerns. Emphasize
impacts identified by potentially affected stakeholders.
6. Identifying Methods, Assumptions, and Defining Significance: Explain how the SIA was performed,
the assumptions used, and how significance was evaluated.
7. Identifying Key Planning Issues: Identify key issues or problems that could be resolved with changes
to the proposed action or alternatives.
8. Employing SIA Practitioners: Use professionals trained in relevant social and economic sciences and
impact assessment methods.
9. Establishing a Monitoring Program: Manage uncertainty via a monitoring program.
10. Mitigation Program: Avoid or reduce adverse impacts by implementing cost-effective mitigation
measures. Consider the use of an Adaptive Management Process.
 Social impact assessment model and the planning process.
The general SIA process
involves
1. Defining proposed projects or policies
2. Assessing potential impacts of alternatives, including the proposed action
3. Identifying and assessing alternatives and mitigation strategies to minimize potential socioeconomic
impacts
4. Implementing mitigation measures

5. Developing monitoring programs to gauge the success of mitigation and identify unanticipated impacts
the SIA should evaluate each stage of a typical proposal’s life cycle.
Stage 1: Construction
The first stage—construction or implementation—begins when a decision is made to proceed. For typical
construction projects, this involves clearing land, building access roads, developing utilities, etc.
Stage 2: Operation/maintenance
The second stage—operation/maintenance— generally occurs as the construction or implementation
phase is nearing completion and continues through the operating stage of the project.
Stage 3: Abandonment/decommissioning
The third and final stage— abandonment/decommissioning—typically begins as the project nears
completion.
Generalized socioeconomic impact assessment process
In general, a socioeconomic assessment process should contain the seven steps outlined below.
Step 1: Public involvement
Identify all potentially affected groups, at the early stage in the planning process.
Potential groups include those who live nearby and those who will see, hear, smell, or in other ways
experience effects.
Other parties may include those affected by the influx of seasonal residents who may have to pay higher
prices for food or rent, or pay higher taxes to cover the cost of expanded community services. Once
identified, representatives from these groups may be interviewed to determine Potential concern.
Step 2: Establishing the baseline of human environment and conditions
Baseline conditions are the existing and past trends associated with the potentially affected human
environment. A geographical area is identified along with the distribution of special populations at risk.
Baseline conditions might include Relationships with
• The physical environment
• Historical background (including initial settlement and subsequent population shifts)
• Political and social resources (including the distribution of authority)
• Cultural, social, and psychological conditions and attitudes
• Population characteristics
• Demographics of relevant groups (including stakeholders, and sensitive groups)
Step 3: Scoping
The scoping process is used to sharply focus the analysis on key impacts, actions, alternatives, and
mitigation that will be evaluated in the SIA statement.
Potential factors include
• Degree of social disruption or relocation
• Degree of economic impact
• Number of people, including indigenous populations that will be affected
• Duration of impacts (long-term versus short-term)

• Probability of the event occurring
• Uncertainty over possible effects
• Presence or absence of controversy over the issue
• Value of benefits and costs to impacted groups (intensity of impacts)
• Extent that the impact is reversible or can be mitigated
• Relevance to present and future policy decisions
Alternatives identification. The next step involves describing the
proposal in sufficient detail to identify data requirements for performing
the SIA:
• Institutional resources
• Incomes
• Facility description
• Land requirements
• Locations
• Ancillary facilities (roads, sewer, and water lines)
• Needs of workforce
• Construction schedule
• Workforce size (construction and operation)
Step 4: Impact investigation
In general, there is consensus on the types of impacts that need to be considered (social, cultural,
demographic, economic, and possibly psychological and political impacts).
Probable social impacts are formulated in terms of predicted conditions:
• Without the actions
• Predicted conditions with the actions
• Predicted impacts that can be interpreted as the differences between the future with and without the
proposed action
Investigation of the probable impacts involves six major sources of information:
• Interviews
• Literature
• Data from project proponents
• Records of previous experience with similar actions
• Census and vital statistics
• Field research
Step 5: Forecasting impacts
Indirect impacts occur either later than the direct impact or farther away.
Cumulative impacts result from the incremental impacts of an action “added” to other past, present, and
reasonably foreseeable future actions regardless of which agency or person undertakes them.
Step 6: Assessing alternatives and mitigation
As necessary, alternatives may be reshaped, new alternatives are developed, and in particular, mitigation
measures are developed to address potentially significant socioeconomic impacts. The number of
iterations needed to complete this step will depend on time, funding, and the magnitude of the project or
policy changes. Expert judgment and scenarios are helpful in developing alternations.
Step 7: Monitoring

Monitoring is an important aspect that should be seriously considered for all proposals. As appropriate, a
monitoring program should be developed, capable of identifying deviations from the projected impacts
and any important unanticipated impacts.
A monitoring plan should track the project development and compare real impacts with projected ones.
Monitoring programs are particularly valuable for proposals that lack detailed information or involve a
degree of variability or uncertainty.
 Rationale and measurement for SIA variables.
Social impact assessment variables point to measurable change in human population, communities, and
social relationships resulting from a development project or policy change.
After research on local community change, rural industrialization, reservoir and highway development,
natural resource development, and social change in general,
A list of social variables that may need to be assessed include
• Cultural norms and values
• Political and social resources
• Community and institutional Structures
• Individual and family changes
• Community resources
• Population characteristics
1. Population Characteristics mean present population and expected change, ethnic and racial diversity,
and influxes and outflows of temporary residents as well as the arrival of seasonal or leisure residents.
2. Community and Institutional Structures mean the size, structure, and level of organization of local
government including linkages to the larger political systems.
3. Political and Social Resources refer to the distribution of power authority, the interested and affected
publics, and the leadership capability and capacity within the community or region.
4. Individual and Family Changes refer to factors which influence the daily life of the individuals and
families, including attitudes, perceptions, family characteristics and friend-ship networks. These changes
range from attitudes toward the policy to an alteration in family and friendship networks to perceptions of
risk, health, and safety.
5. Community Resources include patterns of natural resource and land use; the availability of housing and
community services to include health, police and fire protection and sanitation facilities.
 Relationship between social impacts and change in community and institutional
arrangements.
Socio-cultural, historic and economic context:
o Main social groups and their socio-cultural characteristics disaggregated between men and
women; emphasis on indigenous peoples and vulnerable groups such as landless persons, the
elderly, persons with disabilities, children, ethnic minorities or displaced persons;

o Historical events relevant to the project and potential impacts;
o Economic trends and prospects (relevant for social groups at or near the project);
o Main economic activities and livelihood patterns: formal and informal, subsistence and
commercial, including dependence on natural resources or on illegal activities such as poaching
or illegal trade;
o Social issues and risks faced by social groups, including issues related to access to resources and
to social services as well as to their capabilities and development opportunities;
o Interests and developmental aspirations of social groups and their attitudes toward sustainable
natural resource management;
o Existing or potential emerging conflicts between or among social groups that are relevant to the
project.
Political, institutional and legal context:
o Institutional environment: local and central government, private sector and civil society
institutions relevant to the activities proposed by the project;
o Policy and decision-making processes, stability of political systems, leadership and rule of law;
o Policies and regulations on property rights/tenure regimes, natural resource management and
conservation and current practice of enforcement (in general and locally, especially at the project
site);
o Capacities and capacity issues of institutions relevant to the project and to impacts;
o Issues and constraints within existing institutions and in their relationships with each other that
might present barriers for the project and opportunities for overcoming these constraints
o Attitudes towards projects
o Interest Group Activities
o Changes in local government
o Planning and Zoning changes
o Industrial diversification
o Income and Wages
o Income inequality
o Employment of groups
o Changing occupational choices
 Individual and family level impacts.
o Disruptions in living and movement patterns
o New religious practices
o Alteration in family structure
o Disruption of social networks
o Changes in public safety and health
o Changes in leisure activities
 Communities in transition –
o New outside interests acting in the community
o New coalitions of existing institutions
o New social classes

o Changes in industries
o Changes in housing costs
o Changes in the allocation of natural resources
 neighborhood and community impacts.
 Selecting, testing and understanding significant social impacts.
 Mitigation and enhancement in social assessment.

 Environmental costing of projects.
UNIT IV ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT PLAN

 Environmental Management Plan - preparation, implementation and review
Stage 1—Environmental policy: The EMS process begins with the preparation and establishment of an
environmental policy.
Stage 2—Planning: The next stage of the EMS process involves developing a plan for implementing the
system. While the planning function is often performed to determine how an organization will meet its
quality policy, it can also be used more comprehensively to develop detailed environmental plans.
Environmental aspects are identified, environmental objectives and targets are established, and a program
to achieve them is developed.
This plan includes identification of:
1. Environmental Aspects: Operations, activities, products, and services are reviewed to identify
how they interact with and may affect the environment.
2. Legal and Other Requirements: The plan identifies legal and other requirements that apply to
the organization’s environmental aspects.
3. Objectives and Targets: Environmental objectives and targets are developed and communicated
throughout the organization. A program is developed for achieving objectives and targets.
Stage 3—Implementation: Once the plan has been formalized, the EMS is ready for actual integration
and implementation with the organization’s functions and activities.

Specific work procedures are developed, defining how specific tasks are to be conduced.
These implementation requirements are summarized below:
1. Structure and Responsibility:
a. Roles, responsibilities, and authorities are defined for personnel whose activities may directly
or indirectly affect the environment.
b. Individuals are apppointed by top management as the management representatives. They are
assigned responsibility and authority for ensuring that the EMS complies with the ISO 14001
standards and for
reporting EMS performance to top management.
2. Training, Awareness, and Competence:
a. The organization identifies training requirements of personnel whose work may significantly
impact the environment. The personnel must receive appropriate education and training, and/or
have experience to
deal with environmental requirements.
b. Communication: Communication of relevant information concerning environmental aspects is
required throughout the organization.
c. Environmental Management System Documentation: Information must be maintained, which
describes the basics of the EMS. The documents must be reviewed on a regular basis. This
documentation must be managed and maintained through an established document control system
(DCS).
d. Operational Control: Activities that can significantly impact the environment, and are relevant
to the organization’s objectives and targets, must be identified. The organization must ensure that
these operations are performed according to the EMS plan to ensure they are performed under
controlled conditions. Controlled conditions can include documented procedures with specific
operating criteria.
e. Emergency Preparedness and Response: The organization must identify potential accidents and
emergency situations that may result in an environmental impact. Procedures must be developed
for responding to such accidents and emergency.
Stage 4—Monitoring and corrective action: This stage involves checking and audits, control of non-
conformances, corrective action, and preventive action.
Characteristics of operations and activities that can significantly impact the environment need to be
regularly monitored and measured. Monitoring and measurement results need to be compared with
legal and other requirements to assess compliance.
Stage 5—Management review: The final stage involves a review by the organization’s management of
the EMS. This step helps ensure that the system is operating effectively and provides the opportunity to
address changes that may be made to the EMS.
 Mitigation and Rehabilitation Plans

 Policy and guidelines for planning and monitoring programmes
 Post project audit
 Ethical and Quality aspects of Environmental Impact Assessment.
UNIT V SECTORAL EIA
EIA related to the following sectors
 Infrastructure
 construction and housing
 Mining
 Industrial
 Thermal Power
 River valley and Hydroelectric
 coastal projects
 Nuclear Power,
 Hill area Development
 CRZ.

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