Feature Engineering

FEATURE ENGINEERING
HJ van Veen - Data Science - Nubank Brasil

–Peter Norvig
“More data beats clever algorithms, but better
data beats more data.”

Feature Engineering
• Most creative aspect of Data Science.
• Treat like any other creative endeavor, like writing a
comedy show:
• Hold brainstorming sessions
• Create templates / formula’s
• Check/revisit what worked before

Categorical Features
• Nearly always need some treatment
• High cardinality can create very sparse data
• Difﬁcult to impute missing

Onehot encoding
• One-of-K encoding on an array of length K.
• Basic method: Used with most linear algorithms
• Dropping ﬁrst column avoids collinearity
• Sparse format is memory-friendly
• Most current implementations don’t gracefully treat
missing, unseen variables

Onehot encoding
Sample: ["BR"]
country country=NL country=BR country=US
------- ---------- ---------- ----------
NL => [ 0, 1, 0]
BR
US
Encoded dense: [0, 1, 0]
Encoded sparse: 2:1

Hash encoding
• Does “OneHot-encoding” with arrays of a ﬁxed
length.
• Avoids extremely sparse data
• May introduce collisions
• Can repeat with different hash functions and bag result for
small bump in accuracy
• Collisions usually degrade results, but may improve it.
• Gracefully deals with new variables (eg: new user-agents)

Hash encoding
Sample: ["BR"]
hash("BR") => `2`
country hash1 hash2 hash3 hash4 hash5
------- ----- ----- ----- ----- -----
NL => [ 0 1, 0 0, 0]
BR
US
Encoded dense: [0, 1, 0, 0, 0]
Encoded sparse: 2:1

Label encoding
• Give every categorical variable a unique numerical
ID
• Useful for non-linear tree-based algorithms
• Does not increase dimensionality
• Randomize the cat_var -> num_id mapping and
retrain, average, for small bump in accuracy.

Label encoding
Sample: ["Queenstown"]
city city
----------- ----
Cherbourg 1
Queenstown => 2
Southampton 3
Encoded: [2]

Count encoding
• Replace categorical variables with their count in the
train set
• Useful for both linear and non-linear algorithms
• Can be sensitive to outliers
• May add log-transform, works well with counts
• Replace unseen variables with `1`
• May give collisions: same encoding, different variables

Count encoding
Sample: ["A6GHBD78"]
teacher_ID teacher_ID
---------- ----------
DEADB33F 4
A6GHBD78 3
DEADB33F 4
FCKGWRHQ => 1
DEADB33F 4
A6GHBD78 3
A6GHBD78 3
DEADB33F 4
encoded: [3]

LabelCount encoding
• Rank categorical variables by count in train
set
• Useful for both linear and non-linear algorithms
• Not sensitive to outliers
• Won’t give same encoding to different variables
• Best of both worlds

LabelCount encoding
tld tld
--- ---
nl 3
nl 3
nl 3
nl => 3
de 2
de 2
fr 1
fr 1

Target encoding
• Encode categorical variables by their ratio of target (binary
classification or regression)
• Be careful to avoid overfit!
• Form of stacking: single-variable model which outputs average target
• Do in cross-validation manner
• Add smoothing to avoid setting variable encodings to 0.
• Add random noise to combat overfit
• When applied properly: Best encoding for both linear and non-linear

Category Embedding
• Use a Neural Network to create dense embeddings
from categorical variables.
• Map categorical variables in a function approximation
problem into Euclidean spaces
• Faster model training.
• Less memory overhead.
• Can give better accuracy than 1-hot encoded.
• https://arxiv.org/abs/1604.06737

NaN encoding
• Give NaN values an explicit encoding instead
of ignoring
• NaN-values can hold information
• Be careful to avoid overﬁt!
• Use only when NaN-values in train and test set are
caused by the same, or when local validation proves
it holds signal

NaN encoding
Sample = [NaN]
UA UA=mobile UA=tablet UA=NaN
------- --------- --------- ------
mobile 0 0 1
tablet
mobile =>
NaN
mobile
Encoded = [0, 0, 1]

Polynomial encoding
• Encode interactions between categorical
variables
• Linear algorithms without interactions can not solve
the XOR problem
• A polynomial kernel *can* solve XOR
• Explodes the feature space: use FS, hashing and/or
VW

Polynomial encoding
A B y A=1*B=1 A=0*B=1 A=1*B=0 A=0*B=0 y
- - - ------- ------- ------- ------- -
1 1 | 1 1 0 0 0 | 1
0 1 | 0 => 0 1 0 0 | 0
1 0 | 0 0 0 1 0 | 0
0 0 | 1 0 0 0 1 | 1

Expansion encoding
• Create multiple categorical variables from a single variable
• Some high cardinality features, like user-agents, hold far more
information in them:
• is_mobile?
• is_latest_version?
• Operation_system
• Browser_build
• Etc.

Expansion encoding
Mozilla/5.0 (Macintosh; Intel Mac OS X
10_10_4) AppleWebKit/537.36 (KHTML, like
Gecko) Chrome/53.0.2785.143 Safari/537.36
|
v
UA1 UA2 UA3 UA4 UA5
------ ------------- ------- --- -------
Chrome 53.0.2785.143 Desktop Mac 10_10_4

Consolidation encoding
• Map different categorical variables to the
same variable
• Spelling errors, slightly different job descriptions,
full names vs. abbreviations
• Real data is messy, free text especially so

Expansion encoding
company_desc desc1 company_desc2
------------------ ----- -------------
Shell Shell Gas station
shel Shell Gas station
SHELL Shell Gas station
Shell Gasoline Shell Gas station
BP => BP Gas station
British Petr. BP Gas station
B&P BP Gas station
BP Gas Station BP Gas station
bp BP Gas station
Procter&Gamble P&G Manufacturer

–Andrew Ng
“Coming up with features is difﬁcult, time-
consuming, requires expert knowledge. "Applied
machine learning" is basically feature
engineering.”

Numerical Features
• Can be more readily fed into algorithms
• Can constitute ﬂoats, counts, numbers
• Easier to impute missing data

Rounding
• Round numerical variables
• Form of lossy compression: retain most signiﬁcant
features of the data.
• Sometimes too much precision is just noise
• Rounded variables can be treated as categorical
variables
• Can apply log-transform before rounding

Rounding
age age1 age2
------- ---- ----
23.6671 23 2
23.8891 23 2
22.1261 => 22 2
19.5506 19 1
18.2114 18 1

Binning
• Put numerical variables into a bin and
encode with bin-ID
• Binning can be set pragmatically, by quantiles,
evenly, or use models to ﬁnd optimal bins
• Can work gracefully with variables outside of
ranges seen in the train set

Binning
risk_score rs[-inf,33] rs[33,66] rs[66,inf]
---------- ----------- --------- ----------
15 1 0 0
77 0 0 1
78 => 0 0 1
55 0 1 0
42 0 1 0

Scaling
• Scale to numerical variables into a certain
range
• Standard (Z) Scaling
• MinMax Scaling
• Root scaling
• Log scaling

Imputation
• Impute missing variables
• Hardcoding can be combined with imputation
• Mean: Very basic
• Median: More robust to outliers
• Ignoring: just postpones the problem
• Using a model: Can expose algorithmic bias

Imputation
wage hours gender | y wage hours | gender_y
---- ----- ------ | - ---- ----- | --------
1600 40 0 | 1 1600 40 | 0
2200 50 1 | 1 2200 50 | 1
1800 36 0 | 0 => 1800 36 | 0
2100 45 1 | 0 2100 45 | ?
2050 60 NaN | 0 2050 60 | ?
1650 36 0 | 1 1650 36 | ?

Interactions
• Speciﬁcally encodes the interactions between
numerical variables
• Try: Substraction, Addition, Multiplication, Divison
• Use: Feature selection by statistical tests, or trained
model feature importances
• Ignore: Human intuition; weird interactions can
give signiﬁcant improvement!

–Pedro Domingos
“…some machine learning projects succeed and
some fail. What makes the difference? Easily the
most important factor is the features used.”

Non-linear encoding for linear algo’s
• Hardcode non-linearities to improve linear
algorithms
• Polynomial kernel
• Leafcoding (random forest embeddings)
• Genetic algorithms
• Locally Linear Embedding, Spectral Embedding, t-
SNE

Row statistics
• Create statistics on a row of data
• Number of NaN’s,
• Number of 0’s
• Number of negative values
• Mean, Max, Min, Skewness, etc.

Xavier Conort
“The algorithms we used are very standard for
Kagglers. […] We spent most of our efforts in
feature engineering. [...] We were also very
careful to discard features likely to expose us to
the risk of over-ﬁtting our model.”

Temporal Variables
• Temporal variables, like dates, need better local
validation schemes (like backtesting)
• Easy to make mistakes here
• Lots of opportunity for major improvements

Projecting to a circle
• Turn single features, like day_of_week, into
two coordinates on a circle
• Ensures that distance between max and min is the
same as min and min +1.
• Use for day_of_week, day_of_month, hour_of_day,
etc.

Trendlines
• Instead of encoding: total spend, encode
things like: Spend in last week, spend in last
month, spend in last year.
• Gives a trend to the algorithm: two customers with
equal spend, can have wildly different behavior —
one customer may be starting to spend more, while
the other is starting to decline spending.

Closeness to major events
• Hardcode categorical features like:
date_3_days_before_holidays:1
• Try: National holidays, major sport events,
weekends, ﬁrst Saturday of month, etc.
• These factors can have major inﬂuence on spending
behavior.

Scott Locklin
“feature engineering is another topic which
doesn’t seem to merit any review papers or
books, or even chapters in books, but it is
absolutely vital to ML success. […] Much of the
success of machine learning is actually success
in engineering features that a learner can
understand.”

Spatial Variables
• Spatial variables are variables that encode a location
in space
• Examples include: GPS-coordinates, cities,
countries, addresses

Categorizing location
• Kriging
• K-means clustering
• Raw latitude longitude
• Convert cities to latitude longitude
• Add zip codes to streetnames

Closeness to hubs
• Find closeness between a location to a major
hub
• Small towns inherit some of the culture/context of
nearby big cities
• Phone location can be mapped to nearby businesses
and supermarkets

Spatial fraudulent behavior
• Location event data can be indicative of
suspicious behavior
• Impossible travel speed: Multiple simultaneous
transactions in different countries
• Spending in different town than home or shipping
address
• Never spending at the same location

Shayne Miel
“you have to turn your inputs into things the
algorithm can understand”

Exploration
• Data exploration can ﬁnd data health issues,
outliers, noise, feature engineering ideas,
feature cleaning ideas.
• Can use: Console, Notebook, Pandas
• Try simple stats: Min, max
• Incorporate the target so ﬁnd correlation between
signal.

Iteration / Debugging
• Feature engineering is an iterative process:
Make your pipelines suitable for fast
iteration.
• Use sub-linear debugging: Output intermediate
information on the process, do spurious logging.
• Use tools that allow for fast experimentation
• More ideas will fail, than ideas will work

Label Engineering
• Can treat a label/target/dependent variable as a
feature of the data and vice versa.
• Log-transform: y -> log(y+1) | exp(y_pred) - 1
• Square-transform
• Box-Cox transform
• Create a score, to turn binary target in regression.
• Train regressor to predict a feature not available in test set.

Francois Chollet
“Developing good models requires iterating
many times on your initial ideas, up until the
deadline; you can always improve your models
further. Your ﬁnal models will typically share
little in common with the solutions you
envisioned when ﬁrst approaching the problem,
because a-priori plans basically never survive
confrontation with experimental reality.”

Natural Language Processing
• Can use the same ideas from categorical features.
• Deep learning (automatic feature engineering)
increasingly eating this ﬁeld, but shallow learning
with well-engineered features is still competitive.
• High sparsity in data introduces you to “curse of
dimensionality”
• Many opportunities for feature engineering:

Natural Language Processing
• Lowercasing,
• Removing non-alphanumeric,
• Repairing,
• Encoding punctuation marks,
• Tokenizing,
• Token-grams,
• skipgrams,
• char-grams,
• Removing stopwords,
• Removing rare words
• and very common words,
• Spelling Correction,
• Chopping,
• Stemming,
• Lemmatization,
• Document features,
• Entitity Insertion & Extraction
• Simpliﬁcation,
• Word2Vec and GloVe / Doc2Vec,
• String Similarity,
• Reading level,
• Nearest Neighbors,
• TF*IDF,
• BayesSVM, Vectorization, LDA, LSA.

Cleaning
• Lowercasing: Make tokens independant of capitalisation:
“I work at NASA” -> “i work at nasa”.
• Unidecode: Convert accented characters to their ascii-
counterparts: “Memórias Póstumas de Brás Cubas” ->
“Memorias Postumas de Bras Cubas”
• Removing non-alphanumeric: Clean text by removing
anything not in [a-z] [A-Z] [0-9]. “Breaking! Amsterdam
(2009)” -> “Breaking Amsterdam 2009”
• Repairing: Fix encoding issues or trim intertoken spaces.
“C a s a C a f é” -> “Casa Café”

Tokenizing
• Encode punctuation marks: Hardcode “!” and “?” as tokens.
• Tokenize: Chop sentences up in word tokens.
• N-Grams: Encode consecutive tokens as tokens: “I like the
Beatles” -> [“I like”, “like the”, “the Beatles”]
• Skip-grams: Encode consecutive tokens, but skip a few: “I like
the Beatles” -> [“I the”, “like Beatles”]
• Char-grams: Same as N-grams, but character level: “Beatles” -
> [“Bea”, “eat”, “atl”, “tle”, “les”]
• Affixes: Same as char-grams, but only the postfixes and prefixes

Removing
• Stopwords: Remove words/tokens that appear in
stopword lists.
• Rare words: Remove words that only appear few
times in training set.
• Common words: Remove extremely common
words that may not be in a stopword list.

Roots
• Spelling correction: Change tokens to their
correct spelling.
• Chop: Take only the ﬁrst n (8) characters of a
word.
• Stem: Reduce a word/token to its root. “cars” ->
“car”
• Lemmatize: Find semantic root “never be late” ->
“never are late”

Enrich
• Document features: Count number of spaces, tabs,
newlines, characters, tokens, etc.
• Entity insertion: Add more general speciﬁcations to
text “Microsoft releases Windows” -> “Microsoft
(company) releases Windows (application)”
• Parse Trees: Parse a sentence into logic form: “Alice hits
Bill” -> Alice/Noun_subject hits/Verb Bill/Noun_object.
• Reading level: Compute the reading level of a
document.

Similarities
• Token similarity: Count number of tokens that
appear in two texts.
• Compression distance: Look if one text can be
compressed better using another text.
• Levenshtein/Hamming/Jaccard Distance: Check
similarity between two strings, by looking at number of
operations needed to transform one in the other.
• Word2Vec / Glove: Check cosine similarity between
two averaged vectors.

TF-IDF
• Term Frequency: Reduces bias to long
documents.
• Inverse Document Frequency: Reduces bias to
common tokens.
• TF-IDF: Use to identify most important tokens in a
document, to remove unimportant tokens, or as a
preprocessing step to dimensionality reduction.

Dimensionality Reduction
• PCA: Reduce text to 50 or 100-dimensional vector.
• SVD: Reduce text to 50 or 100-dimensional vector.
• LDA: TF-IDF followed by SVD.
• LSA: Create topic vectors.

External models
• Sentiment Analyzers: Get a vector for negative
or positive sentiment for any text.
• Topic models: Use another dataset to create topic
vectors for a new dataset.

Hal Daume III
“So many papers: feature engineering is hard
and time consuming. instead here's 8 pages in
which we have to design a new weird neural net
to do the same thing”

Neural Networks & Deep Learning
• Neural networks claim end-to-end automatic
feature engineering.
• Feature engineering dying ﬁeld?
• No! Moves the focus to architecture engineering
• And despite promise: computer vision uses features
like: HOG, SIFT, whitening, perturbation, image
pyramids, rotation, z-scaling, log-scaling, frame-
grams, external semantic data, etc.

Leakage / Golden Features
• Feature engineering can help exploit leakage.
• Reverse engineer:
• Reverse MD5 hash with rainbow tables.
• Reverse TF-IDF back to Term Frequency
• Encode order of samples data set.
• Encode ﬁle creation dates.
• Rule mining:
• Find simple rules (and encode these) to help your model.

Case Study: Quora Duplicate
Questions Dataset
• Classify ~440.000 question pairs as duplicate
or non-duplicate.
• Benchmark 1: 0.79 accuracy (Stacked Siamese
Nets)
• Benchmark 2: 0.82 accuracy (Neural Bag of
Words)
• Benchmark 3: 0.88 accuracy (Bilateral Multi-
Perspective Matching)

Questions Dataset
• First attempt: Simple bag of words with logistic
regression.
• 0.75 accuracy
• Second attempt: Polynomial feature interactions
between the tokens in both questions.
• 0.80 accuracy

Questions Dataset
• Third attempt: Use stemming with
SnowballStemmer from NLTK.
• 0.805 accuracy
• Fourth attempt: Add 2-grams
• 0.81 accuracy

Questions Dataset
• Fifth attempt: Add manual features
• Normalized difference in length between question pairs
• Normalized compression distance between question pairs.
• Cosine distance between averaged word2vec vectors for the
question pairs.
• Chargram co-occurence between question pairs.
• Token count of words: “which, what, where”
• 0.827 Accuracy

Questions Dataset
• Can you think of any more features to
engineer?
• External & pre-trained models?
• Search engine models?
• Logic based models?

Robert J. Bennett
This one went unusually smoothly. When I
ﬁnished it, I remarked to a friend that I felt like
an engineer who had designed a machine and
then sat back and realized it did everything I’d
set out to do.
Which made him say, quite emphatically, “No
engineer has ever felt this.”
Questions?

Resources & Further Reading
• Kaggle forums & kernels: Far0n, KazAnova, Fchollet, Abhishek, Gilberto Titericz, Leustagos, Owen Zhang, Gert
Jacobusse …
• Introduction: http://machinelearningmastery.com/discover-feature-engineering-how-to-engineer-features-and-how-
to-get-good-at-it/
• Books:
• Mastering Feature Engineering (Alice Zheng),
• Feature Extraction (Isabelle Guyon et al.)
• Blogs:
• https://smerity.com/articles/2016/architectures_are_the_new_feature_engineering.html
• http://hunch.net/~jl/projects/hash_reps/
• https://blogs.technet.microsoft.com/machinelearning/2014/09/24/online-learning-and-sub-linear-debugging/
• http://blog.kaggle.com/2015/12/03/dato-winners-interview-1st-place-mad-professors/
• http://blog.kaggle.com/2016/08/24/avito-duplicate-ads-detection-winners-interview-1st-place-team-devil-team-
stanislav-dmitrii/
• http://www.slideshare.net/DataRobot/featurizing-log-data-before-xgboost
• Data: https://data.quora.com/First-Quora-Dataset-Release-Question-Pairs
• Software: https://github.com/trevorstephens/gplearn

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