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History of Thought - Part 6: The Modern Age

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piero scaruffi
piero scaruffi

History of Thought - Part 6: The Modern Age. for UC Berkeley lectures (2014) - Excerpted from "A Brief History of Knowledge" http://www.scaruffi.com/know/history.html . I keep updating this presentation at http://www.scaruffi.com/univ/slideshot.html

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1 History of Thought: 6. The Modern Age Oct 21, 2014 Piero Scaruffi www.scaruffi.com
22 Table of Contents 1. Oldest Knowledge: The ancient Near East, Egypt, Greece 2. Oldest Knowledge: Ancient Greece, India and China 3. Classic Knowledge: Rome, Christianity, Islam, Song, European Middle Age 4. Modern Knowledge: Renaissance, Enlightenment, Scientific/Industrial Revolution 5. Modern Knowledge: The 19th century 6. Modern Knowledge: The 20th century
3 Summary - 19th century • Darwin • Thermodynamics • Electromagnetism • Quantum Mechanics • Relativity • Psychology • Transportation and Communication revolutions • Rise of Japan and Germany • Nations -> WWI • Disintegration of Austrian and Ottoman Empires • Decline of China • USA: second industrial revolution • Marxism
4 Looking back... • Why the West? – Mercantile revolution of the 13th century – Industrial revolution of the 18th century – Electrical revolution of the 19th century – Digital revolution of the 20th century – But why the West?
5 Looking back... • Why the West? – Science and technology? China and Islam led for centuries, and science developed independently of technology until the 20th century – China’s meritocracy (that drew the best brains into government) actually fostered a system driven by the scholar-bureaucrat at the expense of the merchant (knowledge applied to wise administration, not to progress): pressure on classical learning and contempt for material aspirations (your goal: to pass imperial examinations, not to start your own business)
6 Looking back... • Why the West? – Science was a consequence not a cause of European capitalism and imperialism – Industrialization too was a consequence, not a cause (expansion of trade and technological progress predate the industrial revolution) – First capitalism emerged, then Europe started exploring, conquering, industrializing, etc
7 Looking back... • Why the West? – Natural resources? Russia had more; whereas Holland, Portugal and Japan had very little – Wars, colonialism, imperialism? Spain became poor, and the main beneficiary was a former colony, the USA
8 Looking back... • Why the West? – Roman law is rational, capitalists can predict what happens – China and Islam continue to have arbitrary unpredictable laws that partly derive from moral values and partly from arbitrary rulers – West: medieval system of arbitrary expropriation by the lord replaced by Magna Charta (also by smugglers and piracy)
9 Looking back... • Why the West? – Taxation instead of confiscation – Property rights – Property rights are rarely conceded by the state without violent revolts – Security from arbitrary confiscation greater in England and Holland – The Middle Ages began a slow process of replacing the arbitrary law of the lord with a rational system of taxation – Full confidence by capitalists in the system reached the 19th century – Then large immobile factories become feasible
10 Looking back... • Why the West? – Islam: ban on usury – West: merchants circumvent the Church's ban on usury via bills of exchange
11 Looking back... • Why the West? – (Weber's theory) – Calvinism sanctifies work, individual responsibility, irrelevance of the clergy • But capitalism and mercantilism were born in very Catholic countries first • and England was the least protestant of protestant countries – Protestant moral values better suited for the emerging merchant/capitalist class – Protestantism legitimizes capitalist morality • But more likely that capitalism created Protestantism, not viceversa
12 Looking back... • Why the West? – Feudalism -> weak central state -> city states -> plurality of competing political, economic, military centers (a Darwinian system for survival of the fittest) – Vacuum of political power allows merchants to establish a different structure of power – Separation of politics and economy. Merchants have freedom to experiment.
13 Looking back... • Why the West? – The revival of trade in the Middle Ages created capitalism, that then funded the industrial revolution, that then created new markets. Technology came after, not before. – Technology was initially independent of science. Only after 1870s did science contribute to innovation. – Economic growth started with trade, not with industry. – In modern times, countries that tried to jumpstart their economy with industry (the communist countries) failed; whereas countries that tried to jumpstart their economy with trade (the Far East) succeeded.
14 Looking back... • Why the West? – Medieval trade by independents could develop because the authority of the state was so weak. – Medieval chaos led to loose control by the state on the economy (a separation of politics and economics), which led to innovation in trade and craft, and eventually to the industrial revolution. – The post-feudal economy remained autonomous, and inventors were increasingly free from religious and political interference: the reward for the inventor came from the market, not from the state or the church.
15 Looking back... • Why the West? – The European medieval world was a world living in a state of constant instability, and so is the capitalist/technological world. – The multitude of enterprises that populate a capitalist economy recalls the multitude of competing city states of medieval Italy. – Big states engaged in constant military competition the same way that big corporations engage in constant technological competition. – Innovation leads to instability and the West, coming out of the Middle Ages, was better at coping with instability than the East
16 Looking back... • Why the West? – The USA became the world’s largest economy between 1861-1914 • A civil war • 3 presidents assassinated • Widespread corruption • City bosses • Financial crashes • Workers strikes • Indian wars • Ku Klux Klan
17 Looking back... • Why the West? – Forces that foster innovation • Political chaos • Warfare • Greed • Culture of risk • Culture of exploration – Forces that oppose innovation • Centralized state • Higher castes • Religion • Peace
18 Looking back... • Why the West? – The role of political chaos/ Peaks of intellectual exuberance • Sumerian city-states before Assyrian unification • China’s Warring States age • Greek city-states before Alexander unification • Indian kingdoms before and after the Gupta empire • Italian city-states of the Renaissance • Britain of the Thirty Years' War, Commonwealth and Revolution: scientific revolution • Europe of the Seven-years War and of Napoleon: industrial revolution • Russia between Pugachev and Rasputin
19 The Modern Age 1918-45
20 The Modern Age 1917: Russian revolution 1920: Mahatma Gandhi founds a non-violent liberation movement 1922: Mussolini, leader of the Fascist party, seizes power in Italy 1929: the world's stock markets crash 1933: Hitler becomes chancellor of Germany 1939-45: World War II
21 The Modern Age • The New Isms – Lenin and Stalin: communism – Mussolini: fascism – Hitler: nazism
22 The Modern Age • The Russian revolution – First 1917 revolution (february) caused by food shortage (women, workers, soldiers) – Second 1917 revolution (october): a coup by the Bolshevik Party (Lenin) – Lenin’s terror (10,000 dissenters executed in sep- oct 1918 versus 6,321 dissenters executed by the czars from 1825 till 1917 – 1929: Stalin’s “collectivization” (10 million die and 10 million are deported, and 10 million will die of famine over the next seven years) – 1936-38: Stalin’s “purges” (4.5 million die)
23 The Modern Age • The Russian revolution – A vision of Russia as a leader not a follower • Until 1698: Russia isolated from Europe (except for religion borrowed from Byzantium) • 1698-1917: Imitating the West (trailing in the economic revolution) • 1917-1991: Antagonizing the West (leading the proletarian revolution)
24 The Modern Age • Nazism – Lenin believes in historical determinism (the Proletariat), Hitler believes in biological determinism (the Aryan race) – One-party state (like in Russia) – Large-scale terror regime (like in Russia) – Gangster-like elimination of opponents (like in Russia)
25 The Modern Age • Adolf Hitler (1925) – "What good fortune for governments that the people do not think" – "The size of the lie is a definite factor in causing it to be believed” – “Propaganda must not serve the truth” – “Mankind has grown strong in eternal struggles and it will only perish though eternal peace”
26 The Modern Age • Japan – A booming economy that depends on foreign raw materials (notably US oil and Manchuria’s resources) – Ambition to create a self-sufficient empire on the model of the Western ones – Nobody is in charge (unlike Germany, Russia and Italy where one man is in charge, and unlike Britain, France and the USA where the democratically-elected government is in charge) – A war economy de facto run by the army
27 The Modern Age • Japan – 1931: Invasion of Manchuria from Korea – 1937: Full-scale war with China (“Rape of Nanjing”, 350,000 dead) – 1940: Tripartite Pact with Germany and Italy – 1941: Japan attacks the USA – 1945: Hiroshima and Nagasaki Japanese territory in China (1940)
28 The Modern Age • China – Dazhao Li’s Chinese way to Communism (1918) • China as a whole is an oppressed nation under the yoke of imperialist nations that exploit Chinese labor and own the means of production, just like the proletariat is oppressed by capitalists – Duxiu Chen (dean of Beijing University, 1917) • Abandons Confucianism and classical language • Founds Communist Party (1921) – For the first time, China abandons the belief in its superiority and adopts a foreign (western) model
29 The Modern Age • China – Zedong Mao • 1934-35: the “Long March” (first led by Zhou Enlai, then by Mao) • 1937: War against Japan (“Rape of Nanjing”, 350,000 dead) • Peasants: the Russian revolution started in the cities, and the peasants opposed it; the Chinese revolution started in the countryside with an agrarian revolution
30 The Modern Age • China – Westernization of China • Yatsen Sun is a Christian (who lived in Japan, USA and Europe) • Mao is a Marxist (who studied western philosophy at Changsha’s First Normal School) • Dazhao Li and Duxiu Chen educated in (Westernized) Japan • Kai-shek Chiang is married to a USA- educated woman and converts to Christianity
31 The Modern Age • Arab independence – Egypt (1922) – Saudi Arabia (1926) – Iraq (1932) – Syria (1943) – Lebanon (1943) – Transjordan (1946) – Libya (1952) – Morocco (1956) – Tunisia (1956) – Kuwait (1961) – Algeria (1962)
32 The Modern Age • Latin America – Populist rulers (champions of peasants and workers) replace the old aristocracy: – Vargas (Brazil, 1930) – Cardenas (Mexico, 1934) – Peron (Argentina, 1946) – Castro (Cuba, 1959)
33 The Modern Age • An age of starvation – Russia: Civil war and Communism – Germany: WWI reparations – USA: Great Depression – China: Civil War – Indian famines (Mumbai 1905, Bengal 1943) – Latin American famines (Brazil 1915) – African famines (Rwanda-Burundi 1928)
34 The Modern Age • Women’s liberation – 1906: Female suffrage in Finland – 1913: Female suffrage in Norway – 1917: Mobilization of women for the war – 1917: Women start the Russian revolution – 1919: Female suffrage in Germany and Holland – 1920: Female suffrage in the USA and Canada – 1928: Female suffrage in Britain – 1930s: Militarization of women in Germany and USSR – 1944: Female suffrage in France – 1945: Women’s protests end World War II
35 The Modern Age Chemistry/ Synthetic materials 1930: I. G. Farben begins manufacturing polystyrene 1939: ICI begins producing polyethylene plastic 1931: Du Pont introduces a synthetic rubber, neoprene 1935: Michael Perrin discovers a practical way to synthesize polyethylene, a very versatile plastic 1935: Wallace Carothers' nylon (1935) at Du Pont, ideal as a synthetic fiber
The Modern Age Media 1925: Leica compact camera that doesn’t require heavy equipment 1926: films with synchronized voice and music are introduced (talking movies) 1927: Philo Farnsworth invents the television in San Francisco 1935: Eduard Schüller at AEG builds a magnetic tape recorder
37 The Modern Age Media Tv Set Model 817 (1938) (Museum of Science, London) Cathedral radio (1932) Telephone (1929) AT&T Switchboard (1930) Leica (1925)
38 The Modern Age Office – 1938: Chester Carlson’s xerography – Dictation machine – Fax machine – Telephone – Typewriter – Answering machine – Mechanical calculator
39 The Modern Age Electrical appliances 1933 washing machine 1934 kitchen 1935 refrigerator 1927 in-sink dishwasher 1932 sewing machine
40 The Modern Age • The Car – 1926: car manufacturing has become the largest industry in the USA – The USA produces about 85% of the world's cars – 1927: General Motors passes Ford (style, not just price: the car has become a status symbol) Ford Model T Rolls-Royce
41 The Modern Age • The Airplane – 1920: Aircraft Travel and Transport inaugurates London–Paris passenger service – 1927: Charles Lindbergh makes the first solo, nonstop transatlantic flight between two capitals (from New York to Paris in 33 hours) – 1939: Pan American inaugurates the world's first transatlantic passenger service, flying between New York and Marseilles
42 The Modern Age • The Airplane – Boeing 314 Check-in… On board…
43 The Modern Age • Ferdinand Saussure (1913) – Language is a field – Meaning is generated through differences between linguistic elements – If one word were removed from a language, the meanings of all other words would be changed – Structuralism: the phenomena of human life (e.g, language) are intelligible only inasmuch as they are part of a network of relationships
44 The Modern Age • Ludwig Wittgenstein (1953) – Language is a game between people – The meaning of a proposition can only be understood in its context – The meaning of a word is due to the consensus of a society – To understand a word is to understand a language – To understand a language is to master the linguistic skills
45 The Modern Age • Behaviorism – John Watson (1913): • Mental states are unscientific • Stimulus-response patterns explain animal behavior – Ivan Pavlov (1926) • Conditioned reflexes – Burrhus Skinner (1938) – Gilbert Ryle (1949): • The mind is not another substance but simply a domain of discourse (“ghost in the machine”)
46 The Modern Age • Gestalt Psychology – Form is the elementary unit of perception: we do not construct a perception by analyzing a myriad data, we perceive the form as a whole – Max Wertheimer (1912) • Perception is more than the sum of the things perceived • Form is the elementary unit of perception – Wolfgang Kohler (1925) • Problem-solving as sudden insight • Restructuring of the field of perception
47 The Modern Age • Gestalt Psychology – Karl Lashley (1930) • Functions are not localized but distributed around the brain • Every brain region partakes (to some extent) in all brain processes • The brain as a whole is “fault tolerant” • Memory as an electromagnetic field and a specific memory as a wave within that field
48 The Modern Age • Otto Selz (1920s) – To solve a problem entails to recognize the situation and to fill in the gaps – Information in excess contains the solution – Infer = anticipate – To solve a problem = to comprehend it – Comprehending = reducing the current situation to a past situation
49 The Modern Age • Jean Piaget (1923) – The mind grows, just like the body grows – Progress from simple mental arrangements to complex ones (from literal to abstract) – Not by gradual evolution but by sudden rearrangements of mental operations
50 The Modern Age • Edward Sapir (1921) – Language and thought influence each other – Language also shapes thought – Language contains a hidden metaphysics
51 The Modern Age • Cognitive Psychology – Fredrick Bartlett (1932): Reconstructive memory – Edward Tolman (1932): “cognitive map” – Donald Broadbent (1957): "short-term memory” and "long-term memory"
52 The Modern Age Astrophysics 1916: Karl Schwarzschild predicts the existence of black holes 1929: Edwin Hubble discovers that the universe is expanding 1948: George Gamow develops the Big Bang theory
53 The Modern Age • Quantum Mechanics – A consequence of the electric revolution: the study of electricity led to the study of the atom – A German phenomenon: Germany was at the vanguard of the electric revolution
54 The Modern Age • Quantum Mechanics – Quantum Mechanics reaches conclusions that are at odds with the world that humans were designed to cope with • Randomness • Indeterminacy • The observer collapses the wave • The vacuum is not empty • Antimatter • Schroedinger's cat • Non-locality (entanglement)
55 The Modern Age • Quantum Mechanics – Energy quanta (1900): atoms can emit energy only in discrete amounts (Max Planck) – Energy-frequency equivalence (1903): the energy of a photon is proportional to the frequency of the radiation, i.e. light itself exists only in discrete units, and it is both particle and wave hv=E=mc2 (Albert Einstein) – Structure of the atom (1913): electrons are permitted to occupy only some orbits (Niels Bohr) – Dualism (1923): waves and particles are dual aspects (Louis de Broglie)
56 The Modern Age • Quantum Mechanics – Spin (1925): George Uhlenbeck and Samuel Goudsmit discover that each electron “spins” with an angular momentum of one half Planck constant – Erwin Schrodinger's equation (1926) – Max Born’s interpretation: a wave of probabilities (1926) – Werner Heisenberg’s "uncertainty principle” (1927) – Anti-matter (1928): positively charged electron (Paul Dirac) – Unification of Quantum Mechanics and Special Relativity (1930, Dirac)
57 The Modern Age • Quantum Mechanics – The state of a particle is described by a “wave function” which summarizes (“superposes”) all the alternatives and their probabilities – Erwin Schrodinger's equation (1926) describes how this wave function evolves in time (a linear equation) – The wave function describes a set of possibilities – A measurement causes a “collapse of the wave function” (a non-linear process): only one eigenvalue is possible after the measurement, the one that is measured
58 The Modern Age • Interpretations of Quantum Mechanics – Niels Bohr: only phenomena are real – Werner Heisenberg: the world "is" made of possibility waves (particles are merely "potentialities") – Albert Einstein: an incomplete description of the universe (“hidden variables”) – John Von Neumann: consciousness – Paul Dirac: our knowledge of a system – David Bohm: a quantum potential acts beyond the 4-dimensional geometry of spacetime – Hugh Everett: a multiverse
59 The Modern Age • Relativity, Quantum Physics and Thermodynamics: three disciplines that happen to pose limitations on – the speed, – amount – and quality • of information that can be transmitted in a physical process.
60 The Modern Age • Bertrand Russell (1913) – The proposition (a logical artifact) vs the sentence (its description in natural language) – Logical reconstruction of Mathematics • The second theorem of the 110th chapter of the second volume of “Principia Mathematica” proves that 1+1=2 – Logical paradoxes • I am lying • The class of all the classes that are not members of themselves is both a member and not a member of itself (the barber who shaves all barbers who do not shave themselves)
61 The Modern Age • Logic – Frege, Peano, Russell/Whitehead – David Hilbert’s program to formalize mathematics (1920) – Kurt Goedel’s theorem of incompleteness (1931) – Alan Turing: definition of algorithm via the Turing machine (1936) – Turing’s and Church’s conclusion: Hilbert’s Entscheidungsproblem is impossible (there is no universal algorithm for deciding whether or not a Turing machine will stop) Turing Hilbert Goedel
62 The Modern Age • Biology – Ronald Fisher (1918) uses statistical techniques to study the effects of selection and mutation (the distribution of genes in population) • Darwinism is a stochastic theory • What changes in evolution is the relative frequency of discrete hereditary units (genes) – John Haldane (1924): a mathematical theory of natural selection
63 The Modern Age • Martin Heidegger (1927) – Man is part of the world but is also the observer of the world – The world and the mind cannot be separated – We cannot detach ourselves from reality because we are part of it – We just "act", we are "thrown" in an action – Man is not Dasein (existence) but Dase-in (“existing in” the world)
64 The Modern Age • Martin Heidegger (1927) – Technology alienates humans because it recasts the natural environment as a “Bestand” to be utilized for the purpose of humans • “The Earth reveals itself as a mining district… the Rhine itself appears to be something at our command…e.g, a supply of power... no longer the river running through the native country” – People lose their identity because the natural environment that provided them with an identity is now simply a store of resources to be exploited
65 The Modern Age • Karl Popper (1934) – Truth is relative to a theory – A scientific theory provides the means to falsify it – No definition of absolute truth is possible
66 The Modern Age • Pierre Teilhard de Chardin (1938) – Humanity marks the stage when evolution leaves the "biosphere" and enters the "noosphere" (human consciousness and knowledge) – Humanity is the stage when “evolution becomes conscious of itself” – The evolution of the noosphere will end in the convergence of matter and spirit into the "omega point” – Reconciling science and religion
67 The Modern Age • Existentialism – Reacting against Hegel’s metaphysics – Focus on the human experience – Philosophy of the crisis of values – The object and the subject of existentialism are the same: the I – Precursor: Kierkegaard
68 The Modern Age • Albert Camus (1942) – Philosophy of the absurd: • The search for meaning is futile • The world is unintelligible • There is no God
69 The Modern Age • JeanPaul Sartre (1943) – There is no "human nature" because there is no God to conceive it. – We are free to act as we will (”Man is condemned to be free“) – It is our actions that determine our nature – Each individual is fully responsible for what she becomes – Existence (the free I) precedes essence (the I’s nature)
70 The Modern Age • JeanPaul Sartre (1943) – Indirectly, each individual's choice on what to be has an effect on all humans ("In choosing myself, I choose Man”) – Each individual has "total and deep responsibility" – This causes anxiety – Existentialism abolishes God, but recognizes that this act increases (not decreases) the individual responsibility for his actions – It complicates, not simplifies, his moral life – "We are alone, with no excuses"
The Modern Age • World War II: – Britain, USA, Russia (allies) win against Germany, Italy and Japan (axis) – 61 countries with 1.7 billion people (3/4 of world's population) – 110 million military personnel (USSR 12.5m, USA 12m, Germany 11m, British Empire 8.7m, Japan 7m, China 5m) – 55 million people dead (25m military + 30m civilian) – First war with massive direct civilian casualties
World War II Nordhausen Auschwitz Mizocz, Ukrain, october 1942 (mostly naked women) Nanking
World War II DresdenMunich
World War II Nagasaki Hiroshima
The Modern Age • World War II: – What the axis have in common (Germany, Italy and Japan) • They don’t have large colonial empires that can make them self-sufficient • View the Allies as hypocritical for condemning their invasions after British, French and Russians have invaded most of the world
The Modern Age • World War II – The first information war • Germany: Enigma machine • US & UK: the computer
77 The Modern Age 1946-69
78 The Modern Age The Cold War 1946: Churchill’s "Iron Curtain" speech 1947-1967: Independence of British colonies 1948-today: Arab-Israeli wars 1949: Mao wins the Chinese civil war 1949: NATO 1950: Korean war 1957: European Community 1957: The Sputnik 1961: Berlin Wall 1962: Cuban crisis 1962: Vietnam War 1969: The Moon landing
79 The Modern Age • Soviet Union
80 The Modern Age • Soviet Union – A communist empire • Natural enemy: liberal capitalist democracies of the Anglosaxon world – An atheistic empire • Natural enemies: Christian churches, Islam
81 The Modern Age • Cold War – The Domino theory – Nuclear Deterrence – Liberation movements – Terrorism
82 The Modern Age • Cold War – Cold War in Europe: Democracy vs Communism – Cold War in Eastern Asia: European colonialism vs independence movements or fascist/military dictatorships vs democratic movements – Cold war in Latin America: Fascist regimes vs populist movements – Cold war in the Middle East: Medieval monarchies vs socialist republics – Cold war in Africa: European colonialism vs independence movements
83 The Modern Age • Cold War – Most of the actual war takes place in the developing world
84 The Modern Age • The decline of Britain – An empire based on the ideals of liberty and equality (in spirit if not always in practice) – Its subjects from North America to India adopted those ideals, and rebelled against the empire – An empire that was fundamentally a contradiction in terms
85 The Modern Age • The decline of France – Lost three wars in a row to the British (“Succession” 1702-13, “Seven Years” 1756- 63 and “Napoleonic” 1803-15) – Lost three wars in a row to the Germans (1870-71, “First World War” 1914-18, “Second World War” 1940-45) – Lost a war against Vietnam (1946-54) and a war against Algeria (1954-62)
86 The Modern Age • The rise of Germany – 1946: Germany abandons military stance of the first, second and third Reich and adopts peace and capitalism as driving ideologies – 1950s: West Germany becomes the largest economy in Western Europe • The rise of Japan – 1946: Japan abandons military stance of the imperial age and adopts peace and capitalism as driving ideologies – 1970: Japan becomes the third economic power in the world after USA and USSR
87 The Modern Age • India – Gandhi's vision: • A melting pot of religions • Demise of caste system • Rights of women – Britain on behalf of the Congress convinces the princely states to join India – India gets unified by the colonial power not by an independence movement or an internal revolution (unlike Italy, Germany, China, Soviet Union...) – British India comprises more than 500 political units, some as large as a European country
88 The Modern Age • China – 1950-53: Korean war against the USA (800,000 Chinese soldiers die) – 1951: China invades Tibet – 1958: Great Leap Forward – 1959-62: Famine (20 million die) – 1960: Break with the Soviet Union – 1964: China’s atomic bomb – 1966: Cultural Revolution (tens of millions of people died of famine or purges)
89 The Modern Age • USA/Civil Rights – 1955: Rosa Parks refuses to give up her seat at the front of a bus to a white passenger – 1962: James Meredith, escorted by soldiers, becomes the first black student to enroll at the University of Mississippi – 1963: Martin Luther King delivers the "I Have a Dream“ speech in Washington – 1964: President Johnson signs the Civil Rights Act – 1965: Blacks riot in Los Angeles’ Watts district – 1966: Black Panthers are founded in Oakland – 1968: Martin Luther King is assassinated
90 The Modern Age • USA/Feminism – 1963: Betty Friedan's "The Feminine Mystique" – 1964: Civil Rights Act prohibits discrimination on the basis of sex – 1966: William Howell Masters and Virginia Johnson’s “Human Sexual Response” – 1966: National Organization for Women (NOW) – 1975: Susan Brownmiller’s “Against Our Will: Men, Women and Rape”
91 The Modern Age • USA/Gay rights – 1950: Mattachine Society in Los Angeles, the first gay political organization – 1955: The "Daughters of Bilitis" in San Francisco, the first lesbian organization – 1969: Stonewall riots in New York – 1970: First gay pride parade
92 The Modern Age • USA/Student movement – 1964: Berkeley’s Free Speech Movement – 1966: San Francisco’s Summer of Love
93 The Modern Age • Vietnam War
94 The Modern Age – Transportation • Boeing’s first commercial jet, the 707: long- distance jet (1958) – East Coast to West Coast in five hours instead of three days – New York to London in eight hours instead of five days • Shinkansen (1964) • The Concorde, a supersonic passenger airplane (1969)
95 The Modern Age • The automobile in the 1950s
96 The Modern Age • The automobile in the 1950s Fiat 500 (1957) Volkswagen Beetle 1938 Mini 1959
97 The Modern Age – Communication • Telephone cable across the Atlantic (1956) • First telecommunication satellite (1962, Telstar)
98 The Modern Age • Media Revolutions – Radio (Charles Herrold, San Jose, 1909) – Stereo radio (BBC, 1925) – Talkies (“Jazz Singer”, 1927) – FM radio (Edwin Armstrong, 1933) – Magnetic reel-to-reel tape recorder (AEG, 1935) – Commercial Television (CBS & NBC, New York, 1941) – LP (Columbia, 1948) – Ampex tape recorder (Ampex, 1948) – Stereo magnetic tape (EMI, 1954) – Stereo record (Audio Fidelity, 1957) – Stereo FM (WGFM, 1961) – Compact Cassette (Philips, 1963) 1948 Admiral tv set
99 Rock’n’Roll
100 The Modern Age Space exploration 1957: the Soviet Union launches the first artificial satellite (Sputnik) 1961: Yuri Gagarin becomes the first astronaut 1962: the USA launches the first telecom satellite (Telstar) 1969: Neil Armstrong walks on the Moon Vostok spaceship Telstar
101 The Modern Age • Apollo mission: using gravity to reach the Moon (the rocket started in the opposite direction of the Moon to use gravity to pick up speed)
102 The Modern Age Astronomy • 50 billion galaxies in the universe • 200 billion stars in the Milky Way (our galaxy) • Nine planets around the Sun (our star) • One light-year = 9,461 billion km • Pluto (last solar planet) = 5.9 billion kms from the Sun (less than 0.001 light-years) • Alpha Centauri (nearest star) = 4.3 light-years • Sirius (brightest star in the sky) = 8.7 light-years • Center of the Milky Way = 26,000 light-years from the Sun • Andromeda (nearest galaxy) = 2.2 million light-years
103 The Modern Age Physics 1948: Theory of Big Bang (George Gamow) 1963: Theory of Quarks, Quantum Chromodynamics (Murray Gell-mann) 1964: Peter Higgs’ boson 1965: The microwave background radiation is discovered 1967: Unification of weak and electromagnetic force (Steven Weinberg and Abdus Salam) 1967: Jocelyn Bell discovers a pulsar 1974: John Schwartz introduces Superstring Theory 1981: Inflationary Model (Alan Guth)
104 The Modern Age • Quarks (1963) – Protons and neutrons are made of 18 quarks (Murray Gell-Man) held together by gluons – Six leptons: the electron, the muon, the tau and their three neutrinos – Four fundamental forces (gravitation, electro- magnetism, strong and weak) – Virtual particles (bosons) mediate the four fundamental forces: (photon, eight gluons, three weak bosons, graviton?) – Elementary particles: leptons, quarks and their anti-particles (total of 48) plus 12 bosons (total of 60)
105 The Modern Age • Standard model – Fermions (spin 1/2, 3/2 etc.) make up matter – Bosons (particles with integer spin) are force carriers – Hadrons (neutron, proton, etc) are made up of quarks in groups of two (mesons, containing a quark/antiquark pair) or three (baryons)
106 The Standard Model
107 The Modern Age Medicine 1945: Howard Florey and Ernst Chain develop the first antibiotics 1956: Jonas Salk develops the oral polio vaccine 1958: Roger Sperry performs split-brain surgery 1960: The birth control pill
108 The Modern Age Genetics 1944: Oswald Avery (DNA) 1953: Francis Crick and James Watson discover the double helix of the DNA 1961: Jacob and Monod discover gene regulation 1961: Jacob and Brenner discover messenger RNA 1961: Marshall Nirenberg cracks the genetic code (translation of four-letter genetic code into twenty-letter language of proteins)
109 The Modern Age • The Brain – 1949: Donald Hebb’s selective strengthening of synapses and cell assemblies – 1950s: Electrical activity of the brain – 1953: Nathaniel Kleitman’s REM – 1958: Roger Sperry’s split brain experiment – 1960s: Neurons communicate via chemicals ("neurotransmitters”) – 1960s: The left hemisphere is dominant for language and speech, the right hemisphere excels at visual and motor tasks
110 The Modern Age Computation • 1941: Konrad Zuse's Z3 programmable electromechanical computer, the first Turing- complete machine • 1943: Tommy Flowers and others build the Colossus, the world's first programmable digital electronic computer
111 The Modern Age Computation • 1944: Howard Aiken of IBM unveils the first computer programmed by punched paper tape, the electromechanical Harvard Mark I • 1945: John Von Neumann designs a computer that holds its own instructions, the "stored- program architecture"
112 The Modern Age Computation • 1946: The first non-military computer, ENIAC, or "Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer", is unveiled, built by John Mauchly and Presper Eckert at the University of Pennsylvania
113 The Modern Age Computation
114 The Modern Age Computation • Apr 1949: The Manchester Mark 1, the first stored-program electronic computer • May 1949: Cambridge's EDSAC, the second stored-program electronic computer • Aug 1949: Philadelphia's EDVAC, the third stored-program electronic computer • 1950: The Pilot ACE computer
115 The Modern Age Computation • May 1950: The first stored-program electronic computer to be deployed in the USA, the SEAC, and the first to use semiconductors instead of vacuum tubes • Feb 1951: The Ferranti Mark 1, the first commercial computer, an evolution of the EDSAC • 1952: A Univac 1 correctly predicts that Eisenhower would win the elections • Dec 1952: The first commercial computer is delivered in the USA, the Univac 1, an evolution of the EDVAC
116 The Modern Age Computer Univac 1951 IBM /360
117 The Modern Age (Computer History Museum, Mountain View) • Goldstine and Eckert with the electronics needed to store a single decimal digit
118 The Modern Age Computer programmers of 1951: Patsy Simmers (holding an ENIAC board) Gail Taylor (holding an EDVAC board), Milly Beck (holding an ORDVAC board), Norma Stec (holding a BRLESC-I board)
119 The Modern Age • USA/ Semiconductors – 1947: AT&T's Bell Labs invent the transistor (William Shockley, John Bardeen, Walter Brattain) – 1949: The USA files an antitrust lawsuit against AT&T – 1952: AT&T's symposium on the transistor, open to everybody – 1954: Texas Instruments introduces the first commercial transistor – 1954: The first transistor radio (“Regency”)
120 The Modern Age • USA/ Semiconductors – 1961: Texas Instruments introduces the first commercial integrated circuit – Military and space applications use the integrated circuit – 1965: Gordon Moore predicts that the processing power of computers will double every 18 months – 1971: Intel invents the microprocessor – Universities are irrelevant in semiconductor progress because the manufacturing process is too costly – Universities are crucial for progress in computers
121 The Modern Age Software • 1958: Jim Backus (at IBM) invents the FORTRAN programming language, the first machine- independent language • 1964: IBM introduces the first "operating system" for computers (the OS/360) • 1968: The Arpanet is established based on Baran’s idea (four nodes: UCLA, Stanford Research Institute, UCSB, University of Utah) • 1969: the Unix operating system is born
122 The Modern Age Computation • Antitrust policies contribute to the rapid diffusion of intellectual property throughout the computer and semiconductor industries • 1956: IBM and AT&T settle antitrust suits by licensing their technologies to competitors • 1969: The “unbundling” of software by IBM creates the software industry
123 The Modern Age • USA/ Semiconductors – 1947: AT&T's Bell Labs invent the transistor (William Shockley, John Bardeen, Walter Brattain) – 1949: The USA files an antitrust lawsuit against AT&T – 1952: AT&T's symposium on the transistor, open to everybody – 1954: Texas Instruments introduces the first commercial transistor – 1954: The first transistor radio (“Regency”)
124 The Modern Age • USA/ Semiconductors – 1961: Texas Instruments introduces the first commercial integrated circuit – Military and space applications use the integrated circuit – 1971: Intel invents the microprocessor – Universities are irrelevant in semiconductor progress because the manufacturing process is too costly – Universities are crucial for progress in computers
125 The Modern Age • Machine Intelligence 1943: Norman Wiener’s Cybernetics 1948: Claude Shannon’s Theory of Information 1950: Turing’s test 1952: Yehoshua Bar-Hillel’s Machine Translation 1956: John McCarthy’s Artificial intelligence conference 1957: Newell & Simon’s General Problem Solver 1957: Rosenblatt’s Perceptron 1957: Chomsky’s Grammar 1965: Feigenbaum’s Dendral
126 The Modern Age • Cybernetics – Unification of "artificial" systems and biological systems: information + communication + control – A control system is realized by a loop of action and feedback – Self-regulation is the motor of machines, animals and humans – Cybernetics can even be applied to the social and psychological sciences to explain how hierarchical organization is created and controlled.
127 The Modern Age • Cybernetics – Entropy = a measure of disorder = a measure of the lack of information – Information is the opposite of entropy
128 The Modern Age • Noam Chomsky (1957) – Performance vs competence – We understand sentences that we have never heard before – Grammar= rules that account for all valid sentences of the language – Human brains are designed to acquire a language – They contain a "universal grammar" – We speak because our brain is meant to speak
129 The Modern Age • Linguistics – Syntax – Semantics: anaphora, ambiguity, ... – Pragmatics Soviet virgin lands short of goal again Prostitutes appeal to Pope Panda mating fails - veterinarian takes over Killer sentenced to die for second time Miners refuse to mine after death Survivor of Siamese twins joins parents Reagan wins on budget but more lies ahead (Actual newspaper headlines)
130 The Modern Age • Hilary Putnam (1960) – Functionalism • If a mental state can be realized in more than one physical state (more than one brain), is the physical state important at all? • What is it that makes a physical state of the brain also a mental state? the function it performs (eg, thermometer) • Mental states have a function • A mind doesn’t necessarily require a brain • The mind is a symbol processor, and mental states are related to computational states • The mind is the software and the brain is its hardware
131 The Modern Age • Ilya Prigogine (1961) – Non-equilibrium Thermodynamics – Irreversible processes are ubiquitous in nature – Life happens far from equilibrium – “Conservative” systems vs “dissipative” systems (subject to fluxes of energy and/or matter) – Dissipative systems give rise to irreversible processes – Order can be created either from equilibrium systems or from non-equilibrium systems that are sustained by a constant source (by a persistent dissipation) of matter/energy – All living organisms are non-equilibrium systems
132 The Modern Age • Michel Jouvet (1962) – REM sleep is generated in the pontine brain stem (or "pons”) – REM sleep exhibits four main properties: • A low level of brain activity • Inhibition of muscle tone • Waves of excitation from the pons • Rapid eye movement
133 The Modern Age • Michel Jouvet (1962) – The cortex receives a valid sensory signal from the thalamus and interprets it as if it were coming from the sense organs – During REM sleep several areas of the brain are working frantically, and some of them are doing exactly the same job they do when the brain is awake. – The only major difference is that the stimuli they process are now coming from an internal source rather than from the environment: during dreams the sensory input comes from the sensory cortex.
134 The Modern Age • Paul MacLean (1964): – “Triune” brain: each brain corresponds to a different stage of evolution – Each brain is connected to the other two, but each operates indivually with a distinct "personality" – Reptilian brain for instinctive behavior (brain stem, cerebellum, autonomic system) – Old mammalian brain for emotions that are functional to survival, as in “avoiding pain and achieving pleasure” (limbic systemi, i.e. hippocampus, thalamus amygdala) – New mammalian brain for higher cognitive functions (neo-cortex)
135 The Modern Age • Niels Jerne (1968) – Immune system as a Darwinian system • The immune system routinely manufactures all the antibodies it will ever need • When the body is attacked by foreign antigens some antibodies are selected – The genes encode a "library”. The environment picks up a specific book – The mind already knows the solution to all the problems that can occur in the environment in which it evolved over millions of years – The mind knows what to do, but it is the environment that selects what it actually does
136 The Modern Age • James Jerome Gibson (1966) – ”Ecological Realism" – Meaning is located in the interaction between living beings and the environment – The process of perceiving is a process of picking up information that is available in the environment – Information originates from the interaction between the organism and its environment – Information = continuous energy flow of the environment
137 The Modern Age • Marshall McLuhan (1964) – The medium affects the communication (“the medium is the message”) – The content of the message is profoundly affected by the medium used to transmit it – Media shape our environment and therefore our civilization – The “global village”
138 The Modern Age • Herbert Marcuse (1964) – One-dimensional thought • Technocratic societies exploit the illusion of individual liberty to enslave their citizens • Whether capitalist or communist, the worker remains a slave of the instruments of production
139 The Modern Age • Post-modernism – Enlightenment/ modernism • French rationalist tradition founded by Descartes • Reason as the source of knowledge • Knowledge as the source of progress • Progress founded on science is good • Reason applied to society leads to egalitarian social order
140 The Modern Age • Post-modernism/ precursors – Pessimism/ Decline of Western Society • Toynbee: collapse of the Enlightenment’s rationalist project • Nietzsche • Heidegger • Wittgenstein • Spengler – Georges Bataille: rejection of reason and progress
141 The Modern Age • Post-modernism – Reaction to Enlightenment/modernism • Science and reason no longer viewed as morally good • Multiple sources of power and oppression in capitalist society • Education no longer viewed as unbiased but as politicized • Knowledge is power
142 The Modern Age • Michel Foucault (1966) – Critique of modernism (Enlightenment, reason, progress) and humanism – Reason has created knowledge that has created new forms of power which have created new forms of oppression (biopower) – The will to knowledge inevitably leads to the will to power – Knowledge is never neutral, it is inherently political
143 The Modern Age • Michel Foucault (1966) – Western societies jail fools, while older societies acknowledged their existence – Western societies repress the creative force of madness – Western societies torture the minds of criminals, whereas older societies tortured their bodies: prisons are the chief instrument of social control – Western societies control individuals by training their minds – Western societies are vast mechanisms of supervision and repression
144 The Modern Age • Michel Foucault (1966) – What has really "progressed" in the modernist era are the techniques of power, both in terms of sophistication and ubiquity – Social institutions (schools, asylums, prisons), discourses and practices control the individual: bio-power – Discourse and practices determine what is accepted as rational, true, etc – The asylum and the prison work as laboratories to experiment on the control of individuals by society
145 The Modern Age • Postmodernism in France – Gilles Deleuze: • Rhizomatic thought (dynamic, heterogeneous, chaotic) instead of the Arborescent thought (hierarchical, centralized, deterministic) of Modernism • "The real is not impossible, it is simply more and more artificial" – Jean-Francois Lyotard: • Mini-narratives (that are "provisional, contingent, temporary, and relative”) instead of grand narratives • Modern knowledge (Heisenberg, Goedel, Kuhn) “is producing not the known but the unknown”
146 The Modern Age • Jean Baudrillard – A global process of destruction of meaning – The postmodern world is meaningless – Objects rule subjects – "Things have found a way to elude the dialectic of meaning, a dialectic which bored them: – they did this by infinite proliferation"
147 The Modern Age • The Undo command (1968) – The hypertext system FRESS created by Andries van Dam at Brown University for the IBM 360 introduces the "undo" feature
148 The Modern Age 1969-91
149 The Modern Age 1969: Neil Armstrong walks on the moon 1973: Arab countries impose an oil embargo against the West 1978: Deng Xiaoping seizes power in China 1978: John Paul II, first non-Italian Pope in 455 years 1979: Islamic clerics (ayatollahs) seize the power in Iran 1981: First cases of AIDS are discovered 1986: the US has 14,000 nuclear warheads and the Soviet Union has 11,000 1991: The Soviet Union is dismantled
150 The Modern Age • Democratic regimes – Waves of democratization • 1945: major Western European countries • Mid 1970s: Southern Europe • 1980s: Latin America • Late 1980s/ early 1990s: East Asia • 1990s: former communist countries • 1990s: Africa
151 The Modern Age • Terrorism – Israel: Al Fatah and splinter groups (1967) – Britain: IRA (1969) – Italy: Ordine Nuovo (1969) – Japan: Red Army (1972) – Italy: Brigate Rosse (1972) – Germany: Baader-Meinhof (1975) – Sri Lanka: Tamil (1978) – Spain: ETA (1980) – Lebanon: Hezbollah (1982) – India: Kashmir separatists (1989) – USA: Al Qaeda (1993) – France: GIA (1995)
152 The Modern Age • The miracle of the Far East – 1969: Japan's Seiko introduces the world's first commercial quartz wristwatch – 1970: Japan's Sharp and Canon introduce the first pocket calculators – 1973: Japan's Canon introduces the first color photocopier – 1974: Japan's Hitachi produces its first IBM- compatible mainframe computer – 1979: Japan's Sony introduces the portable music player Walkman – 1982: Japan's Sony introduces the CD – 1983: Sony releases the first consumer camcorder – 1983: Japan's Nintendo launches the videogame console Nintendo Entertainment System
153 The Modern Age • The miracle of the Far East – 1984: Fujio Masuoka at Japan's Toshiba invents flash memory – 1987: The largest semiconductor manufacturers in the world are Japan's NEC, Japan's Toshiba and Japan's Hitachi – 1988: Taiwan’s Foxconn opens a pioneering factory in China's experimental city Shenzhen – 1988: Japan's Fujitsu introduces the world's first fully digital consumer camera – 1989: Japan owns half of the world's shipbuilding market
154 The Modern Age • The miracle of the Far East – First "Asian tigers": Japan, South Korea, Taiwan, Singapore, Hong Kong – Different philosophies: Shinto, Buddhist, Confucian – Different histories: Japan was already westernized, Taiwan partially (as a Japanese colony), Korea never was, Hong Kong and Singapore are British colonies – Role of the state: from ubiquitous (Japan) to totalitarian (Singapore, South Korea, Taiwan) to indifferent (Hong Kong)
155 The Modern Age • The miracle of the Far East – East Asian countries lack natural resources – To pay for imports, they export cheap goods to the USA – The USA de facto pays for their development – What they have in common is not cultural or political background but that they are allies of the USA during the Cold War
156 The Modern Age • The miracle of the Far East – USA’s influence spreads from Japan, South Korea, Taiwan to the rest of Asia much faster than anything from China or India ever did – The USA succeeds where all previous western empires had failed: to fully westernize the Far East – For Japan second revolution after Buddhism – For China (1980s) the real "cultural revolution" – For India (1990s): evolution from British to USA model
157 The Modern Age • The Personal Computer – 1969: Compuserve’s dial-up service – 1974: The first personal computer, the Altair 8800 (New Mexico) – 1977: Apple II and Atari’s videogame console – 1977: The PC modem – 1981: The IBM PC running Microsoft MS-DOS – 1983: The laptop – 1984: Psion’s personal digital assistant
158 The Modern Age Internet 1969: The computer network ArpaNet has four nodes 1972: Ray Tomlinson invents e-mail 1983: There are 563 computers linked to the ArpaNet 1990: Tim Berners-Lee invents the World-Wide Web 1990: Archie in Canada, the first search engine 1993: Mosaic at Univ of Illinois, the first browser 1996: Nokia introduces the first "smartphone“ 1997: SixDegrees, the first social networking website
159 The Modern Age • Genetics – 1988: first genetically engineered animal, a mouse (Harvard Univ) – 1990: the Human Genome Project is launched – 1994: the first genetically engineered vegetable (Flavr Savr tomato) is introduced – 1997: British biologist Ian Wilmut clones the first mammal, a sheep, Dolly (dies in 2003) – 2002: American scientists synthesize a live virus from chemicals – 2003: the Human Genome Project is completed, having identified the 19,599 +2,188 genes in human DNA
160 The Modern Age • Wilson Edward Osborne (1975) – Sociobiology – The biological basis of social behavior – The social behavior of animals and humans can be explained from the viewpoint of evolution – Behavior is determined by the genome
161 The Modern Age • Francisco Varela (1979) – Cognition as embodied action (or "enaction") – The world is not a given, but reflects the actions in which we engage, it is "enacted" from our actions (structural coupling) – Organisms do not adapt to a pre-given world – Organisms and environment mutually specify each other – Life is an elegant dance between the organism and the environment. – The mind is the tune of that dance.
162 The Modern Age • Humberto Maturana(1980) – "Autopoiesis" is the process by which an organism can continuously reorganize its own structure – Adaptation consists in regenerating the organism's structure so that its relationship to the environment remains constant – Living systems are units of interaction – They cannot be understood independently of their environment – The relationship with the environment molds the configuration of a cognitive system
163 The Modern Age • Richard Dawkins (1976) – Gene Selectionism • Genes want to live forever • The body is a machine for copying genes • What survives is not my body but my genes
164 The Modern Age • Richard Dawkins – The organism alone does not have biological relevance – The control of an organism is never complete inside and null outside – The "extended phenotype" includes the world an organism interacts with
165 The Modern Age • Richard Dawkins – A meme is the unit of cultural evolution, just like a gene is the unit of biological evolution – Ideas exhibit variation (copying with mistakes) and selection (pruning mistakes) – When a meme enters a mind, it parasitically alters the mind's process so that a new goal of the mind is to propagate the meme to other minds – Just like genes use bodies as vehicles to spread, so memes use minds as vehicles to spread – Memes have created the mind, not the other way around
166 The Modern Age • George Lakoff (1980): – We understand the world through metaphors, and we do so without any effort, automatically and unconsciously – Metaphors transport properties from structures of the physical world to non-physical structures – Language was created to deal with physical objects, and later extended to non-physical objects by means of metaphors – All our concepts are of metaphorical nature and are based on our physical experience – Metaphor is pervasive is that it is biological: our brains are built for metaphorical thought
167 The Modern Age • Michael Gazzaniga (1985) – Several independent brain systems work in parallel – Many minds coexist in a confederation – A module located in the left hemisphere interprets the actions of the other modules and provides explanations for our behavior – Beliefs do not preceed behavior, they follow it – There are many "i"'s and one "i" that makes sense of what all the other "i"'s are doing
168 The Modern Age • Gerald Edelman (1987) – "Neural Darwinism”: application of Jerne’s "selectional" theory of the immune system to the brain – Individual brains are wildly diverse – Neural groups "compete" to respond to environmental stimuli – The brain develops categories by selectively strengthening or weakening connections between neural groups – Brain processes are dynamic and stochastic – The brain is not an "instructional" system but a "selectional" system
169 The Modern Age • Allan Hobson (1989) – Dreams are a window on some processing that goes on in the brain while we sleep – The brain is rapidly processing a huge amount of information in whatever order – Our consciousness sees flashes of the bits that are being processed – These bits seem to compose stories of their own, and the stories look weird – Remembering and forgetting occur during dreams – REM sleep is important for consolidating long-term memories
170 The Modern Age • Christof Koch (1989) – A scanning system that sweeps across all regions of the brain 40 times a second – A wave of nerve pulses sent out from the thalamus and triggering all the synchronized cells in the cerebral cortex that are recording sensory information – The cells then fire a coherent wave of messages back to the thalamus – Consciousness originates from the constant interaction between the thalamus and the cortex
171 Hubble Telescope (1990)
172 The Modern Age • Hubble Telescope (1990) – The age of the universe is 13.7 billion years
History of Thought - Part 6: The Modern Age
History of Thought - Part 6: The Modern Age
175 Hubble Telescope The first galaxies that developed after the Big Bang (Hubble Telescope, 2004)
176 The Modern Age 1991-Today
177 The Modern Age 1994: Ethnic massacre in Rwanda 2000: 21 million people have died worldwide of the AIDS epidemics 2000: Ebola in Uganda and Congo 2001: Osama bin Laden’s Al Qaeda terrorist organization attacks the USA 2002: a common currency, the euro, is introduced throughout Europe 2010: Arab Spring
178 The Modern Age • Collapse of the Soviet empire (1989-91) – The most atheist empire of all times was crippled by two religious movements • Catholic Church (Pope John Paul II) from the west • Afghan mujaheddins from the south – The Cold War can be recast as a war between atheism and religion
179 NATO Expansion The Economist
180 The Modern Age • USA in 2004: the world’s undisputed military and economic superpower – Global presence: maintains 700 military installations abroad – Military superpower: spends as much on defense as the next 20 nations combined – USA share of total world product is 30%, up from 20% in the 1980s – Power of Knowledge: 75% of all Nobel laureates in the sciences, economics, and medicine do research in the USA
181 Spread of democracy (Economist)
182 Debtors and Creditors 2005 Red = debtors Blue = creditors
183 The Modern Age • Globalization – Free-trade zones • European Union • ASEAN • Mercosur • NAFTA
184 Globalization ENGLISH SPANISH ENGLISH FRENCH RUSSIAN CHINESE ARABIC
185 The Modern Age • A United Europe (2004) – 25 states – 455 million people – 738,573 sq kms – GDP of 9.613 trillion euros (more than $10 trillion) (CNN)
186 The Modern Age • The Age of Tourism – 2006: Tourism is the biggest industry in the world (11% of GDP, almost 9% of employment)
187 The Modern Age • China’s economic miracle – 1994: China's GDP grows at an average annual rate of about 10% between 1994 and 2000 – 2003: China sends a man in space, the third country to do so after the USSR and the USA – 2005: More than 300 skyscrapers in Shanghai – 2005: China becomes the fourth world economy after the USA, Japan and Germany – 2005: More than 300 skyscrapers in Shanghai – 2005: China becomes the fourth world economy after the USA, Japan and Germany – 2007: China overtakes all European countries and becomes the third economic power after USA and Japan – 2014: Alibaba’s IPO
188 The Modern Age • The Economic Superpowers – 1871: Britain, Germany – 1919: Britain, USA – 1946: USA, Soviet Union – 1991: USA, Japan, Germany – 2010: USA, China, European Union
189 The Modern Age Urbanization 2007: Worldwide urban population passes 50%. The human race has become an urban race.
The Modern Age Islamic terrorism Moscow (Sep 1999) New York & Washington (Sep 2001) Bali (Oct 2002) Russia (2002-04) Casablanca (May 2003) Riyah (May 2003) Istanbul (Nov 2003) Madrid (Mar 2004) Iraq (2004-09) London (Jul 2005) Sharm el-Sheik (Jul 2005) Amman (Nov 2005) Afghanistan (2006-09) Mumbai (Nov 2008) Pakistan (2008-13) Al Qaeda (worldwide) GIA (Algeria, 1993) Hamas (Israel) Tamil Tigers (Sri Lanka) Chechnen terrorism (Russia) Moro (Philippines) Jemaah Islamiyah (Indonesia) Kashmiri terrorism (India)
191 The Modern Age Suicide bombings (Economist 2008)
192 The Modern Age • Colin McGinn (1991): – Consciousness does not belong to the "cognitive closure" of our organism – Understanding our consciousness is beyond our cognitive capacities – "Mind may just not be big enough to understand mind”
193 The Modern Age • Daniel Dennett (1991): – The mind is occupied by several parallel "drafts” – A "draft" is a narrative that occurs in the mind, triggered by some interaction with the world – At every point in time, there are many drafts – One of the drafts is dominant in the brain, and that is what we are conscious of – There is no place in the brain where consciousness resides – It doesn't even exist all the time: "probing precipitates narratives”
194 The Modern Age • William Calvin (1991) – A Darwinian process in the brain finds the best thought from the many that are continuously produced – Cerebral code (the equivalent of genetic) allows for reproduction and selection of thoughts – A neural pattern copies itself repeatedly around a region of the brain – “Thoughts” compete and evolve subconsciously – Dreaming occurs all the time but we can't see them when we are awake
195 The Modern Age • Stuart Kauffman (1993) – Self-organizing systems: the fundamental force that counteracts the universal drift towards disorder – Spontaneous emergence of order, or self- organization of complex systems, is ubiquitous – Organisms change their interactions in such a way to reach the boundary between order and chaos – Life was not only possible and probable, but almost inevitable
196 The Modern Age • Antonio Damasio (1995) – Topography of the body – Topography of the environment – Self vs nonself – Second-order narrative in which the self is interacting with the non-self – An "owner" and "observer" of the movie is created – The self is continuously reconstructed – The "I" is not telling the story: the "I" is created by stories told in the mind – "You are the music while the music lasts” (Eliot)
197 The Modern Age • Rodolfo Llinas (1996) – Neurons are active all the time – The activity of neurons generates patterns of behavior all the time – Neurons are always active, even when there are no inputs – Neurons operate at their own pace, regardless of the pace of information – A rhythmic system controls their activity – The neurons are telling the body to move even when the body is not moving – The environment selects which movement the body will actually perform
198 The Modern Age • Net Economy – Amazon – Ebay – Yahoo, Google – Evite, Craigslist, Meetup – Skype – Travelocity, Priceline – Netflix – MySpace, Facebook, Twitter
199 The Modern Age • Net Society – E-commerce: decline of the brick-and- mortar store – E-mail: first innovation in written personal communication since the invention of mail – World-wide web: largest knowledge base in history – Blogs: the end of the newspaper and of tv news?
200 Internet Users • Spread of Internet
201 The Modern Age • Facebook – Facebook in 2010, when it passed 500 million users
202 Digital Appliances • New appliances – Ipod – Cellular phone – Blackberry – Play Station
203 How teenagers spend their time in the USA (2010) Kaiser Family Foundation
204 The Modern Age New York, September 2001 Afghanistan, November 2001 Iraq, December 2003
205 Mars Rovers Mars, January 2004 Husband Hill, Mars, September 2005
206 Skyscrapers • Taipei 101 • Petronas Towers • Freedom Tower Taipei Kuala Lumpur Dubai
207 2004 Tsunamis
208 Elections in Iraq 2005
209 Death of Pope John Paul II 2005
210 First photography of a non- solar planet (NASA 2005)
211 The Modern Age Global warming and the Arctic Sea Atlantic Monthly, October 2008
212 The Modern Age Renewable Energy
213 The Great Recession 2008-12 • Financial crisis of october 2008 (Dow Jones )
214 First African-American Leader of a Western country
215 Fukushima 2011
216216 Egypt (2011)
217 Higgs Boson (2012)
218 Mars Curiosity (2012)
219 European Union vs Russia (2014)
220 Ebola in West Africa (2014)
Islamic State of Iraq and Syria (2014)
Islamists (2010s)
Comet Landing (2014) • The Philae robotic lander of the Rosetta robotic space probe lands on Comet 67P/Churyumov- Gerasimenko
Al Qaeda attacks France (2015)
Refugee Crisis (2015)
226 The Modern Age • Groucho Marx – I remember the first time I had sex - I kept the receipt. – I was married by a judge. I should have asked for a jury. – Military intelligence is a contradiction in terms. – Politics is the art of looking for trouble, finding it everywhere, diagnosing it incorrectly and applying the wrong remedies. – There's one way to find out if a man is honest - ask him. If he says, "Yes," you know he is a crook. – Those are my principles, and if you don't like them... well, I have others.

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History of Thought - Part 6: The Modern Age

  • 1. 1 History of Thought: 6. The Modern Age Oct 21, 2014 Piero Scaruffi www.scaruffi.com
  • 2. 22 Table of Contents 1. Oldest Knowledge: The ancient Near East, Egypt, Greece 2. Oldest Knowledge: Ancient Greece, India and China 3. Classic Knowledge: Rome, Christianity, Islam, Song, European Middle Age 4. Modern Knowledge: Renaissance, Enlightenment, Scientific/Industrial Revolution 5. Modern Knowledge: The 19th century 6. Modern Knowledge: The 20th century
  • 3. 3 Summary - 19th century • Darwin • Thermodynamics • Electromagnetism • Quantum Mechanics • Relativity • Psychology • Transportation and Communication revolutions • Rise of Japan and Germany • Nations -> WWI • Disintegration of Austrian and Ottoman Empires • Decline of China • USA: second industrial revolution • Marxism
  • 4. 4 Looking back... • Why the West? – Mercantile revolution of the 13th century – Industrial revolution of the 18th century – Electrical revolution of the 19th century – Digital revolution of the 20th century – But why the West?
  • 5. 5 Looking back... • Why the West? – Science and technology? China and Islam led for centuries, and science developed independently of technology until the 20th century – China’s meritocracy (that drew the best brains into government) actually fostered a system driven by the scholar-bureaucrat at the expense of the merchant (knowledge applied to wise administration, not to progress): pressure on classical learning and contempt for material aspirations (your goal: to pass imperial examinations, not to start your own business)
  • 6. 6 Looking back... • Why the West? – Science was a consequence not a cause of European capitalism and imperialism – Industrialization too was a consequence, not a cause (expansion of trade and technological progress predate the industrial revolution) – First capitalism emerged, then Europe started exploring, conquering, industrializing, etc
  • 7. 7 Looking back... • Why the West? – Natural resources? Russia had more; whereas Holland, Portugal and Japan had very little – Wars, colonialism, imperialism? Spain became poor, and the main beneficiary was a former colony, the USA
  • 8. 8 Looking back... • Why the West? – Roman law is rational, capitalists can predict what happens – China and Islam continue to have arbitrary unpredictable laws that partly derive from moral values and partly from arbitrary rulers – West: medieval system of arbitrary expropriation by the lord replaced by Magna Charta (also by smugglers and piracy)
  • 9. 9 Looking back... • Why the West? – Taxation instead of confiscation – Property rights – Property rights are rarely conceded by the state without violent revolts – Security from arbitrary confiscation greater in England and Holland – The Middle Ages began a slow process of replacing the arbitrary law of the lord with a rational system of taxation – Full confidence by capitalists in the system reached the 19th century – Then large immobile factories become feasible
  • 10. 10 Looking back... • Why the West? – Islam: ban on usury – West: merchants circumvent the Church's ban on usury via bills of exchange
  • 11. 11 Looking back... • Why the West? – (Weber's theory) – Calvinism sanctifies work, individual responsibility, irrelevance of the clergy • But capitalism and mercantilism were born in very Catholic countries first • and England was the least protestant of protestant countries – Protestant moral values better suited for the emerging merchant/capitalist class – Protestantism legitimizes capitalist morality • But more likely that capitalism created Protestantism, not viceversa
  • 12. 12 Looking back... • Why the West? – Feudalism -> weak central state -> city states -> plurality of competing political, economic, military centers (a Darwinian system for survival of the fittest) – Vacuum of political power allows merchants to establish a different structure of power – Separation of politics and economy. Merchants have freedom to experiment.
  • 13. 13 Looking back... • Why the West? – The revival of trade in the Middle Ages created capitalism, that then funded the industrial revolution, that then created new markets. Technology came after, not before. – Technology was initially independent of science. Only after 1870s did science contribute to innovation. – Economic growth started with trade, not with industry. – In modern times, countries that tried to jumpstart their economy with industry (the communist countries) failed; whereas countries that tried to jumpstart their economy with trade (the Far East) succeeded.
  • 14. 14 Looking back... • Why the West? – Medieval trade by independents could develop because the authority of the state was so weak. – Medieval chaos led to loose control by the state on the economy (a separation of politics and economics), which led to innovation in trade and craft, and eventually to the industrial revolution. – The post-feudal economy remained autonomous, and inventors were increasingly free from religious and political interference: the reward for the inventor came from the market, not from the state or the church.
  • 15. 15 Looking back... • Why the West? – The European medieval world was a world living in a state of constant instability, and so is the capitalist/technological world. – The multitude of enterprises that populate a capitalist economy recalls the multitude of competing city states of medieval Italy. – Big states engaged in constant military competition the same way that big corporations engage in constant technological competition. – Innovation leads to instability and the West, coming out of the Middle Ages, was better at coping with instability than the East
  • 16. 16 Looking back... • Why the West? – The USA became the world’s largest economy between 1861-1914 • A civil war • 3 presidents assassinated • Widespread corruption • City bosses • Financial crashes • Workers strikes • Indian wars • Ku Klux Klan
  • 17. 17 Looking back... • Why the West? – Forces that foster innovation • Political chaos • Warfare • Greed • Culture of risk • Culture of exploration – Forces that oppose innovation • Centralized state • Higher castes • Religion • Peace
  • 18. 18 Looking back... • Why the West? – The role of political chaos/ Peaks of intellectual exuberance • Sumerian city-states before Assyrian unification • China’s Warring States age • Greek city-states before Alexander unification • Indian kingdoms before and after the Gupta empire • Italian city-states of the Renaissance • Britain of the Thirty Years' War, Commonwealth and Revolution: scientific revolution • Europe of the Seven-years War and of Napoleon: industrial revolution • Russia between Pugachev and Rasputin
  • 20. 20 The Modern Age 1917: Russian revolution 1920: Mahatma Gandhi founds a non-violent liberation movement 1922: Mussolini, leader of the Fascist party, seizes power in Italy 1929: the world's stock markets crash 1933: Hitler becomes chancellor of Germany 1939-45: World War II
  • 21. 21 The Modern Age • The New Isms – Lenin and Stalin: communism – Mussolini: fascism – Hitler: nazism
  • 22. 22 The Modern Age • The Russian revolution – First 1917 revolution (february) caused by food shortage (women, workers, soldiers) – Second 1917 revolution (october): a coup by the Bolshevik Party (Lenin) – Lenin’s terror (10,000 dissenters executed in sep- oct 1918 versus 6,321 dissenters executed by the czars from 1825 till 1917 – 1929: Stalin’s “collectivization” (10 million die and 10 million are deported, and 10 million will die of famine over the next seven years) – 1936-38: Stalin’s “purges” (4.5 million die)
  • 23. 23 The Modern Age • The Russian revolution – A vision of Russia as a leader not a follower • Until 1698: Russia isolated from Europe (except for religion borrowed from Byzantium) • 1698-1917: Imitating the West (trailing in the economic revolution) • 1917-1991: Antagonizing the West (leading the proletarian revolution)
  • 24. 24 The Modern Age • Nazism – Lenin believes in historical determinism (the Proletariat), Hitler believes in biological determinism (the Aryan race) – One-party state (like in Russia) – Large-scale terror regime (like in Russia) – Gangster-like elimination of opponents (like in Russia)
  • 25. 25 The Modern Age • Adolf Hitler (1925) – "What good fortune for governments that the people do not think" – "The size of the lie is a definite factor in causing it to be believed” – “Propaganda must not serve the truth” – “Mankind has grown strong in eternal struggles and it will only perish though eternal peace”
  • 26. 26 The Modern Age • Japan – A booming economy that depends on foreign raw materials (notably US oil and Manchuria’s resources) – Ambition to create a self-sufficient empire on the model of the Western ones – Nobody is in charge (unlike Germany, Russia and Italy where one man is in charge, and unlike Britain, France and the USA where the democratically-elected government is in charge) – A war economy de facto run by the army
  • 27. 27 The Modern Age • Japan – 1931: Invasion of Manchuria from Korea – 1937: Full-scale war with China (“Rape of Nanjing”, 350,000 dead) – 1940: Tripartite Pact with Germany and Italy – 1941: Japan attacks the USA – 1945: Hiroshima and Nagasaki Japanese territory in China (1940)
  • 28. 28 The Modern Age • China – Dazhao Li’s Chinese way to Communism (1918) • China as a whole is an oppressed nation under the yoke of imperialist nations that exploit Chinese labor and own the means of production, just like the proletariat is oppressed by capitalists – Duxiu Chen (dean of Beijing University, 1917) • Abandons Confucianism and classical language • Founds Communist Party (1921) – For the first time, China abandons the belief in its superiority and adopts a foreign (western) model
  • 29. 29 The Modern Age • China – Zedong Mao • 1934-35: the “Long March” (first led by Zhou Enlai, then by Mao) • 1937: War against Japan (“Rape of Nanjing”, 350,000 dead) • Peasants: the Russian revolution started in the cities, and the peasants opposed it; the Chinese revolution started in the countryside with an agrarian revolution
  • 30. 30 The Modern Age • China – Westernization of China • Yatsen Sun is a Christian (who lived in Japan, USA and Europe) • Mao is a Marxist (who studied western philosophy at Changsha’s First Normal School) • Dazhao Li and Duxiu Chen educated in (Westernized) Japan • Kai-shek Chiang is married to a USA- educated woman and converts to Christianity
  • 31. 31 The Modern Age • Arab independence – Egypt (1922) – Saudi Arabia (1926) – Iraq (1932) – Syria (1943) – Lebanon (1943) – Transjordan (1946) – Libya (1952) – Morocco (1956) – Tunisia (1956) – Kuwait (1961) – Algeria (1962)
  • 32. 32 The Modern Age • Latin America – Populist rulers (champions of peasants and workers) replace the old aristocracy: – Vargas (Brazil, 1930) – Cardenas (Mexico, 1934) – Peron (Argentina, 1946) – Castro (Cuba, 1959)
  • 33. 33 The Modern Age • An age of starvation – Russia: Civil war and Communism – Germany: WWI reparations – USA: Great Depression – China: Civil War – Indian famines (Mumbai 1905, Bengal 1943) – Latin American famines (Brazil 1915) – African famines (Rwanda-Burundi 1928)
  • 34. 34 The Modern Age • Women’s liberation – 1906: Female suffrage in Finland – 1913: Female suffrage in Norway – 1917: Mobilization of women for the war – 1917: Women start the Russian revolution – 1919: Female suffrage in Germany and Holland – 1920: Female suffrage in the USA and Canada – 1928: Female suffrage in Britain – 1930s: Militarization of women in Germany and USSR – 1944: Female suffrage in France – 1945: Women’s protests end World War II
  • 35. 35 The Modern Age Chemistry/ Synthetic materials 1930: I. G. Farben begins manufacturing polystyrene 1939: ICI begins producing polyethylene plastic 1931: Du Pont introduces a synthetic rubber, neoprene 1935: Michael Perrin discovers a practical way to synthesize polyethylene, a very versatile plastic 1935: Wallace Carothers' nylon (1935) at Du Pont, ideal as a synthetic fiber
  • 36. The Modern Age Media 1925: Leica compact camera that doesn’t require heavy equipment 1926: films with synchronized voice and music are introduced (talking movies) 1927: Philo Farnsworth invents the television in San Francisco 1935: Eduard Schüller at AEG builds a magnetic tape recorder
  • 37. 37 The Modern Age Media Tv Set Model 817 (1938) (Museum of Science, London) Cathedral radio (1932) Telephone (1929) AT&T Switchboard (1930) Leica (1925)
  • 38. 38 The Modern Age Office – 1938: Chester Carlson’s xerography – Dictation machine – Fax machine – Telephone – Typewriter – Answering machine – Mechanical calculator
  • 39. 39 The Modern Age Electrical appliances 1933 washing machine 1934 kitchen 1935 refrigerator 1927 in-sink dishwasher 1932 sewing machine
  • 40. 40 The Modern Age • The Car – 1926: car manufacturing has become the largest industry in the USA – The USA produces about 85% of the world's cars – 1927: General Motors passes Ford (style, not just price: the car has become a status symbol) Ford Model T Rolls-Royce
  • 41. 41 The Modern Age • The Airplane – 1920: Aircraft Travel and Transport inaugurates London–Paris passenger service – 1927: Charles Lindbergh makes the first solo, nonstop transatlantic flight between two capitals (from New York to Paris in 33 hours) – 1939: Pan American inaugurates the world's first transatlantic passenger service, flying between New York and Marseilles
  • 42. 42 The Modern Age • The Airplane – Boeing 314 Check-in… On board…
  • 43. 43 The Modern Age • Ferdinand Saussure (1913) – Language is a field – Meaning is generated through differences between linguistic elements – If one word were removed from a language, the meanings of all other words would be changed – Structuralism: the phenomena of human life (e.g, language) are intelligible only inasmuch as they are part of a network of relationships
  • 44. 44 The Modern Age • Ludwig Wittgenstein (1953) – Language is a game between people – The meaning of a proposition can only be understood in its context – The meaning of a word is due to the consensus of a society – To understand a word is to understand a language – To understand a language is to master the linguistic skills
  • 45. 45 The Modern Age • Behaviorism – John Watson (1913): • Mental states are unscientific • Stimulus-response patterns explain animal behavior – Ivan Pavlov (1926) • Conditioned reflexes – Burrhus Skinner (1938) – Gilbert Ryle (1949): • The mind is not another substance but simply a domain of discourse (“ghost in the machine”)
  • 46. 46 The Modern Age • Gestalt Psychology – Form is the elementary unit of perception: we do not construct a perception by analyzing a myriad data, we perceive the form as a whole – Max Wertheimer (1912) • Perception is more than the sum of the things perceived • Form is the elementary unit of perception – Wolfgang Kohler (1925) • Problem-solving as sudden insight • Restructuring of the field of perception
  • 47. 47 The Modern Age • Gestalt Psychology – Karl Lashley (1930) • Functions are not localized but distributed around the brain • Every brain region partakes (to some extent) in all brain processes • The brain as a whole is “fault tolerant” • Memory as an electromagnetic field and a specific memory as a wave within that field
  • 48. 48 The Modern Age • Otto Selz (1920s) – To solve a problem entails to recognize the situation and to fill in the gaps – Information in excess contains the solution – Infer = anticipate – To solve a problem = to comprehend it – Comprehending = reducing the current situation to a past situation
  • 49. 49 The Modern Age • Jean Piaget (1923) – The mind grows, just like the body grows – Progress from simple mental arrangements to complex ones (from literal to abstract) – Not by gradual evolution but by sudden rearrangements of mental operations
  • 50. 50 The Modern Age • Edward Sapir (1921) – Language and thought influence each other – Language also shapes thought – Language contains a hidden metaphysics
  • 51. 51 The Modern Age • Cognitive Psychology – Fredrick Bartlett (1932): Reconstructive memory – Edward Tolman (1932): “cognitive map” – Donald Broadbent (1957): "short-term memory” and "long-term memory"
  • 52. 52 The Modern Age Astrophysics 1916: Karl Schwarzschild predicts the existence of black holes 1929: Edwin Hubble discovers that the universe is expanding 1948: George Gamow develops the Big Bang theory
  • 53. 53 The Modern Age • Quantum Mechanics – A consequence of the electric revolution: the study of electricity led to the study of the atom – A German phenomenon: Germany was at the vanguard of the electric revolution
  • 54. 54 The Modern Age • Quantum Mechanics – Quantum Mechanics reaches conclusions that are at odds with the world that humans were designed to cope with • Randomness • Indeterminacy • The observer collapses the wave • The vacuum is not empty • Antimatter • Schroedinger's cat • Non-locality (entanglement)
  • 55. 55 The Modern Age • Quantum Mechanics – Energy quanta (1900): atoms can emit energy only in discrete amounts (Max Planck) – Energy-frequency equivalence (1903): the energy of a photon is proportional to the frequency of the radiation, i.e. light itself exists only in discrete units, and it is both particle and wave hv=E=mc2 (Albert Einstein) – Structure of the atom (1913): electrons are permitted to occupy only some orbits (Niels Bohr) – Dualism (1923): waves and particles are dual aspects (Louis de Broglie)
  • 56. 56 The Modern Age • Quantum Mechanics – Spin (1925): George Uhlenbeck and Samuel Goudsmit discover that each electron “spins” with an angular momentum of one half Planck constant – Erwin Schrodinger's equation (1926) – Max Born’s interpretation: a wave of probabilities (1926) – Werner Heisenberg’s "uncertainty principle” (1927) – Anti-matter (1928): positively charged electron (Paul Dirac) – Unification of Quantum Mechanics and Special Relativity (1930, Dirac)
  • 57. 57 The Modern Age • Quantum Mechanics – The state of a particle is described by a “wave function” which summarizes (“superposes”) all the alternatives and their probabilities – Erwin Schrodinger's equation (1926) describes how this wave function evolves in time (a linear equation) – The wave function describes a set of possibilities – A measurement causes a “collapse of the wave function” (a non-linear process): only one eigenvalue is possible after the measurement, the one that is measured
  • 58. 58 The Modern Age • Interpretations of Quantum Mechanics – Niels Bohr: only phenomena are real – Werner Heisenberg: the world "is" made of possibility waves (particles are merely "potentialities") – Albert Einstein: an incomplete description of the universe (“hidden variables”) – John Von Neumann: consciousness – Paul Dirac: our knowledge of a system – David Bohm: a quantum potential acts beyond the 4-dimensional geometry of spacetime – Hugh Everett: a multiverse
  • 59. 59 The Modern Age • Relativity, Quantum Physics and Thermodynamics: three disciplines that happen to pose limitations on – the speed, – amount – and quality • of information that can be transmitted in a physical process.
  • 60. 60 The Modern Age • Bertrand Russell (1913) – The proposition (a logical artifact) vs the sentence (its description in natural language) – Logical reconstruction of Mathematics • The second theorem of the 110th chapter of the second volume of “Principia Mathematica” proves that 1+1=2 – Logical paradoxes • I am lying • The class of all the classes that are not members of themselves is both a member and not a member of itself (the barber who shaves all barbers who do not shave themselves)
  • 61. 61 The Modern Age • Logic – Frege, Peano, Russell/Whitehead – David Hilbert’s program to formalize mathematics (1920) – Kurt Goedel’s theorem of incompleteness (1931) – Alan Turing: definition of algorithm via the Turing machine (1936) – Turing’s and Church’s conclusion: Hilbert’s Entscheidungsproblem is impossible (there is no universal algorithm for deciding whether or not a Turing machine will stop) Turing Hilbert Goedel
  • 62. 62 The Modern Age • Biology – Ronald Fisher (1918) uses statistical techniques to study the effects of selection and mutation (the distribution of genes in population) • Darwinism is a stochastic theory • What changes in evolution is the relative frequency of discrete hereditary units (genes) – John Haldane (1924): a mathematical theory of natural selection
  • 63. 63 The Modern Age • Martin Heidegger (1927) – Man is part of the world but is also the observer of the world – The world and the mind cannot be separated – We cannot detach ourselves from reality because we are part of it – We just "act", we are "thrown" in an action – Man is not Dasein (existence) but Dase-in (“existing in” the world)
  • 64. 64 The Modern Age • Martin Heidegger (1927) – Technology alienates humans because it recasts the natural environment as a “Bestand” to be utilized for the purpose of humans • “The Earth reveals itself as a mining district… the Rhine itself appears to be something at our command…e.g, a supply of power... no longer the river running through the native country” – People lose their identity because the natural environment that provided them with an identity is now simply a store of resources to be exploited
  • 65. 65 The Modern Age • Karl Popper (1934) – Truth is relative to a theory – A scientific theory provides the means to falsify it – No definition of absolute truth is possible
  • 66. 66 The Modern Age • Pierre Teilhard de Chardin (1938) – Humanity marks the stage when evolution leaves the "biosphere" and enters the "noosphere" (human consciousness and knowledge) – Humanity is the stage when “evolution becomes conscious of itself” – The evolution of the noosphere will end in the convergence of matter and spirit into the "omega point” – Reconciling science and religion
  • 67. 67 The Modern Age • Existentialism – Reacting against Hegel’s metaphysics – Focus on the human experience – Philosophy of the crisis of values – The object and the subject of existentialism are the same: the I – Precursor: Kierkegaard
  • 68. 68 The Modern Age • Albert Camus (1942) – Philosophy of the absurd: • The search for meaning is futile • The world is unintelligible • There is no God
  • 69. 69 The Modern Age • JeanPaul Sartre (1943) – There is no "human nature" because there is no God to conceive it. – We are free to act as we will (”Man is condemned to be free“) – It is our actions that determine our nature – Each individual is fully responsible for what she becomes – Existence (the free I) precedes essence (the I’s nature)
  • 70. 70 The Modern Age • JeanPaul Sartre (1943) – Indirectly, each individual's choice on what to be has an effect on all humans ("In choosing myself, I choose Man”) – Each individual has "total and deep responsibility" – This causes anxiety – Existentialism abolishes God, but recognizes that this act increases (not decreases) the individual responsibility for his actions – It complicates, not simplifies, his moral life – "We are alone, with no excuses"
  • 71. The Modern Age • World War II: – Britain, USA, Russia (allies) win against Germany, Italy and Japan (axis) – 61 countries with 1.7 billion people (3/4 of world's population) – 110 million military personnel (USSR 12.5m, USA 12m, Germany 11m, British Empire 8.7m, Japan 7m, China 5m) – 55 million people dead (25m military + 30m civilian) – First war with massive direct civilian casualties
  • 72. World War II Nordhausen Auschwitz Mizocz, Ukrain, october 1942 (mostly naked women) Nanking
  • 75. The Modern Age • World War II: – What the axis have in common (Germany, Italy and Japan) • They don’t have large colonial empires that can make them self-sufficient • View the Allies as hypocritical for condemning their invasions after British, French and Russians have invaded most of the world
  • 76. The Modern Age • World War II – The first information war • Germany: Enigma machine • US & UK: the computer
  • 78. 78 The Modern Age The Cold War 1946: Churchill’s "Iron Curtain" speech 1947-1967: Independence of British colonies 1948-today: Arab-Israeli wars 1949: Mao wins the Chinese civil war 1949: NATO 1950: Korean war 1957: European Community 1957: The Sputnik 1961: Berlin Wall 1962: Cuban crisis 1962: Vietnam War 1969: The Moon landing
  • 79. 79 The Modern Age • Soviet Union
  • 80. 80 The Modern Age • Soviet Union – A communist empire • Natural enemy: liberal capitalist democracies of the Anglosaxon world – An atheistic empire • Natural enemies: Christian churches, Islam
  • 81. 81 The Modern Age • Cold War – The Domino theory – Nuclear Deterrence – Liberation movements – Terrorism
  • 82. 82 The Modern Age • Cold War – Cold War in Europe: Democracy vs Communism – Cold War in Eastern Asia: European colonialism vs independence movements or fascist/military dictatorships vs democratic movements – Cold war in Latin America: Fascist regimes vs populist movements – Cold war in the Middle East: Medieval monarchies vs socialist republics – Cold war in Africa: European colonialism vs independence movements
  • 83. 83 The Modern Age • Cold War – Most of the actual war takes place in the developing world
  • 84. 84 The Modern Age • The decline of Britain – An empire based on the ideals of liberty and equality (in spirit if not always in practice) – Its subjects from North America to India adopted those ideals, and rebelled against the empire – An empire that was fundamentally a contradiction in terms
  • 85. 85 The Modern Age • The decline of France – Lost three wars in a row to the British (“Succession” 1702-13, “Seven Years” 1756- 63 and “Napoleonic” 1803-15) – Lost three wars in a row to the Germans (1870-71, “First World War” 1914-18, “Second World War” 1940-45) – Lost a war against Vietnam (1946-54) and a war against Algeria (1954-62)
  • 86. 86 The Modern Age • The rise of Germany – 1946: Germany abandons military stance of the first, second and third Reich and adopts peace and capitalism as driving ideologies – 1950s: West Germany becomes the largest economy in Western Europe • The rise of Japan – 1946: Japan abandons military stance of the imperial age and adopts peace and capitalism as driving ideologies – 1970: Japan becomes the third economic power in the world after USA and USSR
  • 87. 87 The Modern Age • India – Gandhi's vision: • A melting pot of religions • Demise of caste system • Rights of women – Britain on behalf of the Congress convinces the princely states to join India – India gets unified by the colonial power not by an independence movement or an internal revolution (unlike Italy, Germany, China, Soviet Union...) – British India comprises more than 500 political units, some as large as a European country
  • 88. 88 The Modern Age • China – 1950-53: Korean war against the USA (800,000 Chinese soldiers die) – 1951: China invades Tibet – 1958: Great Leap Forward – 1959-62: Famine (20 million die) – 1960: Break with the Soviet Union – 1964: China’s atomic bomb – 1966: Cultural Revolution (tens of millions of people died of famine or purges)
  • 89. 89 The Modern Age • USA/Civil Rights – 1955: Rosa Parks refuses to give up her seat at the front of a bus to a white passenger – 1962: James Meredith, escorted by soldiers, becomes the first black student to enroll at the University of Mississippi – 1963: Martin Luther King delivers the "I Have a Dream“ speech in Washington – 1964: President Johnson signs the Civil Rights Act – 1965: Blacks riot in Los Angeles’ Watts district – 1966: Black Panthers are founded in Oakland – 1968: Martin Luther King is assassinated
  • 90. 90 The Modern Age • USA/Feminism – 1963: Betty Friedan's "The Feminine Mystique" – 1964: Civil Rights Act prohibits discrimination on the basis of sex – 1966: William Howell Masters and Virginia Johnson’s “Human Sexual Response” – 1966: National Organization for Women (NOW) – 1975: Susan Brownmiller’s “Against Our Will: Men, Women and Rape”
  • 91. 91 The Modern Age • USA/Gay rights – 1950: Mattachine Society in Los Angeles, the first gay political organization – 1955: The "Daughters of Bilitis" in San Francisco, the first lesbian organization – 1969: Stonewall riots in New York – 1970: First gay pride parade
  • 92. 92 The Modern Age • USA/Student movement – 1964: Berkeley’s Free Speech Movement – 1966: San Francisco’s Summer of Love
  • 93. 93 The Modern Age • Vietnam War
  • 94. 94 The Modern Age – Transportation • Boeing’s first commercial jet, the 707: long- distance jet (1958) – East Coast to West Coast in five hours instead of three days – New York to London in eight hours instead of five days • Shinkansen (1964) • The Concorde, a supersonic passenger airplane (1969)
  • 95. 95 The Modern Age • The automobile in the 1950s
  • 96. 96 The Modern Age • The automobile in the 1950s Fiat 500 (1957) Volkswagen Beetle 1938 Mini 1959
  • 97. 97 The Modern Age – Communication • Telephone cable across the Atlantic (1956) • First telecommunication satellite (1962, Telstar)
  • 98. 98 The Modern Age • Media Revolutions – Radio (Charles Herrold, San Jose, 1909) – Stereo radio (BBC, 1925) – Talkies (“Jazz Singer”, 1927) – FM radio (Edwin Armstrong, 1933) – Magnetic reel-to-reel tape recorder (AEG, 1935) – Commercial Television (CBS & NBC, New York, 1941) – LP (Columbia, 1948) – Ampex tape recorder (Ampex, 1948) – Stereo magnetic tape (EMI, 1954) – Stereo record (Audio Fidelity, 1957) – Stereo FM (WGFM, 1961) – Compact Cassette (Philips, 1963) 1948 Admiral tv set
  • 100. 100 The Modern Age Space exploration 1957: the Soviet Union launches the first artificial satellite (Sputnik) 1961: Yuri Gagarin becomes the first astronaut 1962: the USA launches the first telecom satellite (Telstar) 1969: Neil Armstrong walks on the Moon Vostok spaceship Telstar
  • 101. 101 The Modern Age • Apollo mission: using gravity to reach the Moon (the rocket started in the opposite direction of the Moon to use gravity to pick up speed)
  • 102. 102 The Modern Age Astronomy • 50 billion galaxies in the universe • 200 billion stars in the Milky Way (our galaxy) • Nine planets around the Sun (our star) • One light-year = 9,461 billion km • Pluto (last solar planet) = 5.9 billion kms from the Sun (less than 0.001 light-years) • Alpha Centauri (nearest star) = 4.3 light-years • Sirius (brightest star in the sky) = 8.7 light-years • Center of the Milky Way = 26,000 light-years from the Sun • Andromeda (nearest galaxy) = 2.2 million light-years
  • 103. 103 The Modern Age Physics 1948: Theory of Big Bang (George Gamow) 1963: Theory of Quarks, Quantum Chromodynamics (Murray Gell-mann) 1964: Peter Higgs’ boson 1965: The microwave background radiation is discovered 1967: Unification of weak and electromagnetic force (Steven Weinberg and Abdus Salam) 1967: Jocelyn Bell discovers a pulsar 1974: John Schwartz introduces Superstring Theory 1981: Inflationary Model (Alan Guth)
  • 104. 104 The Modern Age • Quarks (1963) – Protons and neutrons are made of 18 quarks (Murray Gell-Man) held together by gluons – Six leptons: the electron, the muon, the tau and their three neutrinos – Four fundamental forces (gravitation, electro- magnetism, strong and weak) – Virtual particles (bosons) mediate the four fundamental forces: (photon, eight gluons, three weak bosons, graviton?) – Elementary particles: leptons, quarks and their anti-particles (total of 48) plus 12 bosons (total of 60)
  • 105. 105 The Modern Age • Standard model – Fermions (spin 1/2, 3/2 etc.) make up matter – Bosons (particles with integer spin) are force carriers – Hadrons (neutron, proton, etc) are made up of quarks in groups of two (mesons, containing a quark/antiquark pair) or three (baryons)
  • 107. 107 The Modern Age Medicine 1945: Howard Florey and Ernst Chain develop the first antibiotics 1956: Jonas Salk develops the oral polio vaccine 1958: Roger Sperry performs split-brain surgery 1960: The birth control pill
  • 108. 108 The Modern Age Genetics 1944: Oswald Avery (DNA) 1953: Francis Crick and James Watson discover the double helix of the DNA 1961: Jacob and Monod discover gene regulation 1961: Jacob and Brenner discover messenger RNA 1961: Marshall Nirenberg cracks the genetic code (translation of four-letter genetic code into twenty-letter language of proteins)
  • 109. 109 The Modern Age • The Brain – 1949: Donald Hebb’s selective strengthening of synapses and cell assemblies – 1950s: Electrical activity of the brain – 1953: Nathaniel Kleitman’s REM – 1958: Roger Sperry’s split brain experiment – 1960s: Neurons communicate via chemicals ("neurotransmitters”) – 1960s: The left hemisphere is dominant for language and speech, the right hemisphere excels at visual and motor tasks
  • 110. 110 The Modern Age Computation • 1941: Konrad Zuse's Z3 programmable electromechanical computer, the first Turing- complete machine • 1943: Tommy Flowers and others build the Colossus, the world's first programmable digital electronic computer
  • 111. 111 The Modern Age Computation • 1944: Howard Aiken of IBM unveils the first computer programmed by punched paper tape, the electromechanical Harvard Mark I • 1945: John Von Neumann designs a computer that holds its own instructions, the "stored- program architecture"
  • 112. 112 The Modern Age Computation • 1946: The first non-military computer, ENIAC, or "Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer", is unveiled, built by John Mauchly and Presper Eckert at the University of Pennsylvania
  • 114. 114 The Modern Age Computation • Apr 1949: The Manchester Mark 1, the first stored-program electronic computer • May 1949: Cambridge's EDSAC, the second stored-program electronic computer • Aug 1949: Philadelphia's EDVAC, the third stored-program electronic computer • 1950: The Pilot ACE computer
  • 115. 115 The Modern Age Computation • May 1950: The first stored-program electronic computer to be deployed in the USA, the SEAC, and the first to use semiconductors instead of vacuum tubes • Feb 1951: The Ferranti Mark 1, the first commercial computer, an evolution of the EDSAC • 1952: A Univac 1 correctly predicts that Eisenhower would win the elections • Dec 1952: The first commercial computer is delivered in the USA, the Univac 1, an evolution of the EDVAC
  • 117. 117 The Modern Age (Computer History Museum, Mountain View) • Goldstine and Eckert with the electronics needed to store a single decimal digit
  • 118. 118 The Modern Age Computer programmers of 1951: Patsy Simmers (holding an ENIAC board) Gail Taylor (holding an EDVAC board), Milly Beck (holding an ORDVAC board), Norma Stec (holding a BRLESC-I board)
  • 119. 119 The Modern Age • USA/ Semiconductors – 1947: AT&T's Bell Labs invent the transistor (William Shockley, John Bardeen, Walter Brattain) – 1949: The USA files an antitrust lawsuit against AT&T – 1952: AT&T's symposium on the transistor, open to everybody – 1954: Texas Instruments introduces the first commercial transistor – 1954: The first transistor radio (“Regency”)
  • 120. 120 The Modern Age • USA/ Semiconductors – 1961: Texas Instruments introduces the first commercial integrated circuit – Military and space applications use the integrated circuit – 1965: Gordon Moore predicts that the processing power of computers will double every 18 months – 1971: Intel invents the microprocessor – Universities are irrelevant in semiconductor progress because the manufacturing process is too costly – Universities are crucial for progress in computers
  • 121. 121 The Modern Age Software • 1958: Jim Backus (at IBM) invents the FORTRAN programming language, the first machine- independent language • 1964: IBM introduces the first "operating system" for computers (the OS/360) • 1968: The Arpanet is established based on Baran’s idea (four nodes: UCLA, Stanford Research Institute, UCSB, University of Utah) • 1969: the Unix operating system is born
  • 122. 122 The Modern Age Computation • Antitrust policies contribute to the rapid diffusion of intellectual property throughout the computer and semiconductor industries • 1956: IBM and AT&T settle antitrust suits by licensing their technologies to competitors • 1969: The “unbundling” of software by IBM creates the software industry
  • 123. 123 The Modern Age • USA/ Semiconductors – 1947: AT&T's Bell Labs invent the transistor (William Shockley, John Bardeen, Walter Brattain) – 1949: The USA files an antitrust lawsuit against AT&T – 1952: AT&T's symposium on the transistor, open to everybody – 1954: Texas Instruments introduces the first commercial transistor – 1954: The first transistor radio (“Regency”)
  • 124. 124 The Modern Age • USA/ Semiconductors – 1961: Texas Instruments introduces the first commercial integrated circuit – Military and space applications use the integrated circuit – 1971: Intel invents the microprocessor – Universities are irrelevant in semiconductor progress because the manufacturing process is too costly – Universities are crucial for progress in computers
  • 125. 125 The Modern Age • Machine Intelligence 1943: Norman Wiener’s Cybernetics 1948: Claude Shannon’s Theory of Information 1950: Turing’s test 1952: Yehoshua Bar-Hillel’s Machine Translation 1956: John McCarthy’s Artificial intelligence conference 1957: Newell & Simon’s General Problem Solver 1957: Rosenblatt’s Perceptron 1957: Chomsky’s Grammar 1965: Feigenbaum’s Dendral
  • 126. 126 The Modern Age • Cybernetics – Unification of "artificial" systems and biological systems: information + communication + control – A control system is realized by a loop of action and feedback – Self-regulation is the motor of machines, animals and humans – Cybernetics can even be applied to the social and psychological sciences to explain how hierarchical organization is created and controlled.
  • 127. 127 The Modern Age • Cybernetics – Entropy = a measure of disorder = a measure of the lack of information – Information is the opposite of entropy
  • 128. 128 The Modern Age • Noam Chomsky (1957) – Performance vs competence – We understand sentences that we have never heard before – Grammar= rules that account for all valid sentences of the language – Human brains are designed to acquire a language – They contain a "universal grammar" – We speak because our brain is meant to speak
  • 129. 129 The Modern Age • Linguistics – Syntax – Semantics: anaphora, ambiguity, ... – Pragmatics Soviet virgin lands short of goal again Prostitutes appeal to Pope Panda mating fails - veterinarian takes over Killer sentenced to die for second time Miners refuse to mine after death Survivor of Siamese twins joins parents Reagan wins on budget but more lies ahead (Actual newspaper headlines)
  • 130. 130 The Modern Age • Hilary Putnam (1960) – Functionalism • If a mental state can be realized in more than one physical state (more than one brain), is the physical state important at all? • What is it that makes a physical state of the brain also a mental state? the function it performs (eg, thermometer) • Mental states have a function • A mind doesn’t necessarily require a brain • The mind is a symbol processor, and mental states are related to computational states • The mind is the software and the brain is its hardware
  • 131. 131 The Modern Age • Ilya Prigogine (1961) – Non-equilibrium Thermodynamics – Irreversible processes are ubiquitous in nature – Life happens far from equilibrium – “Conservative” systems vs “dissipative” systems (subject to fluxes of energy and/or matter) – Dissipative systems give rise to irreversible processes – Order can be created either from equilibrium systems or from non-equilibrium systems that are sustained by a constant source (by a persistent dissipation) of matter/energy – All living organisms are non-equilibrium systems
  • 132. 132 The Modern Age • Michel Jouvet (1962) – REM sleep is generated in the pontine brain stem (or "pons”) – REM sleep exhibits four main properties: • A low level of brain activity • Inhibition of muscle tone • Waves of excitation from the pons • Rapid eye movement
  • 133. 133 The Modern Age • Michel Jouvet (1962) – The cortex receives a valid sensory signal from the thalamus and interprets it as if it were coming from the sense organs – During REM sleep several areas of the brain are working frantically, and some of them are doing exactly the same job they do when the brain is awake. – The only major difference is that the stimuli they process are now coming from an internal source rather than from the environment: during dreams the sensory input comes from the sensory cortex.
  • 134. 134 The Modern Age • Paul MacLean (1964): – “Triune” brain: each brain corresponds to a different stage of evolution – Each brain is connected to the other two, but each operates indivually with a distinct "personality" – Reptilian brain for instinctive behavior (brain stem, cerebellum, autonomic system) – Old mammalian brain for emotions that are functional to survival, as in “avoiding pain and achieving pleasure” (limbic systemi, i.e. hippocampus, thalamus amygdala) – New mammalian brain for higher cognitive functions (neo-cortex)
  • 135. 135 The Modern Age • Niels Jerne (1968) – Immune system as a Darwinian system • The immune system routinely manufactures all the antibodies it will ever need • When the body is attacked by foreign antigens some antibodies are selected – The genes encode a "library”. The environment picks up a specific book – The mind already knows the solution to all the problems that can occur in the environment in which it evolved over millions of years – The mind knows what to do, but it is the environment that selects what it actually does
  • 136. 136 The Modern Age • James Jerome Gibson (1966) – ”Ecological Realism" – Meaning is located in the interaction between living beings and the environment – The process of perceiving is a process of picking up information that is available in the environment – Information originates from the interaction between the organism and its environment – Information = continuous energy flow of the environment
  • 137. 137 The Modern Age • Marshall McLuhan (1964) – The medium affects the communication (“the medium is the message”) – The content of the message is profoundly affected by the medium used to transmit it – Media shape our environment and therefore our civilization – The “global village”
  • 138. 138 The Modern Age • Herbert Marcuse (1964) – One-dimensional thought • Technocratic societies exploit the illusion of individual liberty to enslave their citizens • Whether capitalist or communist, the worker remains a slave of the instruments of production
  • 139. 139 The Modern Age • Post-modernism – Enlightenment/ modernism • French rationalist tradition founded by Descartes • Reason as the source of knowledge • Knowledge as the source of progress • Progress founded on science is good • Reason applied to society leads to egalitarian social order
  • 140. 140 The Modern Age • Post-modernism/ precursors – Pessimism/ Decline of Western Society • Toynbee: collapse of the Enlightenment’s rationalist project • Nietzsche • Heidegger • Wittgenstein • Spengler – Georges Bataille: rejection of reason and progress
  • 141. 141 The Modern Age • Post-modernism – Reaction to Enlightenment/modernism • Science and reason no longer viewed as morally good • Multiple sources of power and oppression in capitalist society • Education no longer viewed as unbiased but as politicized • Knowledge is power
  • 142. 142 The Modern Age • Michel Foucault (1966) – Critique of modernism (Enlightenment, reason, progress) and humanism – Reason has created knowledge that has created new forms of power which have created new forms of oppression (biopower) – The will to knowledge inevitably leads to the will to power – Knowledge is never neutral, it is inherently political
  • 143. 143 The Modern Age • Michel Foucault (1966) – Western societies jail fools, while older societies acknowledged their existence – Western societies repress the creative force of madness – Western societies torture the minds of criminals, whereas older societies tortured their bodies: prisons are the chief instrument of social control – Western societies control individuals by training their minds – Western societies are vast mechanisms of supervision and repression
  • 144. 144 The Modern Age • Michel Foucault (1966) – What has really "progressed" in the modernist era are the techniques of power, both in terms of sophistication and ubiquity – Social institutions (schools, asylums, prisons), discourses and practices control the individual: bio-power – Discourse and practices determine what is accepted as rational, true, etc – The asylum and the prison work as laboratories to experiment on the control of individuals by society
  • 145. 145 The Modern Age • Postmodernism in France – Gilles Deleuze: • Rhizomatic thought (dynamic, heterogeneous, chaotic) instead of the Arborescent thought (hierarchical, centralized, deterministic) of Modernism • "The real is not impossible, it is simply more and more artificial" – Jean-Francois Lyotard: • Mini-narratives (that are "provisional, contingent, temporary, and relative”) instead of grand narratives • Modern knowledge (Heisenberg, Goedel, Kuhn) “is producing not the known but the unknown”
  • 146. 146 The Modern Age • Jean Baudrillard – A global process of destruction of meaning – The postmodern world is meaningless – Objects rule subjects – "Things have found a way to elude the dialectic of meaning, a dialectic which bored them: – they did this by infinite proliferation"
  • 147. 147 The Modern Age • The Undo command (1968) – The hypertext system FRESS created by Andries van Dam at Brown University for the IBM 360 introduces the "undo" feature
  • 149. 149 The Modern Age 1969: Neil Armstrong walks on the moon 1973: Arab countries impose an oil embargo against the West 1978: Deng Xiaoping seizes power in China 1978: John Paul II, first non-Italian Pope in 455 years 1979: Islamic clerics (ayatollahs) seize the power in Iran 1981: First cases of AIDS are discovered 1986: the US has 14,000 nuclear warheads and the Soviet Union has 11,000 1991: The Soviet Union is dismantled
  • 150. 150 The Modern Age • Democratic regimes – Waves of democratization • 1945: major Western European countries • Mid 1970s: Southern Europe • 1980s: Latin America • Late 1980s/ early 1990s: East Asia • 1990s: former communist countries • 1990s: Africa
  • 151. 151 The Modern Age • Terrorism – Israel: Al Fatah and splinter groups (1967) – Britain: IRA (1969) – Italy: Ordine Nuovo (1969) – Japan: Red Army (1972) – Italy: Brigate Rosse (1972) – Germany: Baader-Meinhof (1975) – Sri Lanka: Tamil (1978) – Spain: ETA (1980) – Lebanon: Hezbollah (1982) – India: Kashmir separatists (1989) – USA: Al Qaeda (1993) – France: GIA (1995)
  • 152. 152 The Modern Age • The miracle of the Far East – 1969: Japan's Seiko introduces the world's first commercial quartz wristwatch – 1970: Japan's Sharp and Canon introduce the first pocket calculators – 1973: Japan's Canon introduces the first color photocopier – 1974: Japan's Hitachi produces its first IBM- compatible mainframe computer – 1979: Japan's Sony introduces the portable music player Walkman – 1982: Japan's Sony introduces the CD – 1983: Sony releases the first consumer camcorder – 1983: Japan's Nintendo launches the videogame console Nintendo Entertainment System
  • 153. 153 The Modern Age • The miracle of the Far East – 1984: Fujio Masuoka at Japan's Toshiba invents flash memory – 1987: The largest semiconductor manufacturers in the world are Japan's NEC, Japan's Toshiba and Japan's Hitachi – 1988: Taiwan’s Foxconn opens a pioneering factory in China's experimental city Shenzhen – 1988: Japan's Fujitsu introduces the world's first fully digital consumer camera – 1989: Japan owns half of the world's shipbuilding market
  • 154. 154 The Modern Age • The miracle of the Far East – First "Asian tigers": Japan, South Korea, Taiwan, Singapore, Hong Kong – Different philosophies: Shinto, Buddhist, Confucian – Different histories: Japan was already westernized, Taiwan partially (as a Japanese colony), Korea never was, Hong Kong and Singapore are British colonies – Role of the state: from ubiquitous (Japan) to totalitarian (Singapore, South Korea, Taiwan) to indifferent (Hong Kong)
  • 155. 155 The Modern Age • The miracle of the Far East – East Asian countries lack natural resources – To pay for imports, they export cheap goods to the USA – The USA de facto pays for their development – What they have in common is not cultural or political background but that they are allies of the USA during the Cold War
  • 156. 156 The Modern Age • The miracle of the Far East – USA’s influence spreads from Japan, South Korea, Taiwan to the rest of Asia much faster than anything from China or India ever did – The USA succeeds where all previous western empires had failed: to fully westernize the Far East – For Japan second revolution after Buddhism – For China (1980s) the real "cultural revolution" – For India (1990s): evolution from British to USA model
  • 157. 157 The Modern Age • The Personal Computer – 1969: Compuserve’s dial-up service – 1974: The first personal computer, the Altair 8800 (New Mexico) – 1977: Apple II and Atari’s videogame console – 1977: The PC modem – 1981: The IBM PC running Microsoft MS-DOS – 1983: The laptop – 1984: Psion’s personal digital assistant
  • 158. 158 The Modern Age Internet 1969: The computer network ArpaNet has four nodes 1972: Ray Tomlinson invents e-mail 1983: There are 563 computers linked to the ArpaNet 1990: Tim Berners-Lee invents the World-Wide Web 1990: Archie in Canada, the first search engine 1993: Mosaic at Univ of Illinois, the first browser 1996: Nokia introduces the first "smartphone“ 1997: SixDegrees, the first social networking website
  • 159. 159 The Modern Age • Genetics – 1988: first genetically engineered animal, a mouse (Harvard Univ) – 1990: the Human Genome Project is launched – 1994: the first genetically engineered vegetable (Flavr Savr tomato) is introduced – 1997: British biologist Ian Wilmut clones the first mammal, a sheep, Dolly (dies in 2003) – 2002: American scientists synthesize a live virus from chemicals – 2003: the Human Genome Project is completed, having identified the 19,599 +2,188 genes in human DNA
  • 160. 160 The Modern Age • Wilson Edward Osborne (1975) – Sociobiology – The biological basis of social behavior – The social behavior of animals and humans can be explained from the viewpoint of evolution – Behavior is determined by the genome
  • 161. 161 The Modern Age • Francisco Varela (1979) – Cognition as embodied action (or "enaction") – The world is not a given, but reflects the actions in which we engage, it is "enacted" from our actions (structural coupling) – Organisms do not adapt to a pre-given world – Organisms and environment mutually specify each other – Life is an elegant dance between the organism and the environment. – The mind is the tune of that dance.
  • 162. 162 The Modern Age • Humberto Maturana(1980) – "Autopoiesis" is the process by which an organism can continuously reorganize its own structure – Adaptation consists in regenerating the organism's structure so that its relationship to the environment remains constant – Living systems are units of interaction – They cannot be understood independently of their environment – The relationship with the environment molds the configuration of a cognitive system
  • 163. 163 The Modern Age • Richard Dawkins (1976) – Gene Selectionism • Genes want to live forever • The body is a machine for copying genes • What survives is not my body but my genes
  • 164. 164 The Modern Age • Richard Dawkins – The organism alone does not have biological relevance – The control of an organism is never complete inside and null outside – The "extended phenotype" includes the world an organism interacts with
  • 165. 165 The Modern Age • Richard Dawkins – A meme is the unit of cultural evolution, just like a gene is the unit of biological evolution – Ideas exhibit variation (copying with mistakes) and selection (pruning mistakes) – When a meme enters a mind, it parasitically alters the mind's process so that a new goal of the mind is to propagate the meme to other minds – Just like genes use bodies as vehicles to spread, so memes use minds as vehicles to spread – Memes have created the mind, not the other way around
  • 166. 166 The Modern Age • George Lakoff (1980): – We understand the world through metaphors, and we do so without any effort, automatically and unconsciously – Metaphors transport properties from structures of the physical world to non-physical structures – Language was created to deal with physical objects, and later extended to non-physical objects by means of metaphors – All our concepts are of metaphorical nature and are based on our physical experience – Metaphor is pervasive is that it is biological: our brains are built for metaphorical thought
  • 167. 167 The Modern Age • Michael Gazzaniga (1985) – Several independent brain systems work in parallel – Many minds coexist in a confederation – A module located in the left hemisphere interprets the actions of the other modules and provides explanations for our behavior – Beliefs do not preceed behavior, they follow it – There are many "i"'s and one "i" that makes sense of what all the other "i"'s are doing
  • 168. 168 The Modern Age • Gerald Edelman (1987) – "Neural Darwinism”: application of Jerne’s "selectional" theory of the immune system to the brain – Individual brains are wildly diverse – Neural groups "compete" to respond to environmental stimuli – The brain develops categories by selectively strengthening or weakening connections between neural groups – Brain processes are dynamic and stochastic – The brain is not an "instructional" system but a "selectional" system
  • 169. 169 The Modern Age • Allan Hobson (1989) – Dreams are a window on some processing that goes on in the brain while we sleep – The brain is rapidly processing a huge amount of information in whatever order – Our consciousness sees flashes of the bits that are being processed – These bits seem to compose stories of their own, and the stories look weird – Remembering and forgetting occur during dreams – REM sleep is important for consolidating long-term memories
  • 170. 170 The Modern Age • Christof Koch (1989) – A scanning system that sweeps across all regions of the brain 40 times a second – A wave of nerve pulses sent out from the thalamus and triggering all the synchronized cells in the cerebral cortex that are recording sensory information – The cells then fire a coherent wave of messages back to the thalamus – Consciousness originates from the constant interaction between the thalamus and the cortex
  • 172. 172 The Modern Age • Hubble Telescope (1990) – The age of the universe is 13.7 billion years
  • 175. 175 Hubble Telescope The first galaxies that developed after the Big Bang (Hubble Telescope, 2004)
  • 177. 177 The Modern Age 1994: Ethnic massacre in Rwanda 2000: 21 million people have died worldwide of the AIDS epidemics 2000: Ebola in Uganda and Congo 2001: Osama bin Laden’s Al Qaeda terrorist organization attacks the USA 2002: a common currency, the euro, is introduced throughout Europe 2010: Arab Spring
  • 178. 178 The Modern Age • Collapse of the Soviet empire (1989-91) – The most atheist empire of all times was crippled by two religious movements • Catholic Church (Pope John Paul II) from the west • Afghan mujaheddins from the south – The Cold War can be recast as a war between atheism and religion
  • 180. 180 The Modern Age • USA in 2004: the world’s undisputed military and economic superpower – Global presence: maintains 700 military installations abroad – Military superpower: spends as much on defense as the next 20 nations combined – USA share of total world product is 30%, up from 20% in the 1980s – Power of Knowledge: 75% of all Nobel laureates in the sciences, economics, and medicine do research in the USA
  • 182. 182 Debtors and Creditors 2005 Red = debtors Blue = creditors
  • 183. 183 The Modern Age • Globalization – Free-trade zones • European Union • ASEAN • Mercosur • NAFTA
  • 185. 185 The Modern Age • A United Europe (2004) – 25 states – 455 million people – 738,573 sq kms – GDP of 9.613 trillion euros (more than $10 trillion) (CNN)
  • 186. 186 The Modern Age • The Age of Tourism – 2006: Tourism is the biggest industry in the world (11% of GDP, almost 9% of employment)
  • 187. 187 The Modern Age • China’s economic miracle – 1994: China's GDP grows at an average annual rate of about 10% between 1994 and 2000 – 2003: China sends a man in space, the third country to do so after the USSR and the USA – 2005: More than 300 skyscrapers in Shanghai – 2005: China becomes the fourth world economy after the USA, Japan and Germany – 2005: More than 300 skyscrapers in Shanghai – 2005: China becomes the fourth world economy after the USA, Japan and Germany – 2007: China overtakes all European countries and becomes the third economic power after USA and Japan – 2014: Alibaba’s IPO
  • 188. 188 The Modern Age • The Economic Superpowers – 1871: Britain, Germany – 1919: Britain, USA – 1946: USA, Soviet Union – 1991: USA, Japan, Germany – 2010: USA, China, European Union
  • 189. 189 The Modern Age Urbanization 2007: Worldwide urban population passes 50%. The human race has become an urban race.
  • 190. The Modern Age Islamic terrorism Moscow (Sep 1999) New York & Washington (Sep 2001) Bali (Oct 2002) Russia (2002-04) Casablanca (May 2003) Riyah (May 2003) Istanbul (Nov 2003) Madrid (Mar 2004) Iraq (2004-09) London (Jul 2005) Sharm el-Sheik (Jul 2005) Amman (Nov 2005) Afghanistan (2006-09) Mumbai (Nov 2008) Pakistan (2008-13) Al Qaeda (worldwide) GIA (Algeria, 1993) Hamas (Israel) Tamil Tigers (Sri Lanka) Chechnen terrorism (Russia) Moro (Philippines) Jemaah Islamiyah (Indonesia) Kashmiri terrorism (India)
  • 191. 191 The Modern Age Suicide bombings (Economist 2008)
  • 192. 192 The Modern Age • Colin McGinn (1991): – Consciousness does not belong to the "cognitive closure" of our organism – Understanding our consciousness is beyond our cognitive capacities – "Mind may just not be big enough to understand mind”
  • 193. 193 The Modern Age • Daniel Dennett (1991): – The mind is occupied by several parallel "drafts” – A "draft" is a narrative that occurs in the mind, triggered by some interaction with the world – At every point in time, there are many drafts – One of the drafts is dominant in the brain, and that is what we are conscious of – There is no place in the brain where consciousness resides – It doesn't even exist all the time: "probing precipitates narratives”
  • 194. 194 The Modern Age • William Calvin (1991) – A Darwinian process in the brain finds the best thought from the many that are continuously produced – Cerebral code (the equivalent of genetic) allows for reproduction and selection of thoughts – A neural pattern copies itself repeatedly around a region of the brain – “Thoughts” compete and evolve subconsciously – Dreaming occurs all the time but we can't see them when we are awake
  • 195. 195 The Modern Age • Stuart Kauffman (1993) – Self-organizing systems: the fundamental force that counteracts the universal drift towards disorder – Spontaneous emergence of order, or self- organization of complex systems, is ubiquitous – Organisms change their interactions in such a way to reach the boundary between order and chaos – Life was not only possible and probable, but almost inevitable
  • 196. 196 The Modern Age • Antonio Damasio (1995) – Topography of the body – Topography of the environment – Self vs nonself – Second-order narrative in which the self is interacting with the non-self – An "owner" and "observer" of the movie is created – The self is continuously reconstructed – The "I" is not telling the story: the "I" is created by stories told in the mind – "You are the music while the music lasts” (Eliot)
  • 197. 197 The Modern Age • Rodolfo Llinas (1996) – Neurons are active all the time – The activity of neurons generates patterns of behavior all the time – Neurons are always active, even when there are no inputs – Neurons operate at their own pace, regardless of the pace of information – A rhythmic system controls their activity – The neurons are telling the body to move even when the body is not moving – The environment selects which movement the body will actually perform
  • 198. 198 The Modern Age • Net Economy – Amazon – Ebay – Yahoo, Google – Evite, Craigslist, Meetup – Skype – Travelocity, Priceline – Netflix – MySpace, Facebook, Twitter
  • 199. 199 The Modern Age • Net Society – E-commerce: decline of the brick-and- mortar store – E-mail: first innovation in written personal communication since the invention of mail – World-wide web: largest knowledge base in history – Blogs: the end of the newspaper and of tv news?
  • 201. 201 The Modern Age • Facebook – Facebook in 2010, when it passed 500 million users
  • 202. 202 Digital Appliances • New appliances – Ipod – Cellular phone – Blackberry – Play Station
  • 203. 203 How teenagers spend their time in the USA (2010) Kaiser Family Foundation
  • 204. 204 The Modern Age New York, September 2001 Afghanistan, November 2001 Iraq, December 2003
  • 205. 205 Mars Rovers Mars, January 2004 Husband Hill, Mars, September 2005
  • 206. 206 Skyscrapers • Taipei 101 • Petronas Towers • Freedom Tower Taipei Kuala Lumpur Dubai
  • 209. 209 Death of Pope John Paul II 2005
  • 210. 210 First photography of a non- solar planet (NASA 2005)
  • 211. 211 The Modern Age Global warming and the Arctic Sea Atlantic Monthly, October 2008
  • 213. 213 The Great Recession 2008-12 • Financial crisis of october 2008 (Dow Jones )
  • 219. 219 European Union vs Russia (2014)
  • 220. 220 Ebola in West Africa (2014)
  • 221. Islamic State of Iraq and Syria (2014)
  • 223. Comet Landing (2014) • The Philae robotic lander of the Rosetta robotic space probe lands on Comet 67P/Churyumov- Gerasimenko
  • 224. Al Qaeda attacks France (2015)
  • 226. 226 The Modern Age • Groucho Marx – I remember the first time I had sex - I kept the receipt. – I was married by a judge. I should have asked for a jury. – Military intelligence is a contradiction in terms. – Politics is the art of looking for trouble, finding it everywhere, diagnosing it incorrectly and applying the wrong remedies. – There's one way to find out if a man is honest - ask him. If he says, "Yes," you know he is a crook. – Those are my principles, and if you don't like them... well, I have others.