The document describes the structure and function of the digestive system. It discusses the organs of the digestive system including the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, liver, pancreas and gallbladder. It explains how food is ingested, digested, and absorbed through mechanical and chemical processes involving these organs. The digestive system breaks down food into nutrients that can be used by the body through a series of steps including ingestion, secretion, digestion, absorption and defecation.
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Functions of the Digestive System
Ingestion: eating
Secretion: release of water, enzymes, buffers
Mixing and propulsion: movement along GI
tract
Digestion: breakdown of foods
Mechanically: by movements of digestive organs
Chemically: by enzymes
Absorption: moving products of digestion into
the body
Defecation: dumping waste products
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Organs of the Digestive System
Gastrointestinal (GI) tract
A tube through which foods pass and where
digestion and absorption occur.
Includes:
mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small
intestine, large intestine
Accessory organs:
Organs that help in digestion but through which
food never passes.
Includes: teeth, tongue, salivary
glands, liver, gallbladder, and pancreas
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Layers of the Gastrointestinal (GI) Wall
Four layers from lower esophagus to anus
1. Mucosa: epithelium in direct content with food;
made of connective tissue, glands, and thin
muscularis mucosae
2. Submucosa: connective tissue, blood
vessels, lymphatic vessels, and enteric nervous
system (ENS)
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Layers of the Gastrointestinal (GI) Wall
3. Muscularis: inner circular layer, outer longitudinal
layer
Smooth muscle in most of GI tract
Except skeletal (voluntary muscle) in
mouth, pharynx, upper esophagus, and external anal
sphincter
4. Serosa: visceral layer of peritoneum
Also forms extensions: greater omentum and mesentery
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Mouth (Oral Cavity)
Formed by
Cheeks and tongue
Hard palate anteriorly, soft palate posteriorly
Uvula
U-shaped extension of soft palate posteriorly
During swallowing, uvula blocks entry of food or
drink into nasal cavity
Tongue: muscular accessory organ
Maneuvers food for chewing
Adjusts shape for speech and swallowing
Lingual tonsils at base of tongue
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Salivary Glands
Exocrine glands with ducts that empty into
oral cavity
Three pairs of salivary glands
Parotid
Largest; inferior and anterior to ears
Submandibular
In floor of mouth; medial and inferior to mandible
Sublingual
Inferior to tongue and superior to submandibular
Saliva: 99.5% water, salivary
amylase, mucus and other solutes
Dissolves food and starts digestion of starches
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Teeth
Accessory organs in bony sockets of
mandible and maxilla
Three external regions
Crown: above gums
Root: part(s) embedded in socket
Neck: between crown and root near gum line
Three layers of material
Enamel: hardest substance in body; over crown
Dentin: majority of interior of tooth
Pulp cavity: nerve, blood vessel, and lymphatics
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Teeth
Humans have two sets of teeth
The 20 deciduous teeth are replaced by the
permanent teeth between ages 6 and 12 years.
The 32 permanent teeth appear between 6 years
and adulthood.
Four types of teeth
Incisors (8): used to cut food
Cuspids (canines) (4): used to tear food
Premolars (8): for crushing and grinding food
Molars (12): used for crushing and grinding food
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Digestion in the Mouth
Mechanical digestion
Chewing mixes food with saliva
Rounds up food into a soft bolus for swallowing
Chemical digestion
Salivary amylase (enzyme) breaks down
polysaccharides (starch) maltose and larger
fragments
Continues in the stomach for about an hour until
acid inactivates amylase
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Pharynx and Esophagus
Food passages from mouth stomach
Swallowing: 3 stages
Voluntary stage: bolus of food oropharynx
Pharyngeal stage: oropharynx esophagus
Soft palate moves up and epiglottis moves down;
prevent food from entering nasopharynx and larynx
Esophageal: food stomach by peristalsis
Esophageal sphincters:
Upper: controls entry esophagus
Lower: controls entry stomach; GERD affects
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Stomach
J- shaped enlargement of GI tract
Mixing chamber and holding reservoir
Very elastic/expandable and muscular
Four regions
Cardia: surrounds upper opening
Fundus: superior and to left of cardia
Body: large central portion
Pylorus: lower part leading to pyloric sphincter
and duodenum
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Stomach Wall: Four Layers
1. Mucosa
Empty stomach lies in folds called rugae
Epithelium: simple columnar; glands secrete
mucus
Gastric glands line gastric pits
2. Secretory cells
Mucous cells mucus
Parietal cells HCl and intrinsic factor
These secretions collectively called gastric juice
Intrinsic factor helps with vitamin B12 absorption needed
for RBC formation. If missing anemia
Chief cells inactive enzyme pepsinogen
G cells secrete gastrin (hormone) into blood
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Stomach Wall: Four Layers
3. Muscularis: Three layers
Outer: longitudinal
Middle: circular
Inner: oblique (extra layer not in other organs)
provides for efficient gastric contractions
4. Serous membrane (serosa)
Visceral peritoneum: covers organs
Extensions of serosa
Greater omentum: hangs from curve of stomach
Mesentery: attaches small intestine to posterior wall of
abdomen and provides route for vessels
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Digestion and Absorption
Digestion
Mechanical digestion
Stretching of stomach wall nerve impulses
Secretion + mixing waves
Food mixed with juice now called chyme
Chemical digestion
Pepsin (pepsinogen + HCl) digests protein peptides
(small chains of amino acids)
Gastric emptying through pyloric sphincter
Carbohydrates fastest, proteins next, fats last
Once in duodenum feedback inhibition of stomach
Little absorption: water, ions, some drugs
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Pancreas
Location: behind stomach
Produces pancreatic juice in acinar cells
Passes into duodenum via pancreatic duct
Secretions that help digestion
Sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3): pH 7.1-8.2)
Digestive enzymes: many
Pancreatic lipase: fat-digesting
Pancreatic amylase: starch-digesting
Proteases: made in inactivated form
Activated by enterokinase from small intestine
Chymotrypsinogen, trypsinogen, carboxypeptidase
RNAase and DNAase
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Liver and Gallbladder
Weighs 1.4 kg (3 lb): 2nd largest organ in the
body; large right lobe + 3 smaller parts
In right upper quadrant, below diaphragm
Bile production and pathway
Hepatocytes (liver cells) make bile
Bile canaliculi bile ducts hepatic duct
Gallbladder (green, pear-shaped organ that stores
bile)
Cystic duct common bile duct duodenum
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Liver and Gall Bladder
Functional unit is lobule
Consists of hepatocytes in rows that radiate
around central vein
Sinusoids (permeable capillaries with phagocytic
[Kuppfer] cells) are between cells
Blood reaches liver lobules from
Hepatic artery (branch of celiac): blood high in O2
Hepatic portal vein (formed by veins from digestive
organs and spleen): blood low in O2 but rich in
nutrients from digestive organs
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Bile
Functions of bile
Emulsification: breaking apart clusters of fats so
they are more digestible
Absorption of fats
Formation and recycling of bile
Bilirubin from heme when RBCs broken down
Bile is digested stercobilin: gives feces brown
color
Bile salts reabsorbed into blood in small intestine
(ileum) portal vein liver
Gallstones may form from bile
Obstruct bile ducts from gallbladder pain
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Liver Functions
1. Carbohydrate metabolism
Polysaccharide stored in liver as glycogen
Converts glycogen, fructose, galactose, lactic
acid, amino acids glucose to blood glucose
2. Lipid metabolism
Produces cholesterol, triglycerides; makes bile
Makes lipoproteins for lipid transport
3. Protein metabolism
Remove NH2 from amino acids ammonia
(NH3) urea to kidneys (urine)
Synthesize most plasma proteins: albumin
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Liver Functions
4. Removes many harmful substances from
blood
Detoxifies alcohol
Inactivates steroid and thyroid hormones
Eliminates some drugs (like penicillin) into bile
5. Excretion of bilirubin
From heme (in RBCs) to bile feces
6. Stores fat-soluble vitamins (ADEK) and
minerals (Fe, Cu)
7. Activates vitamin D
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Small Intestine
Length
10 feet long in living person
Extends from pylorus of stomach to cecum of
large intestine
Three major regions:
duodenum, jejunum, ileum
Functions
Site of most of digestion
Essentially all nutrient absorption occurs here
Ends in ileocecal sphincter (in RLQ)
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Digestion in Small Intestine
Mechanical digestion
Segmentation activity: for mixing
Peristalsis for movement of intestinal contents
after most absorption completed: slow waves
Chemical digestion: 2 L/d of secretions
Alkaline chyme due to bicarbonate
From pancreas and alkaline mucus from small intestine
Enzymes produced by cells on villi
Peptidases: breaks small peptides
Disaccharidases: sucrase, lactase, and galactase
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Absorption in the Small Intestine
Chyme enters small intestine carrying
partially digested carbohydrates and proteins
Intestinal juice (composed of bile, pancreatic
juice, intestinal juice) completes digestion
90% of absorption of products of digestion
occurs in the small intestine
Monosaccharides; amino acids
Fatty acids and monoglycerides
Phosphate sugar, and bases of DNA, RNA
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Summary: Carbohydrate Digestion
Amylases (salivary and pancreatic):
Starch and dextrin maltose
Disaccharidases (from small intestine):
Maltose: maltose glucose + glucose
Lactase: lactose glucose + galactose
Sucrase: sucrose glucose + fructose
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Protein and Fat Digestion
Pepsin, trypsin, chymotrypsin, and
carboxypeptidase
Proteins small peptides
Peptidases at surface:
Peptides amino acids, dipeptides, and
tri-peptides
Lipase (pancreatic)
Triglyceridesfatty acids + monoglycerides
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Absorption of Products of Digestion
By diffusion, facilitated diffusion, osmosis and
active transport
Carbohydrates monosaccharides
Via portal system (blood) to liver
Proteins (jejunum + ileum) amino acids
Via portal system (blood) to liver
Lipids
Short-chained fatty acids or monoglycerides or
blood in villi
Larger lipids coated by proteins in chlyomicrons
lacteals lymphatics (lymph) then blood
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Absorption of Products of Digestion
Water and salt
Primarily osmotic movement that accompanies
other nutrients
Vitamins
Fat-soluble (A, D, E, K) absorbed with fat
Water-soluble (B’s, C) with simple diffusion
B12
Combines with intrinsic factor for transport through
duodenum and jejunum
Finally can be absorbed by active transport in ileum
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Digestion and Absorption
Ileocecal sphincter limits rate of emptying of
ileum
Slow peristalsis
Mass peristalsis
Triggered by presence of food in stomach
Wastes move from mid-colon rectum
Bacterial digestion
Produce some B-vitamins + vitamin K
Produce gases: flatus
Colon absorbs salt + water
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Defecation Reflex
Stretch of rectum wall neural reflex
contraction of longitudinal muscle
Combined pressure + parasympathetic
activity relaxes internal anal sphincter
External anal sphincter is voluntary
Contraction of diaphragm and abdominal
muscles aid defecation
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Control: Phases of Digestion
Rule: activate forward and inhibit behind
Three phases: cephalic, gastric, intestinal
1. Cephalic: smell, sight, thought of food
Cranial nerves VII + IX stimulate salivary glands
Cranial nerve X (vagus) stimulates gastric glands
2. Gastric: stretching, pH of stomach
Gastrin activates stomach and relaxes pyloric sphincter
3. Intestinal phase: intestinal hormones play key
roles
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Control: Phases of Digestion
Secretin
Released when acidic chyme enters intestine
Stimulates release of pancreatic juice high in
bicarbonate to buffer acidic chyme from stomach
Cholecystokinin (CCK)
Released when chyme rich in amino acids and
fatty acids enters intestine
Stimulates release of pancreatic juice high in
digestive enzymes
Decreases gastric motility and secretion
Causes gallbladder to contract and eject bile
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Aging
Decreased GI secretion, motility, strength of
responses
Loss of taste, increased risk for periodontal
disease, difficulty swallowing, hiatal
hernia, gastritis, peptic ulcer disease
Increased risk for gallbladder
problems, cirrhosis of
liver, pancreatitis, constipation, hemorrhoids,
diverticulitis
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End of Chapter 19
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