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Medicinal plant systematics i

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The document describes the key characteristics of the Fabaceae family of flowering plants. It notes that Fabaceae includes trees, shrubs and herbs found worldwide in temperate and tropical areas. The leaves are usually alternate and compound. The flowers typically have 5 sepals and 5 overlapping petals in a distinctive pattern, with 10 stamens that are joined or separate. The pistil consists of a single style and ovary above multiple ovules. Economically important plants in this family include beans, peas, carob, and various trees.

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Dr. S. Manikandan, M.Sc., Ph.D., Lecturer in Botany
 The Annonaceae are woody trees, shrubs and vines comprising about 130 genera and 2,300 species.  The leaves are simple, alternate, lack stipules, and generally are distichously arranged in flat sprays.  The flowers are bisexual and actinomorphic, possessing 3 whorls of perianth with 3 segments in each whorl.
The elongated floral axis also bears many helically disposed stamens and several to many simple pistils. All of the floral parts are distinct. The stamens are very short, consisting of the fertile central anther portion, a distal pad of fleshy connective tissue, and a short fleshy basal portion.  The stamens are generally so tightly packed on the receptacle that often only the fleshy connective tissue of each is exposed.  The pistils each have a superior ovary with one locule and 1- many parietal ovules. Sectioned seeds reveal channels or partitions in the ruminate endosperm.  The pistils generally remain distinct and develop into berry-like fruits but sometimes they coalesce into multiple fruits like the custard apple.
Cananga odorata  ylang ylang. Note the distichous leaves in the first photo. The perianth consists of 3 whorls with 3 appendages in each whorl. The outer appendages or sepals are small by comparison to the 2 inner whorls.  However, they are persistent and readily visible in the early fruiting stage depicted in the 3rd photo.  In this species the pistils remain distinct and the cluster of fruit at the left in the 4th photo was derived from a single flower.
Artabotrys hexapetalus  ylang ylang. Note three whorls of perianth, one of the inner petals has been removed to reveal the numerous greenish stamens and the yellowish pistils.
Polyalthia suberosa The trimerous nature of the perianth is apparent. The carpels of the apocarpous gynoecium remain distinct into the fruiting stage in this species. The section through a seed reveals ruminate or compartmentalized endosperm and a small embryo.
Annona squamosa - sugar apple
Monodora myristica Although the 3-merous condition of the perianth that is typical for the family is seen in this species, the gynoecium is exceptional in being syncarpous.
 Description The Malvaceae are herbs, shrubs, or trees comprising about 75 genera and perhaps as many as 1,500 species that are further characterized by the presence of stellate hairs and mucilaginous sap.
Leaf and Stem Leaves are generally alternate, often palmately lobed or compound and palmately veined. The margin may be entire, but when dentate a vein ends at the tip of each tooth (malvoid teeth). Stipules are present. The stems contain mucous canals and often also mucous cavities. Hairs are common, and are most typically stellate
 The flowers are commonly borne in definite or indefinite axillary inflorescences, which are often reduced to a single flower, but may also be auliflorous, oppositifolious or terminal. They often bear supernumerary bracts. They can be unisexual or bisexual and are generally actinomorphic, often associated with conspicuous bracts, forming an epicalyx.
 Calyx They generally have five valvate sepals, most frequently basally connate.  Corolla Five imbricate petals.  Androecium The stamens are five to numerous, connate at least at their bases, but often forming a tube around the pistils.
Gynoecium The pistils are composed of two to many connate carpels. The ovary is superior, with axial placentation. Capitate or lobed stigma. The flowers have nectaries made of many tightly packed glandular hairs, usually positioned on the sepals.  Fruits Most often a loculicidal capsule, a schizocarp or nut.
• Gossypium seed supplies commercial cotton, pulp and oil. ‘Rosella fruit’ (Jamaica sorrel) is the fleshy calyx and bracts of Hibiscus sabdariffa, while ‘ochra’ (‘okra’) is the young fruits of Hibiscus esculentus. Some pot-herbs (Malva parviflora), and many ornamentals.
• Distribution The Zygophyllaceae is a family of flowering plants that contains the bean-caper and caltrop. It includes around 285 species in 22 genera. Habit Trees, or shrubs (mostly, sometimes with short-shoots), or herbs (often with jointed nodes); resinous, or not resinous. ‘Normal’ plants, or switch-plants (sometimes, more or less); sometimes more or less phyllodineous (e.g., species in which the leaflets fall before the photosynthesising petioles). Plants succulent, or non- succulent.
Medicinal plant systematics i
• Leaves opposite (usually), or alternate (e.g. Viscainoa); when alternate, spiral; ‘herbaceous’, or leathery, or fleshy, or modified into spines; petiolate (mostly), or sessile (e.g. Augea); non-sheathing; compound (nearly always), or simple (supposedly, e.g. in some Zygophyllum and Fagonia species); pulvinate, or epulvinate; usually unifoliolate, or bifoliolate, or ternate, or pinnate. Leaflets pulvinate, or epulvinate. Lamina one-veined, or pinnately veined; cross-venulate (small veins often terminating in dilated tracheids). Leaves stipulate. Stipules free of one another; spiny (often), or scaly, or leafy; persistent. Leaves without a persistent basal meristem.
• Inflorescences terminal, or axillary, or leaf- opposed; espatheate. • Flowers ebracteate; ebracteolate; regular; (4– )5(–6) merous; cyclic; tetracyclic, or pentacyclic, or polycyclic. Floral receptacle developing a gynophore, or with neither androphore nor gynophore. Free hypanthium absent. • Hypogynous disk present (usually), extrastaminal (usually), or intrastaminal; of separate members, or annular.
• Androecial members unbranched; free of the perianth; free of one another; • Staminodes when present, 4, or 5; external to the fertile stamens. Stamens (4–)5, or 10, or 15; isomerous • alternisepalous, or oppositisepalous (when the outer whorl is staminodal); alternating with the corolla members, or both alternating with and opposite the corolla members. • Anthers dorsifixed; versatile; dehiscing via longitudinal slits;
 Gynoecium (2–)5(–6) carpelled. Carpels isomerous with the perianth  The pistil (2–)4–12 celled. Gynoecium syncarpous; eu-syncarpous; superior. Ovary (2–)5(–6) locular (but sometimes these secondarily partitioned).  Styles 1; attenuate from the ovary;  Placentation axile.
 Fruit when non-schizocarpic, a capsule (usually), or capsular-indehiscent.  Seeds endospermic
 Guaiacum officinale is the source of the hardest, densest wood (lignum vitae). Guaiacum, Zygophyllum, Tribulus and Larrea species are cultivated in warm regions as ornamentals.
 Distribution Rutaceae, family of flowering plants belonging to the order Sapindales and consists of 160 genera and 1,700 species distributed throughout the world, especially in warm temperate and tropical regions. The largest numbers are found in Africa and Australia, often in semiarid woodlands.
• Habit The Rutaceae are herbs, shrubs, and trees with glandular punctate, commonly strongly smelling herbage. The common occurrence of spines and winged petioles. • Leaves The leaves are alternate or opposite, simple or palmately or pinnately compound, or sometimes heathlike or reduced to spines; stipules are absent.
Medicinal plant systematics i
 The flowers are often sweet-scented, nearly always bisexual, and are actinomorphic or sometimes zygomorphic.  Calyx The calyx consists of 3-5 distinct or basally connate sepals  Corolla It consists of 3-5 distinct or sometimes connate petals or rarely the petals are lacking.
Androecium The androecium consists of distinct or sometimes connate stamens that are commonly obdiplostemonous, that is in two whorls with the outer whorl opposite the petals. However, sometimes there may be (1)3-4 whorls or rarely up to 60 stamens.
The gynoecium consists of a single compound pistil of commonly 2-5 or more, often incompletely connate carpels that may be united only basally or apically, either one or an equal number of styles, and a superior ovary with usually 2-5 or more locules, each bearing 1-several axile ovules. Generally, an intrastaminal nectary disk is situated between the stamens and the ovary.
 The fruit of Rutaceae are very variable: berries, drupes, hesperidiums, samaras, capsules and follicles all occur.  Seeds endospermic, or non-endospermic.
 The family contains economically important fruits. Citrus species include the lemon (Citrus limon), sour orange (C. aurantium), sweet orange (C. sinensis), lime (C. aurantifolia), tangerine and mandarin orange (C. reticulata), grapefruit (C. paradisi), and citron (C. medica). All of these are grown for their fruits. Other regionally important fruits are the kumquat (Fortunella), bael (Aegle), elephant apple (Limonia acidissima), and Japanese pepper (Zanthoxylum piperitum).
• Distribution • Sapindaceae, also known as the soapberry family, is a family of flowering plants in the order Sapindales. There are about 140-150 genera with 1400-2000 species, including maple, horse chestnut and lychee. • Sapindaceae members occur in temperate to tropical regions, many in laurel forest habitat, throughout the world. Many are lactiferous, i.e. they contain milky sap, and many contain mildly toxic saponins with soap-like qualities in either the foliage and/or the seeds, or roots. The largest genera are Serjania, Paullinia, Acer and Allophylus.
Medicinal plant systematics i
• Habit Plants of this family have a variety of habits, from trees to herbaceous plants or lianas. • Leaves Their leaves usually spirally alternate, sometimes (in Acer, Aesculus, and a few other genera) opposite. They are most often pinnately compound, sometimes palmately, or just palmate (Acer, Aesculus), with a petiole lacking stipules, but having a swollen base.
The flowers are small, actinomorphic or zygomorphic, and commonly functionally unisexual, although a given individual may bear seemingly bisexual flowers together with either male or female flowers. The perianth typically is biseriate, consisting of calyx and corolla.
 Calyx The calyx comprises 4 or 5 distinct or sometimes basally connate sepals.  Corolla The corolla consists of 4 or 5 distinct petals or sometimes is absent. The petals commonly have basal appendages on the inner side.
• Androecium The stamens are distinct, often have hairy filaments, and in quantity usually are equal to or twice the number of calyx lobes. • Gynoecium The gynoecium consists of a single compound pistil of usually 3 carpels, commonly an equal number of styles or style lobes, and a superior ovary usually with 3 locules, each containing 1 or 2 axile or axile- apical ovules. Most species have an extrastaminal, often asymmetrical nectary disk situated between the stamens and corolla.
 Fruit The fruits are fleshy or dry. They may be nuts, berries, drupes, schizocarps, capsules (Bridgesia), or samaras (Acer).  Seed Seeds non-endospermic.
 Fruits: ‘Spanish lime’ (Melicoccus), litchi and longan (Litchi spp.), pulusan and rambutan (Nephelium spp.); Blighea with edible arils (‘akee’).
• Distribution and Habit The Fabaceae are the third largest family of flowering plants, behind Orchidaceae and Asteraceae, with 730 genera and over 19,400 species The Fabaceae are mostly herbs but include also shrubs and trees found in both temperate and tropical areas.
• The Fabaceae comprise three subfamilies (with distribution and some representative species): • Mimosoideae: 80 genera and 3,200 species. Mostly tropical and warm temperate Asia and America. Mimosa, Acacia. • Caesalpinioideae: 170 genera and 2,000 species, cosmopolitan. Caesalpinia, Senna, Bauhinia, Amherstia. • Faboideae: 470 genera and 14,000 species. Astragalus, Lupinus.
The leaves are usually alternate and compound. Most often they are even- or odd-pinnately compound (e.g. Caragana and Robinia respectively), often trifoliate (e.g. Trifolium, Medicago) and rarely palmately compound (e.g. Lupinus), in the Mimosoideae and the Caesalpinioideae commonly bipinnate (e.g. Acacia, Mimosa). They always have stipules, which can be leaf-like (e.g. Pisum), thorn-like (e.g. Robinia) or be rather inconspicuous. Leaf margins are entire or, occasionally, serrate. Both the leaves and the leaflets often have wrinkled pulvini to permit nastic movements. In some species, leaflets have evolved into tendrils (e.g. Vicia).
The flowers are slightly to strongly perigynous, zygomorphic, and commonly in racemes, spikes, or heads. The perianth commonly consists of a calyx and corolla of 5 segments each. Papilionaceous corolla The petals are overlapping (imbricate) in bud with the posterior petal (called the banner or flag) outermost (i.e., exterior) in position. The petals are basically distinct except for variable connation of the two lowermost ones called the keel petals. The lateral petals are often called the wings.
Medicinal plant systematics i
Androecium The androecium most commonly consists of 10 stamens in two groups (i.e., they are diadelphous with 9 stamens in one bundle and the 10th stamen more or less distinct). Gynoecium The pistil is simple, comprising a single style and stigma, and a superior ovary with one locule containing 2-many marginal ovules.
• In the Caesalpinioideae, the flowers are often zygomorphic, as in Cercis, or nearly symmetrical with five equal petals in Bauhinia. The upper petal is the innermost one, unlike in the Faboideae. Some species, like some in the genus Senna, have asymmetric flowers, with one of the lower petals larger than the opposing one, and the style bent to one side. The calyx, corolla, or stamens can be showy in this group.
Medicinal plant systematics i
 In the Mimosoideae, the flowers are actinomorphic and arranged in globose inflorescences. The petals are small and the stamens, which can be more than just ten, have long coloured filaments, which are the most showy part of the flower. All of the flowers in an inflorescence open at once.
Medicinal plant systematics i
• In the Faboideae, the flowers are zygomorphic, and have a specialized structure. The upper petal, called the banner, is large and envelops the rest of the petals in bud, often reflexing when the flower blooms. The two adjacent petals, the wings, surround the two bottom petals. The two bottom petals are fused together at the apex (remaining free at the base), forming a boat-like structure called the keel. The stamens are always ten in number, and their filaments can be fused in various configurations, often in a group of nine stamens plus one separate stamen.
Medicinal plant systematics i
 The ovary most typically develops into a legume. A legume is a simple dry fruit that usually dehisces (opens along a seam) on two sides. A common name for this type of fruit is a "pod", although that can also be applied to a few other fruit types. A few species have evolved samarae, loments, follicles, indehiscent legumes, achenes, drupes, and berries from the basic legume fruit.
• Nitrogen fixation Their ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen reduces fertilizer costs for farmers and gardeners who grow legumes, and means that legumes can be used in a crop rotation to replenish soil that has been depleted of nitrogen. Legume seeds and foliage have a comparatively higher protein content than non-legume materials, due to the additional nitrogen that legumes receive through the process. Some legume species perform hydraulic lift, which makes them ideal for intercropping
• These are cultivated for their seeds, and are also called pulses. The seeds are used for human and animal consumption or for the production of oils for industrial uses. Grain legumes include both herbaceous plants like beans, lentils, lupins, peas and peanuts, and trees such as carob, mesquite and tamarind.
 Industrial farmed legumes include Indigofera, cultivated for the production of indigo, Acacia, for gum arabic, and Derris, for the insecticide action of rotenone, a compound it produces.
 Various legume species are farmed for timber production worldwide, including numerous Acacia species, Dalbergia species, and Castanospermum australe.
 Distribution Rosaceae (the rose family) are a medium- sized family of flowering plants, including about 2830 species in 95 genera. The name is derived from the type genus Rosa. Among the largest genera are Alchemilla (270), Sorbus (260), Crataegus (260), Cotoneaster (260), and Rubus (250)
Medicinal plant systematics i
 Habit The Rosaceae are trees, shrubs and herbs Leaves The leaves are generally arranged spirally, but have an opposite arrangement in some species. They can be simple or pinnately compound (either odd- or even-pinnate). Compound leaves appear in around 30 genera. The leaf margin is most often serrate. Paired stipules are generally present. The stipules are sometimes adnate to the petiole. Glands or extrafloral nectaries may be present on leaf margin or petiole. Spines may be present on the midrib of leaflets and the rachis of compound leaves.
 Flower The flowers are generally showy. They are actinomorphic (i.e. radially symmetrical) and almost always hermaphroditic. Rosaceae generally have five sepals, five petals and many spirally arranged stamens. The bases of the sepals, petals, and stamens are fused together to form a characteristic cup-like structure called hypanthium. They can be arranged in racemes, spikes, or heads, solitary flowers are rare.
 Fruit They can be follicles, capsules, nuts, achenes, drupes (Prunus) and accessory fruits, like the pome of an apple, or the hip of a rose. Many fruits of the family are edible.
 Edible fruits from Malus spp. (apples), Prunus spp. (apricot, cherry, nectarine, peach, plums, prune, sloe), Cydonia (quince), Pyrus (pear), Eriobotrya (loquat), Rubus (blackberry, boysenberry, loganberry, rasberry), Fragaria (strawberry), Mespilus (medlar); nuts (Prunus — almond); many ornamental trees and shrubs or hedge-plants, e.g. Spiraea, Photinia, Kerria, Cotoneaster, Pyracantha, Crataegus, Sorbus, Rhodotypos, Prunus, Rosa, Potentilla; and some widely naturalized pests (e.g. from Acaena, Crataegus, Cotoneaster, Pyracantha).
 Distribution and Habit Combretaceae is a family of flowering plants in the order Myrtales. The family includes about 600 species of trees, shrubs, and lianas in 18 genera. Leaves The leaves are simple, alternate or opposite, entire; stipules small or absent.
Medicinal plant systematics i
 Flower The flowers are bisexual or sometimes unisexual, usually actinomorphic. The perianth arises from near the summit of a tubular epigynous zone  Calyx calyx of usually 4 or 5 distinct to slightly connate sepals
 Corolla corolla commonly of 4 or 5 distinct petals, occasionally absent. Androecium The androecium of 4-10 stamens is adnate to the epigynous zone, commonly in two cycles, often strongly exserted.
Gynoecium The gynoecium is a single compound pistil of 2-5 carpels; style and stigma 1; ovary inferior, with 1 locule containing 2(-6) apical ovules pendulous on long funiculi. The nectary is usually a disk (often hairy) above the ovary.  Fruit The fruit is 1-seeded, often a flattened, ribbed, or winged drupe.
 Quisqualis indica The leaf juice is sometimes used to treat boils and ulcers. Terminalia catappa The strong, elastic timber is used in construction, and the roots, bark, leaves, and fruit are used medicinally and for tanning animal skins.
 Distribution The Cucurbitaceae are an important family consisting of approximately 125 genera and 960 species, mainly in regions tropical and subtropical. Habit Most of the plants in this family are annual vines but there are also woody lianas, thorny shrubs, and trees (Dendrosicyos).
Medicinal plant systematics i
 Leaves The leaves are alternate and usually palmately 5-lobed or divided; stipules are absent. Flower The flowers are actinomorphic and nearly always unisexual.
Perianth The perianth has a short to prolonged epigynous zone that bears a calyx of 3-6 segments or lobes and 3-6 petals or more frequently a 3-6-lobed sympetalous corolla.  Androecium The androecium is highly variable, consisting of basically 5 distinct to completely connate stamens that frequently are twisted, folded or reduced in number.
Gynoecium The gynoecium consists of a single compound pistil of 2-5 carpels, generally with one style and as many style branches or major stigma lobes as carpels, and an inferior ovary with one locule and usually numerous ovules on 2-5 parietal placentae or 3 locules with numerous ovules on axile placentae.  Fruit The fruit is a type of berry called a pepo.
 Many sources of important edible fruits, e.g. Cucurbita, Cucumis, Lagenaria, Sechium (melons, cucumbers, etc.), and some are poisonous.
 Distribution The Apiaceae are mostly temberate and its comprising about 300 genera and 3,000 species Habit mostly herbs
Medicinal plant systematics i
 Leaves The leaves are nearly always alternate and pinnately or palmately compound or more than once compound; stipules are generally absent. Flower The flowers are typically small, mostly bisexual, mostly actinomorphic except in a few instances where pseudanthia are produced and the peripheral flowers have enlarged petals directed away from the center of the inflorescence.
 Calyx The calyx is reduced to 5 tooth-like sepals around the summit of the ovary or may even be obsolete. Corolla The corolla consists of 5 distinct, typically inflexed petals or rarely is lacking.  Androecium The androecium comprises 5 distinct stamens arising from an epigynous nectary disk.
Gynoecium The gynoecium consists of a single compound pistil of 2 carpels, 2 styles borne on an enlarged stylopodium, and an inferior ovary with 2 locules, each containing a single pendulous, apical-axile ovule.  Fruit The fruit is a schizocarp.
Some species: Daucus carota Coriandrum sativum Centella asiatica Ferula assafoetida

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Medicinal plant systematics i

  • 1. Dr. S. Manikandan, M.Sc., Ph.D., Lecturer in Botany
  • 2.  The Annonaceae are woody trees, shrubs and vines comprising about 130 genera and 2,300 species.  The leaves are simple, alternate, lack stipules, and generally are distichously arranged in flat sprays.  The flowers are bisexual and actinomorphic, possessing 3 whorls of perianth with 3 segments in each whorl.
  • 3. The elongated floral axis also bears many helically disposed stamens and several to many simple pistils. All of the floral parts are distinct. The stamens are very short, consisting of the fertile central anther portion, a distal pad of fleshy connective tissue, and a short fleshy basal portion.  The stamens are generally so tightly packed on the receptacle that often only the fleshy connective tissue of each is exposed.  The pistils each have a superior ovary with one locule and 1- many parietal ovules. Sectioned seeds reveal channels or partitions in the ruminate endosperm.  The pistils generally remain distinct and develop into berry-like fruits but sometimes they coalesce into multiple fruits like the custard apple.
  • 4. Cananga odorata  ylang ylang. Note the distichous leaves in the first photo. The perianth consists of 3 whorls with 3 appendages in each whorl. The outer appendages or sepals are small by comparison to the 2 inner whorls.  However, they are persistent and readily visible in the early fruiting stage depicted in the 3rd photo.  In this species the pistils remain distinct and the cluster of fruit at the left in the 4th photo was derived from a single flower.
  • 5. Artabotrys hexapetalus  ylang ylang. Note three whorls of perianth, one of the inner petals has been removed to reveal the numerous greenish stamens and the yellowish pistils.
  • 6. Polyalthia suberosa The trimerous nature of the perianth is apparent. The carpels of the apocarpous gynoecium remain distinct into the fruiting stage in this species. The section through a seed reveals ruminate or compartmentalized endosperm and a small embryo.
  • 7. Annona squamosa - sugar apple
  • 8. Monodora myristica Although the 3-merous condition of the perianth that is typical for the family is seen in this species, the gynoecium is exceptional in being syncarpous.
  • 9.  Description The Malvaceae are herbs, shrubs, or trees comprising about 75 genera and perhaps as many as 1,500 species that are further characterized by the presence of stellate hairs and mucilaginous sap.
  • 10. Leaf and Stem Leaves are generally alternate, often palmately lobed or compound and palmately veined. The margin may be entire, but when dentate a vein ends at the tip of each tooth (malvoid teeth). Stipules are present. The stems contain mucous canals and often also mucous cavities. Hairs are common, and are most typically stellate
  • 11.  The flowers are commonly borne in definite or indefinite axillary inflorescences, which are often reduced to a single flower, but may also be auliflorous, oppositifolious or terminal. They often bear supernumerary bracts. They can be unisexual or bisexual and are generally actinomorphic, often associated with conspicuous bracts, forming an epicalyx.
  • 12.  Calyx They generally have five valvate sepals, most frequently basally connate.  Corolla Five imbricate petals.  Androecium The stamens are five to numerous, connate at least at their bases, but often forming a tube around the pistils.
  • 13. Gynoecium The pistils are composed of two to many connate carpels. The ovary is superior, with axial placentation. Capitate or lobed stigma. The flowers have nectaries made of many tightly packed glandular hairs, usually positioned on the sepals.  Fruits Most often a loculicidal capsule, a schizocarp or nut.
  • 14. • Gossypium seed supplies commercial cotton, pulp and oil. ‘Rosella fruit’ (Jamaica sorrel) is the fleshy calyx and bracts of Hibiscus sabdariffa, while ‘ochra’ (‘okra’) is the young fruits of Hibiscus esculentus. Some pot-herbs (Malva parviflora), and many ornamentals.
  • 15. • Distribution The Zygophyllaceae is a family of flowering plants that contains the bean-caper and caltrop. It includes around 285 species in 22 genera. Habit Trees, or shrubs (mostly, sometimes with short-shoots), or herbs (often with jointed nodes); resinous, or not resinous. ‘Normal’ plants, or switch-plants (sometimes, more or less); sometimes more or less phyllodineous (e.g., species in which the leaflets fall before the photosynthesising petioles). Plants succulent, or non- succulent.
  • 17. • Leaves opposite (usually), or alternate (e.g. Viscainoa); when alternate, spiral; ‘herbaceous’, or leathery, or fleshy, or modified into spines; petiolate (mostly), or sessile (e.g. Augea); non-sheathing; compound (nearly always), or simple (supposedly, e.g. in some Zygophyllum and Fagonia species); pulvinate, or epulvinate; usually unifoliolate, or bifoliolate, or ternate, or pinnate. Leaflets pulvinate, or epulvinate. Lamina one-veined, or pinnately veined; cross-venulate (small veins often terminating in dilated tracheids). Leaves stipulate. Stipules free of one another; spiny (often), or scaly, or leafy; persistent. Leaves without a persistent basal meristem.
  • 18. • Inflorescences terminal, or axillary, or leaf- opposed; espatheate. • Flowers ebracteate; ebracteolate; regular; (4– )5(–6) merous; cyclic; tetracyclic, or pentacyclic, or polycyclic. Floral receptacle developing a gynophore, or with neither androphore nor gynophore. Free hypanthium absent. • Hypogynous disk present (usually), extrastaminal (usually), or intrastaminal; of separate members, or annular.
  • 19. • Androecial members unbranched; free of the perianth; free of one another; • Staminodes when present, 4, or 5; external to the fertile stamens. Stamens (4–)5, or 10, or 15; isomerous • alternisepalous, or oppositisepalous (when the outer whorl is staminodal); alternating with the corolla members, or both alternating with and opposite the corolla members. • Anthers dorsifixed; versatile; dehiscing via longitudinal slits;
  • 20.  Gynoecium (2–)5(–6) carpelled. Carpels isomerous with the perianth  The pistil (2–)4–12 celled. Gynoecium syncarpous; eu-syncarpous; superior. Ovary (2–)5(–6) locular (but sometimes these secondarily partitioned).  Styles 1; attenuate from the ovary;  Placentation axile.
  • 21.  Fruit when non-schizocarpic, a capsule (usually), or capsular-indehiscent.  Seeds endospermic
  • 22.  Guaiacum officinale is the source of the hardest, densest wood (lignum vitae). Guaiacum, Zygophyllum, Tribulus and Larrea species are cultivated in warm regions as ornamentals.
  • 23.  Distribution Rutaceae, family of flowering plants belonging to the order Sapindales and consists of 160 genera and 1,700 species distributed throughout the world, especially in warm temperate and tropical regions. The largest numbers are found in Africa and Australia, often in semiarid woodlands.
  • 24. • Habit The Rutaceae are herbs, shrubs, and trees with glandular punctate, commonly strongly smelling herbage. The common occurrence of spines and winged petioles. • Leaves The leaves are alternate or opposite, simple or palmately or pinnately compound, or sometimes heathlike or reduced to spines; stipules are absent.
  • 26.  The flowers are often sweet-scented, nearly always bisexual, and are actinomorphic or sometimes zygomorphic.  Calyx The calyx consists of 3-5 distinct or basally connate sepals  Corolla It consists of 3-5 distinct or sometimes connate petals or rarely the petals are lacking.
  • 27. Androecium The androecium consists of distinct or sometimes connate stamens that are commonly obdiplostemonous, that is in two whorls with the outer whorl opposite the petals. However, sometimes there may be (1)3-4 whorls or rarely up to 60 stamens.
  • 28. The gynoecium consists of a single compound pistil of commonly 2-5 or more, often incompletely connate carpels that may be united only basally or apically, either one or an equal number of styles, and a superior ovary with usually 2-5 or more locules, each bearing 1-several axile ovules. Generally, an intrastaminal nectary disk is situated between the stamens and the ovary.
  • 29.  The fruit of Rutaceae are very variable: berries, drupes, hesperidiums, samaras, capsules and follicles all occur.  Seeds endospermic, or non-endospermic.
  • 30.  The family contains economically important fruits. Citrus species include the lemon (Citrus limon), sour orange (C. aurantium), sweet orange (C. sinensis), lime (C. aurantifolia), tangerine and mandarin orange (C. reticulata), grapefruit (C. paradisi), and citron (C. medica). All of these are grown for their fruits. Other regionally important fruits are the kumquat (Fortunella), bael (Aegle), elephant apple (Limonia acidissima), and Japanese pepper (Zanthoxylum piperitum).
  • 31. • Distribution • Sapindaceae, also known as the soapberry family, is a family of flowering plants in the order Sapindales. There are about 140-150 genera with 1400-2000 species, including maple, horse chestnut and lychee. • Sapindaceae members occur in temperate to tropical regions, many in laurel forest habitat, throughout the world. Many are lactiferous, i.e. they contain milky sap, and many contain mildly toxic saponins with soap-like qualities in either the foliage and/or the seeds, or roots. The largest genera are Serjania, Paullinia, Acer and Allophylus.
  • 33. • Habit Plants of this family have a variety of habits, from trees to herbaceous plants or lianas. • Leaves Their leaves usually spirally alternate, sometimes (in Acer, Aesculus, and a few other genera) opposite. They are most often pinnately compound, sometimes palmately, or just palmate (Acer, Aesculus), with a petiole lacking stipules, but having a swollen base.
  • 34. The flowers are small, actinomorphic or zygomorphic, and commonly functionally unisexual, although a given individual may bear seemingly bisexual flowers together with either male or female flowers. The perianth typically is biseriate, consisting of calyx and corolla.
  • 35.  Calyx The calyx comprises 4 or 5 distinct or sometimes basally connate sepals.  Corolla The corolla consists of 4 or 5 distinct petals or sometimes is absent. The petals commonly have basal appendages on the inner side.
  • 36. • Androecium The stamens are distinct, often have hairy filaments, and in quantity usually are equal to or twice the number of calyx lobes. • Gynoecium The gynoecium consists of a single compound pistil of usually 3 carpels, commonly an equal number of styles or style lobes, and a superior ovary usually with 3 locules, each containing 1 or 2 axile or axile- apical ovules. Most species have an extrastaminal, often asymmetrical nectary disk situated between the stamens and corolla.
  • 37.  Fruit The fruits are fleshy or dry. They may be nuts, berries, drupes, schizocarps, capsules (Bridgesia), or samaras (Acer).  Seed Seeds non-endospermic.
  • 38.  Fruits: ‘Spanish lime’ (Melicoccus), litchi and longan (Litchi spp.), pulusan and rambutan (Nephelium spp.); Blighea with edible arils (‘akee’).
  • 39. • Distribution and Habit The Fabaceae are the third largest family of flowering plants, behind Orchidaceae and Asteraceae, with 730 genera and over 19,400 species The Fabaceae are mostly herbs but include also shrubs and trees found in both temperate and tropical areas.
  • 40. • The Fabaceae comprise three subfamilies (with distribution and some representative species): • Mimosoideae: 80 genera and 3,200 species. Mostly tropical and warm temperate Asia and America. Mimosa, Acacia. • Caesalpinioideae: 170 genera and 2,000 species, cosmopolitan. Caesalpinia, Senna, Bauhinia, Amherstia. • Faboideae: 470 genera and 14,000 species. Astragalus, Lupinus.
  • 41. The leaves are usually alternate and compound. Most often they are even- or odd-pinnately compound (e.g. Caragana and Robinia respectively), often trifoliate (e.g. Trifolium, Medicago) and rarely palmately compound (e.g. Lupinus), in the Mimosoideae and the Caesalpinioideae commonly bipinnate (e.g. Acacia, Mimosa). They always have stipules, which can be leaf-like (e.g. Pisum), thorn-like (e.g. Robinia) or be rather inconspicuous. Leaf margins are entire or, occasionally, serrate. Both the leaves and the leaflets often have wrinkled pulvini to permit nastic movements. In some species, leaflets have evolved into tendrils (e.g. Vicia).
  • 42. The flowers are slightly to strongly perigynous, zygomorphic, and commonly in racemes, spikes, or heads. The perianth commonly consists of a calyx and corolla of 5 segments each. Papilionaceous corolla The petals are overlapping (imbricate) in bud with the posterior petal (called the banner or flag) outermost (i.e., exterior) in position. The petals are basically distinct except for variable connation of the two lowermost ones called the keel petals. The lateral petals are often called the wings.
  • 44. Androecium The androecium most commonly consists of 10 stamens in two groups (i.e., they are diadelphous with 9 stamens in one bundle and the 10th stamen more or less distinct). Gynoecium The pistil is simple, comprising a single style and stigma, and a superior ovary with one locule containing 2-many marginal ovules.
  • 45. • In the Caesalpinioideae, the flowers are often zygomorphic, as in Cercis, or nearly symmetrical with five equal petals in Bauhinia. The upper petal is the innermost one, unlike in the Faboideae. Some species, like some in the genus Senna, have asymmetric flowers, with one of the lower petals larger than the opposing one, and the style bent to one side. The calyx, corolla, or stamens can be showy in this group.
  • 47.  In the Mimosoideae, the flowers are actinomorphic and arranged in globose inflorescences. The petals are small and the stamens, which can be more than just ten, have long coloured filaments, which are the most showy part of the flower. All of the flowers in an inflorescence open at once.
  • 49. • In the Faboideae, the flowers are zygomorphic, and have a specialized structure. The upper petal, called the banner, is large and envelops the rest of the petals in bud, often reflexing when the flower blooms. The two adjacent petals, the wings, surround the two bottom petals. The two bottom petals are fused together at the apex (remaining free at the base), forming a boat-like structure called the keel. The stamens are always ten in number, and their filaments can be fused in various configurations, often in a group of nine stamens plus one separate stamen.
  • 51.  The ovary most typically develops into a legume. A legume is a simple dry fruit that usually dehisces (opens along a seam) on two sides. A common name for this type of fruit is a "pod", although that can also be applied to a few other fruit types. A few species have evolved samarae, loments, follicles, indehiscent legumes, achenes, drupes, and berries from the basic legume fruit.
  • 52. • Nitrogen fixation Their ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen reduces fertilizer costs for farmers and gardeners who grow legumes, and means that legumes can be used in a crop rotation to replenish soil that has been depleted of nitrogen. Legume seeds and foliage have a comparatively higher protein content than non-legume materials, due to the additional nitrogen that legumes receive through the process. Some legume species perform hydraulic lift, which makes them ideal for intercropping
  • 53. • These are cultivated for their seeds, and are also called pulses. The seeds are used for human and animal consumption or for the production of oils for industrial uses. Grain legumes include both herbaceous plants like beans, lentils, lupins, peas and peanuts, and trees such as carob, mesquite and tamarind.
  • 54.  Industrial farmed legumes include Indigofera, cultivated for the production of indigo, Acacia, for gum arabic, and Derris, for the insecticide action of rotenone, a compound it produces.
  • 55.  Various legume species are farmed for timber production worldwide, including numerous Acacia species, Dalbergia species, and Castanospermum australe.
  • 56.  Distribution Rosaceae (the rose family) are a medium- sized family of flowering plants, including about 2830 species in 95 genera. The name is derived from the type genus Rosa. Among the largest genera are Alchemilla (270), Sorbus (260), Crataegus (260), Cotoneaster (260), and Rubus (250)
  • 58.  Habit The Rosaceae are trees, shrubs and herbs Leaves The leaves are generally arranged spirally, but have an opposite arrangement in some species. They can be simple or pinnately compound (either odd- or even-pinnate). Compound leaves appear in around 30 genera. The leaf margin is most often serrate. Paired stipules are generally present. The stipules are sometimes adnate to the petiole. Glands or extrafloral nectaries may be present on leaf margin or petiole. Spines may be present on the midrib of leaflets and the rachis of compound leaves.
  • 59.  Flower The flowers are generally showy. They are actinomorphic (i.e. radially symmetrical) and almost always hermaphroditic. Rosaceae generally have five sepals, five petals and many spirally arranged stamens. The bases of the sepals, petals, and stamens are fused together to form a characteristic cup-like structure called hypanthium. They can be arranged in racemes, spikes, or heads, solitary flowers are rare.
  • 60.  Fruit They can be follicles, capsules, nuts, achenes, drupes (Prunus) and accessory fruits, like the pome of an apple, or the hip of a rose. Many fruits of the family are edible.
  • 61.  Edible fruits from Malus spp. (apples), Prunus spp. (apricot, cherry, nectarine, peach, plums, prune, sloe), Cydonia (quince), Pyrus (pear), Eriobotrya (loquat), Rubus (blackberry, boysenberry, loganberry, rasberry), Fragaria (strawberry), Mespilus (medlar); nuts (Prunus — almond); many ornamental trees and shrubs or hedge-plants, e.g. Spiraea, Photinia, Kerria, Cotoneaster, Pyracantha, Crataegus, Sorbus, Rhodotypos, Prunus, Rosa, Potentilla; and some widely naturalized pests (e.g. from Acaena, Crataegus, Cotoneaster, Pyracantha).
  • 62.  Distribution and Habit Combretaceae is a family of flowering plants in the order Myrtales. The family includes about 600 species of trees, shrubs, and lianas in 18 genera. Leaves The leaves are simple, alternate or opposite, entire; stipules small or absent.
  • 64.  Flower The flowers are bisexual or sometimes unisexual, usually actinomorphic. The perianth arises from near the summit of a tubular epigynous zone  Calyx calyx of usually 4 or 5 distinct to slightly connate sepals
  • 65.  Corolla corolla commonly of 4 or 5 distinct petals, occasionally absent. Androecium The androecium of 4-10 stamens is adnate to the epigynous zone, commonly in two cycles, often strongly exserted.
  • 66. Gynoecium The gynoecium is a single compound pistil of 2-5 carpels; style and stigma 1; ovary inferior, with 1 locule containing 2(-6) apical ovules pendulous on long funiculi. The nectary is usually a disk (often hairy) above the ovary.  Fruit The fruit is 1-seeded, often a flattened, ribbed, or winged drupe.
  • 67.  Quisqualis indica The leaf juice is sometimes used to treat boils and ulcers. Terminalia catappa The strong, elastic timber is used in construction, and the roots, bark, leaves, and fruit are used medicinally and for tanning animal skins.
  • 68.  Distribution The Cucurbitaceae are an important family consisting of approximately 125 genera and 960 species, mainly in regions tropical and subtropical. Habit Most of the plants in this family are annual vines but there are also woody lianas, thorny shrubs, and trees (Dendrosicyos).
  • 70.  Leaves The leaves are alternate and usually palmately 5-lobed or divided; stipules are absent. Flower The flowers are actinomorphic and nearly always unisexual.
  • 71. Perianth The perianth has a short to prolonged epigynous zone that bears a calyx of 3-6 segments or lobes and 3-6 petals or more frequently a 3-6-lobed sympetalous corolla.  Androecium The androecium is highly variable, consisting of basically 5 distinct to completely connate stamens that frequently are twisted, folded or reduced in number.
  • 72. Gynoecium The gynoecium consists of a single compound pistil of 2-5 carpels, generally with one style and as many style branches or major stigma lobes as carpels, and an inferior ovary with one locule and usually numerous ovules on 2-5 parietal placentae or 3 locules with numerous ovules on axile placentae.  Fruit The fruit is a type of berry called a pepo.
  • 73.  Many sources of important edible fruits, e.g. Cucurbita, Cucumis, Lagenaria, Sechium (melons, cucumbers, etc.), and some are poisonous.
  • 74.  Distribution The Apiaceae are mostly temberate and its comprising about 300 genera and 3,000 species Habit mostly herbs
  • 76.  Leaves The leaves are nearly always alternate and pinnately or palmately compound or more than once compound; stipules are generally absent. Flower The flowers are typically small, mostly bisexual, mostly actinomorphic except in a few instances where pseudanthia are produced and the peripheral flowers have enlarged petals directed away from the center of the inflorescence.
  • 77.  Calyx The calyx is reduced to 5 tooth-like sepals around the summit of the ovary or may even be obsolete. Corolla The corolla consists of 5 distinct, typically inflexed petals or rarely is lacking.  Androecium The androecium comprises 5 distinct stamens arising from an epigynous nectary disk.
  • 78. Gynoecium The gynoecium consists of a single compound pistil of 2 carpels, 2 styles borne on an enlarged stylopodium, and an inferior ovary with 2 locules, each containing a single pendulous, apical-axile ovule.  Fruit The fruit is a schizocarp.
  • 79. Some species: Daucus carota Coriandrum sativum Centella asiatica Ferula assafoetida