Norton Field Guide for Speaking 3.4

Chapter 3.4
Introductions and Conclusions
Copyright © 2022 W. W. Norton & Company

Thesis Statement
• The THEORETICAL thing you plan to prove and the 2-3 main
points you will use to prove it
2
Theoretical Words
• Can/could
• May/might
• Many birds native to North
Carolina CAN be spotted by a
novice birdwatcher.
Factual Words
• Will/Does/Do
• Is/Are
• Many bird's native to North
Carolina ARE spotted by a
novice birdwatcher.

Thesis Statement
• 2-3 main points you will use to prove it
3
2 sentences
Many birds native to North
Carolina CAN be spotted by a
novice birdwatcher. TWO of
these could be the cardinal and
the osprey.
1 sentence
TWO birds native to North
Carolina that CAN be spotted
by a novice birdwatcher are
the cardinal and osprey.

The Goals of an Introduction (1 of 2)
• The primacy effect is a tendency to recall the first items the
audience see or hear in sequenced information because that’s
when their attention is at its peak
• The main goals of an introduction are:
• Focus Audience Attention and Interest: Gain audience
attention through your use of compelling supporting materials,
expressive speaking, and active involvement of audience
members
• Connect to Your Audience: Link your message to the audience’s
characteristics, attitudes, needs, and interests
4

The Goals of an Introduction (2 of 2)
• Put You in Your Presentation: Link your expertise,
experiences, and personality as the speaker to your purpose
and topic
• Set the Mood: Make sure that your words, delivery style, and
choice of supporting materials are appropriate for the mood of
your message, which would depend on your purpose
• Preview the Message: Give your audience a preview of the
content of your message, including your central idea and the
key points, if possible
5

Ways to Begin
• The ways to begin a presentation depend on the speakers, topics,
and types of audiences
• The following are some effective ways to begin a presentation:
• Use an Interesting Statistic or Example
• Quote Someone
• Tell a Story
• Ask a Question
• Establish a Personal Link
• Refer to an Event, Place, or Occasion
• Address Audience Needs 6

Use an Interesting Statistic or Example
• An unusual, dramatic, or unexpected statistic or example can help
focus their eyes, ears, and minds on you and your message
How much money do you make? How much do you plan to make in the future?
Too bad you’re not Mark Hurd, CEO of Oracle. According to the Wall Street
Journal, his reported annual compensation (including salary, bonuses,
acquisition awards, and deferred pension) in 2019 was $108 million. It almost
makes you feel sorry for Tim Cook, CEO of Apple, whose annual compensation
was a mere $16 million—$307,000 a week. Even if he worked on weekends, his
daily compensation was only $44,000 a day. “Poor” Tim!
7

Quote Someone
• A well-chosen quotation can overcome audience doubts, especially
from someone highly respected or an expert source of information
• When quoting someone, make sure you identify the writer or
speaker with an oral footnote
Warren Buffett is the fourth-richest person in the world. His net worth is more
than $70 billion. When asked about the skill that was most important in
improving his success, his answer is public speaking. Yet, as a young man, he
was frozen with fear of speaking. How bad was it? Here’s how he tells it: “I
would throw up. In fact, I arranged my life so that I never had to get up in front
of anybody.” He went on to say that, in his opinion, “you can improve your
monetary value by 50 percent just by learning . . . public speaking.” Let’s take a
closer look at why he is so adamant about the value of this skill and why you
should heed his advice. 8

Tell a Story
• Some speakers begin presentations with stories about their
personal hardships or triumphs, or share stories they’ve read
about or heard from others
• The stories can also come from history, literature, TV programs,
and films
When I was fifteen, I was operated on to remove the deadliest form of skin
cancer, a melanoma carcinoma. My doctors injected ten shots of steroids into
each scar every three weeks to stop the scars from spreading. I now know
that it wasn’t worth a couple of summers of being tan to go through all that
pain and suffering. Take steps now to protect yourself from the harmful
effects of the sun.
9

Ask a Question
• Asking a question or group of questions can attract your
audience’s attention and interest because it encourages them to
think about the possible answers
What is the basis for the 2018 international ranking of China, Iran, Saudi
Arabia, Vietnam, Iraq, Egypt, and the United States? Something to do with oil
or weapons development? No. Statista, an international provider of data,
reports that these seven countries lead the world in the number of annual
executions. Now ponder these questions: Why is the United States the only
highly developed, democratic nation on the list? And why—given that many
states and other countries have abolished the death penalty—is the United
States still on the list?
10

Establish a Personal Link
• Use your introduction to link your background and experiences to
those of your audience, regardless of your differences with or
unfamiliarity toward them
Today I’d like to tell you about Down syndrome. My purpose for talking about this is
to be able to say, “Yes, I have Down syndrome. Sometimes I have to work harder to
learn things, but in many ways I am just like everyone else.” I would like to tell
people that having Down syndrome does not keep me from doing things I need to do
or want to do. I just have to work harder.2
11

Refer to an Event, Place, or Occasion
• Refer to the place where you are speaking or the occasion for the
gathering
• Important events that occur shortly before a presentation or in the
recent past can connect you with some of what your audience
knows, thinks, and feels about an issue
Dr. Larry Nassar, a physician who worked with the US Olympic Gymnastics
Team, was accused of more than 250 sexual assaults against minors. In
January 2019, he was sentenced to 40 to 175 years in jail for criminal sexual
conduct—adding to a previous child pornography conviction of 60 years.
Sadly, there are many sexual predators disguised as healers, teachers,
soldiers, and business executives who have never been prosecuted or jailed.
12

Address Audience Needs
• In a crisis situation, a speaker may need to address the problem
immediately, going directly to the central idea and previewing the
key points of the speech
As you know, the state has reduced our operating budget by $2.7 million. It is
important that you know this: All of you will have a job here next year—and the year
after. There will be no layoffs. Instead there will be cutbacks in non-personnel
budget lines, downsizing of programs, and, possibly, short furloughs.
13

Mix the Methods
• Many speakers combine introductory methods to begin their
presentations
My grandfather died from ALS. He used to stumble a lot and had difficulty
pronouncing words. It’s a horrible disease. You can’t walk or talk. You choke
on food, you can’t swallow. You often suffocate to death. Here is what’s odd.
Four of his friends also suffered from ALS. Given that only about six thousand
people get diagnosed with the disease each year, what are the odds that five
people who all knew one another get the same diagnosis? What did they have
in common? One thing—they all served in the Army. In fact, serving in the
military makes you 60 percent more likely to get this horrifying disease. But
no one knows why. Today I want to speak about . . .
14

Plan the Beginning at the End
• Don’t plan the introduction to your presentation before you’ve
developed the body of the speech
• A strong introduction should adapt to your audience and closely
relate to your message as it can help you achieve your purpose
• You should know what you will say before you can preview your
key points
15

Don’t Apologize
• Your introduction should not make excuses or apologize for your
level of preparation or the quality of your delivery
• Such comments at the beginning of the presentation do not
accomplish much and can adversely impact your credibility
• Let the audience draw their own conclusions
16

Avoid “My Speech Is About . . .”
• Beginning statements such as “My speech is about . . .” or “I’m
going to talk about . . .” do not make that important connection
between you and your audience
• However, there are exceptions, such as setting up an
astonishing personal story
17

Don’t Overpromise
• Speakers with a specific and relevant purpose may become so
committed to it that they set unachievable goals for a short or
single presentation
• You can aspire to make a meaningful impact with your
presentation, but don’t be disappointed if your audience’s reaction
doesn’t match your aspirations
18

Avoid Most Jokes
• Unless the introductory joke perfectly matches the purpose, topic,
and audience, avoid making it
• Using jokes in an introduction can ruin your chance of making a
good first impression, such as if the audience members are not
amused or are even offended
• However, avoiding jokes doesn’t mean avoiding humor in an
introduction
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Keep It Short
• Your introduction should take up no more than 10 percent of your
speaking time
• If facing a distrustful or hostile audience, you may need more
time to establish your credibility, generate a more hospitable
mood, and reduce audience concerns about your message
20

The Goals of a Conclusion
• The recency effect is the tendency to recall the last items you see
or hear in sequenced information
• A strong conclusion ensures that your audience will remember
you and your message
• Like your introduction, your conclusion should establish a
relationship among three elements: you, your message, and your
audience
21

Signal That You Are Concluding
• Signaling that you are concluding your presentation will prompt
your audience members to assess your message and to think
about their own interpretations and judgments about what you’ve
said
• Use the conclusion to reinforce your central idea and key points
• Don’t use the conclusion to add new ideas or to insert something
that you left out
22

Be Brief
• The ending of your presentation should not be longer than 10
percent of your speech
• While introductions may require some time to gain audience
attention and enhance speaker credibility, conclusions should be
short and sweet in most rhetorical situations
23

Ways to End
• The ending of your presentation should help you create a strong,
lasting impression on listeners that connects you, your message,
and your audience
• Consider using the bookending method—ending the same way you
began
• As with introductions, each of the concluding methods can be used
separately or combined with others
24

Summarize
• A concluding summary reinforces your central idea and key points
• Good summaries are clear, logical, brief, and ideally memorable
• As with introductions, each of the concluding methods can be used
separately or combined with others
Recognizing that you may be sleep deprived is the first step. The hardest thing to do
is to alter your habits. Retraining yourself to follow a normal sleep pattern isn’t
going to happen overnight. But once you discover that a few extra hours of sleep will
help you feel more rested, relaxed, and revitalized, giving up that extra hour on the
internet or watching TV will have been worth it. There is so much in life to enjoy.
Sleep longer, live longer.
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Quote Someone
A memorable quotation can give your speech a dramatic and
effective ending
The crew of the space shuttle Challenger honored us by the manner in which they
lived their lives. We will never forget them, nor the last time we saw them, this
morning, as they prepared for their journey and waved goodbye and “slipped the
surly bonds of earth” to “touch the face of God.”3
26

Tell a Story
• A well-told story can also help an audience remember the main
idea of your presentation
I’d like to end with one of my favorite stories. It’s a funny little story about Indians
and non-Indians, but its message is serious. You can see something differently if you
are willing to learn from those around you. Years ago, white settlers came to this
area and built the first European-style homes. When Indian People walked by these
homes and saw [windows], they looked through them to see what the strangers
inside were doing. The settlers were shocked, but it made sense when you think
about it: windows are made to be looked through from both sides. Since then, my
People have spent many years looking at the world through your window. I hope
today I’ve given you a reason to look at it through ours.4
27

Share Your Personal Feelings
• Put yourself into the ending of a presentation by disclosing how
you feel can touch the emotions of your audience and leave them
with a strong memory of you, the speaker
I am not sad about the fact that I have Down syndrome. It is just part of me. I have a
great brother (most of the time), and parents who love me a lot. I have wonderful
friends who enjoy hanging out and having fun with me. I have teachers who help me
keep on learning new things. I am glad to be a student at Lincoln Middle School,
because it is a great school and almost everyone is really nice. Down syndrome has
not stopped me from having a worthwhile life.5
28

Use Poetic Language
Using language in a way that inspires and resonates is one of the
best ways to ensure that your conclusion is memorable
Old wood best to burn, old wine to drink, old friends to trust, and old people to love.
29

Call for Action
Use a call for action when you want your audience to do more
than merely listen—when you want them to do something
Morehouse is your house. You must take responsibility for its excellence . . . . If you
want to be part of something rare and noble, something that the world has not often
seen—a community of educated, ethical, disciplined Black men more powerful than
a standing army—then you’ve come to the right place . . . . Up you mighty men of
Morehouse, you aristocrats of spirit, you can accomplish what you will!6
30

Mix the Methods
As with introductions, many speakers rely on more than one way
to conclude a presentation
As you now know, about one in eight adults—that’s 12.7 percent of the American
population—abuse alcohol or are alcoholics. Few, if any, of these people planned on
becoming alcoholics. And many, like my sister, were well informed about the disease
before falling victim. I’ve told you her story and alerted you to the role of denial in
the hope that someday, if that doubt ever creeps into your mind and you find yourself
asking whether you might have an alcohol problem, you’ll remember my speech and
take a harder, more objective look at that question. It didn’t save my sister’s life. But
it could save yours.
31

Tips for Ending Effectively
• The last thing you say can be just as important as the first
• You should make sure that your conclusion achieves the following
three objectives:
• Make Sure the Ending Matches the Rest
• Have Realistic Expectations
• End When You Say You Will End
32

Write Your Introduction and Conclusion
• Write out your introduction and conclusion word for word with
the expectation that you will change and improve the wording
several times, even as you speak
• Instead of reading from a manuscript, practice your introduction
and conclusion so often that you won’t need detailed notes
• Knowing your introduction very well will help you mask and
minimize your speaking anxiety
• As you close, make sure you can deliver a well-crafted conclusion
that allows you to focus on your audience and “clinch” your
message
33

Notable Speaker: Susan Cain, Part 1
After practicing corporate law for seven years, Susan Cain left her
successful career behind to pursue her childhood passion for
reading and writing. This passion led her to research and think
critically about the general cultural preference for extroverts in
the United States.
As the self-described “Chief Revolutionary” of an organization she
has called the Quiet Revolution, Cain has authored two best-
selling books and led hundreds of workshops about the often-
overlooked power of introverts in everyday life.
She took to the TED stage in 2012 to address the challenges faced
by introverts living in a world favoring extroverts—a topic that
she had written about in her book Quiet: The Power of Introverts
in a World That Can’t Stop Talking.
The talk has been viewed more than twenty-two million times
and was featured by the curators of the TED website on their
homepage. In 2014, she was named one of the world’s top fifty
leadership and management experts by Inc. magazine.

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Conclusion
• First and last impressions you make on someone are important
and long lasting
• The introduction is your best opportunity for connecting with
your audience, demonstrating your competence and credibility,
setting the appropriate mood, and previewing your message
• A well-crafted and skillfully delivered conclusion lets the audience
know you’re about to sum it up, make a final appeal, and/or
create a memorable moment
40

Credits
This concludes the Lecture PowerPoint presentation for Chapter 3.4.
For more resources, please visit The Norton Field Guide to Speaking:
http://digital.wwnorton.com/nfgspeaking.
Copyright © 2022 W. W. Norton & Company

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