Product design factors

Product Design
Factors Influencing Design

Fitness for Purpose
It is perhaps obvious to us all that a product should do the job it was designed to do. A can
opener should open a tin and a car should be able to transport people from one place to
another. But how well should a product do its job? Should a lightweight portable can opener for
camping work as well as an electric opener designed for use in a restaurant/canteen? Should a
small lightweight city car be as comfortable and as fast as an executive saloon?
Clearly these products are designed to carry out similar functions. However in reality what is
expected from each product is quite different. In the case of the camping can opener - as long as
it opens cans then it is fit for its purpose providing, in addition, that it is compact and light
weight.
By contrast an industrial can opener should work very quickly and efficiently. It should be very
reliable and durable. Cost will be a secondary consideration, as will size and weight.
When considering fitness for purpose the designer should begin by establishing a checklist of
features that are essential and desirable. On completion the design must be able to achieve all
essential features. Any desirable features the product has will be a bonus and may assist in
placing the product above its competitors in the market place.
Choice of Materials and Finish
When choosing the materials for a product the designer must consider a number of factors
 use of product
 quantity to be manufactured
 market niche (cost)
Use of the product
The choice of material has to take into account how the product/component will be used and
what environment(s) it will be used in. Take for example a plastic wing mirror body for a
car. The plastic chosen will have to withstand wear and tear from stone chips etc. washing with
detergents, sharp knocks from passing vehicles and at the same time tolerate temperatures from
sub-zero to over 100° C. On some vehicles this component is painted to match body colour
therefore material will also have to accept paint.

Quantity to be manufactured
Some products could be manufactured in more than one way. Often the decision depends on the
quantity to be manufactured. Metal castings for example can be made one at a time by sand
casting or produced in high volume by die-casting. Although sand casting is labour intensive
tooling costs are relatively low and so this process is ideal when small numbers are to be
produced, say less than 100. As soon as volume increases into hundreds or thousands a more
mechanised process becomes more appropriate (die-casting). Here tooling costs are very high -
but as long as volume is high enough the cost of producing a single item becomes very low.
Market Niche
Another factor in choice of materials can be the end cost of the product. If the product being
designed is at the bottom end of the market where cost is very important then the material has to
be as cheap as possible. As long as the material is able to carry out its function for a reasonable
period them it will be deemed satisfactory. However with an up-market product cost becomes
less of an issue. Materials chosen should perform well, should be long lasting and reflect the
quality image of the product.
Durability
Durability of a product or component depends on a number of factors:
 planned obsolescence
 use of product
 market niche.
The durability of a product/component depends directly on the materials chosen, the
manufacturing process used and fixing methods employed (see section on selection of materials).
In a sense it is planned obsolescence which is the key factor as it is this that dictates the
performance of the product/component (see section on obsolescence).
Having decided on the intended life span of the product, the designer must define the market
niche and the use of the product (see materials section).
This should lead to a definition of the properties required of the product, and hence the choice of
material.

Ease of Maintenance
Maintenance of a product is a factor that can easily be overlooked. At the forefront of the
designer’s mind will be function and aesthetics. Whilst maintenance is an aspect of function, it
is secondary to function in use.
Consideration of maintenance depends to a large extent on the life expectancy of the product. A
cheap down-market product will often sacrifice maintenance to cost. In this instance the
designer intends that the product will be thrown away when it ends its useful life.
In contrast, more expensive up-market products will generally have much longer life expectancy
and therefore may require periodic maintenance to maintain optimum efficiency of the
product. Building in maintenance obviously adds to the cost of the product but can be justified
in higher cost products.
Efficiency
The efficiency of a product in use depends directly on the quality of the product. One would
expect that a cheap down-market product would serve its purpose, but only just. In contrast, one
would expect a high quality product to fulfill its function with ease giving the user pleasure in its
use (see section on fitness for purpose).
A cheap kettle will boil water. A more expensive model will boil water quickly, use less energy,
be aesthetically pleasing and so on.
The designed efficiency of the product will depend upon its intended market niche.
Running Costs
To the consumer, the running costs of a product may or may not be an issue. However the
designer must consider this factor balancing it with all other factors in relation to the intended
market niche.
In general, wealthy individuals buy products without considering secondary factors such as
running costs. Their primary concern will be factors such as efficiency and aesthetics.
The less wealthy individual will be much more concerned about running costs. Running costs
are generally made up of energy/fuel use and maintenance. To reduce running costs it is not
uncommon for less wealthy individuals to carry out their own maintenance.

Fashion
Product Design like all other areas of creativity follows patterns or trends in style. These trends
are closely linked to fashion.
Throughout design history there have been very distinctive styles that can be linked to a period in
time.
 Victorian 1830’s - 1890.
 Art Nouveau 1890 - 1905.
 Art Deco 1925 -1939.
 Pop Art 1960’s
Each one of these styles was fashionable during the periods indicated and has features that make
each one easily recognisable, as can be seen in the examples below.
Art Nouveau Lamp 1901 Art Deco Bronze
Child’s Chair IKEA £13

As a consequence of pop music and fashion becoming an important part of modern western
culture good design has become more readily available to everyone. Although products designed
by leading designers are still quite expensive, mass produced products tend to follow the style set
by these designers and are available at a much more accessible price. This has been the case for
clothing since the 1960’s but more recently furniture and household goods have followed the
same pattern. Furniture stores such as IKEA sell designer ‘style’ products which are
inexpensive.
Today products are available in many different styles. Designers are able to emulate styles of the
past and manufacturers produce these products using modern materials and manufacturing
processes e.g. Retro Car (only available in Japan) produced by Nissan which is in the style of a
1950’s model. This approach to design actually produces a new style which could be considered
the style of the 1990’s. In addition designers are also able to utilise modern technology to
produce totally new styles that would not have been possible in the past.
The trend in the 1990’s then seems to be to mix styles, often to render these styles in new
materials in a functional manner. Colour and decoration tend to be subdued with combinations of
High Tech and Traditional materials being used together e.g. Pastel coloured injection moulded
plastic with galvanised steel or brushed aluminium creating a very subtle contrast as used in the
Dr Globb chair designed by Philippe Stark.
An increased concern over the environment has also influenced today’s products. Many new
products are designed to be easily recycled e.g. Mk. III Volkswagen Golf. Often products are
made from recycled materials. This has in itself become fashionable.
Designers can take advantages of fashion trends to design products that fit into a particular
market ‘niche’ which has been identified by market research. Also since trends tend to change
quite rapidly it is possible for designers/manufacturers to cash in on these changes by updating
products in keeping with the latest fashion. Motor car manufacturers do this by producing limited
edition models in special colours and styling details. Clothing manufacturers use the changing
seasons (spring, summer, autumn and winter) to encourage people to buy new clothes. Each new
season creates the opportunity for designers to introduce a new style or colour. Designers also
use trends set by pop groups or cult figures to create new fashions.
Safety
Many products have to be designed to comply with regulations laid down by law or by
recommendations made by organisations such as BSI (British Standards Institution) and ISO
(International Standards Organisation). Often ISO, BSI and the Government work together to set
standards. The government will for example state that car seat belts must be fitted to all cars and
that the belt design should be to BSI/ISO standards. When a product is manufactured to these
standards it will be clearly indicated that this is the case somewhere on the product with a
number and the BSI/ISO logo.

The designer of a product is responsible for ensuring that products are safe to use. There are a
number of well documented cases where designers have been sued for negligence, i.e. designing
a product which proves to be unsafe and causes injury to the user. The driver was badly burnt,
sued the designer and won. As a consequence of such cases designers must make every effort to
design products that will be safe in use by carrying out stringent functional tests.
Occasionally products are found to be unsafe after they
have been put on the market and have to be redesigned,
e.g. plastic pen tops such as those manufactured by BIC
caused a number of deaths in young children when
accidentally swallowed. The pen top was modified so that
it is open at both ends so that if swallowed the airway
does not become blocked.
Obsolescence
When designers consider the materials and the method of construction of a product they
obviously have to take into account the following.
 How long the product should last for.
 How, and under what conditions, will the product be used, i.e. function, durability and
safety.
Like all factors that influence design these considerations have to be taken along with all others.
In many instances it is possible to design product that will last a lifetime. Is this necessary or
even desirable? If a manufacturer designs a product which lasts forever, say a washing machine,
what impact would this have on the manufacturer? They would not sell so many machines. The
machines would probably have to cost a lot more than current models. The buyer would end up
with products which are old fashioned but still functioning well. The user would not be in a
position to take advantages in advances in technology by purchasing the latest most
economic/environmentally friendly design.
Designers and manufacturers have therefore to find a balance between profit, value for money,
durability and at the same time satisfying the customers desire to own the latest most fashionable
products. This is called building in obsolescence. i.e. the product is designed to last for a set
period of time. This allows the manufacturer to be able to be constantly selling new products in
the market place which is good for business and at the same time satisfies the markets desire for
the latest new products.

In general washing machines are designed to be replaced after about six years. Ordinary light
bulbs are designed to last for a maximum of six months of normal use. Most products then have
a built in life expectancy. Often similar products are available with different lengths of planned
obsolescence, for example up-market cars are designed to last for as long as 10 years without the
need for major repairs (which is one of the reasons why they are so expensive) against a cheaper
models designed to last for only 5 years.
Environmentaland SocialConsiderations
The designer has a major role in shaping the environment in which we live. Designers therefore
have a moral responsibility to ensure that the products they design contribute towards our
environment in a positive way.
All products have an impact, to a lesser or greater extent on society. This impact will influence
the following areas.
 Environment - aesthetic. As a consequence of the visual impact of the product in
association with its surroundings;
 Environment - pollution. Created by the manufacture, use and/or disposal of the product
at the end of its life;
 Social - physical and social impact of the product on the user and society in general.
Environment - aesthetics.
The designer has the ability to create products in any style. It is possible to design products that
merge well with their environment or alternatively those which stand out in stark contrast to their
surroundings. Products which harmonise with their environment are pleasing to the eye but can
be considered to be boring and not stimulating.
For example a designer may choose to design a bus shelter in the Georgian style to match the
surrounding architecture. This approach would blend in well and probably would be acceptable
to the majority of people. However this ‘safe’ approach to design can create an environment
which is monotonous. Alternatively the designer may choose to design the bus shelter to contrast
with the Georgian buildings by producing a design with modern materials such as steel and
plastic with simple geometric forms and shapes perhaps integrating bold lighting so that the
shelter stands out day and night. This approach was taken when designing the metro and
subterranean gallery entrance at Le Louvre in Paris which is a glass pyramid and is in stark
contrast to the decorative Renaissance sandstone architecture surrounding it. This bold approach
to design can be shocking and often attracts controversy particularly in relation to architecture.

Such an approach can be interesting and exciting to some people and offensive to others. The
designer then has to make a decision concerning the impact that the design will have in order to
ascertain whether or not it will be acceptable to society.
Environment - pollution.
When designing products the designer must consider the effect on pollution levels that their
design will have. The product and its manufacture may also be influenced by legislation which
controls pollution outputs. This is further complicated by the fact that pollution controls vary
from country to country. There has also been a major shift in public interest in environmental
issues and many people will take this into account when purchasing a product.
At all stages in the development, manufacture and disposal of a product environmental issues
have to be considered. This also applies to the product when in use. This will clearly have
considerable effect on the final price of the product. Let us take the example of the MK lll
Volkswagen Golf which is advertised as being environmentally friendly.
For this to be the case the following conditions would have to true.
 The use of finite resources should be avoided whenever possible.
 Most materials used should be recyclable, say 90% or more.
 The processes used to manufacture these materials should not pollute the environment
beyond legally acceptable limits.
 The processes used to form the materials into car components should not pollute the
environment beyond legally acceptable limits.
 The processes used to assemble the components should not pollute the environment
 Finishing processes such as painting should not pollute the environment beyond legally
acceptable limits.
 The waste products from manufacturing processes should not pollute the
environment. Within the EEC it is the responsibility of the manufacturer to dispose of all
waste safely.
 The operation and maintenance of the vehicle should not pollute the environment beyond
legally acceptable limits.
 The disposal of the product at the end of its life should not pollute the environment
It is clear then that these limits will have major implications for the design.
Sociologicalconsiderations
The environment in which we live, work and play has a considerable effect on our state of mind
and general well being.

Studies show that, for example, to simply alter the lighting levels from day to day in a factory
will improve the output of the work force. It is not the quality of light that creates the
improvement but the fact that there has been a change. A changing environment is more
stimulating and therefore more motivating.
This example shows that even very subtle changes to the environment can have dramatic effects
on people. Clearly then, designers have to very careful when designing the products which shape
our environment. The impact that a major new
building has on those who live and work in and around is obvious. Products such as computers or
even hair dryers all have a bearing on our general state of mind, particularly in a society where
people lead very busy lives. The feelings of frustration and even anger when a product we are
using doesn’t function in the way expected are common place. This contributes to the stress of
modern day living. Well-designed products should be pleasing to use; they should be reliable and
do the job they were designed to do. As well as functioning well their aesthetic will also effect
us.
Why is it that we have feelings of refreshment or contentment when standing on top of a hill on a
glorious day with a spectacular view before us? It is due in part to the fresh air but also the
colours and shapes of the view i.e. the aesthetics of the view makes us feel good. Therefore it is
clear that if we are surrounded by products which are attractive (in an aesthetically pleasing
environment) then we will inevitably feel better within ourselves. To create this designers have
to create a fine balance between pleasant harmonising products (which in extreme cases can be
boring) and bold contrasting designs (which can be irritating).
In catering for the needs of the individual the designer must consider age, culture and physical
ability/disability. Each of these aspects will effect the user's reaction to a particular product.
Often modern ‘High Tech’ products can be threatening to older people making them feel
insecure. A designer must, in such situations, try to make new technology as ‘user friendly’ as
possible. Care needs to be taken to ensure that products do not cause offence to a particular race
or culture. Even something as simple as the name of a new model of car needs to be carefully
selected to ensure that in a world market the name which may be perfectly acceptable in Europe
is not totally unacceptable in another continent.
Many available products do not take into account the problems of the disabled, old or very
young. In particular handles and switches are often too small or too difficult to operate. With a
little bit of thought many of these problems could be avoided. Good design should take into
account as many users as possible.

Technological Opportunity
Products which appear on the market sometimes do so as the result of technological innovation.
This is often referred to as technological push. Scientists, engineers and designers are always
looking for new ways of doing things and always striving for the ultimate solution to a given
problem. Often new technology is stumbled upon in this search. Sometimes the new technology
has an obvious application and sometimes not. Sometimes technology is transferred from one
application to another.
In other words advances in technology create new products and therefore new markets.
Sometimes the products are simply better versions of existing products but occasionally products
that have not existed before are produced creating a completely new market niche.
Examples of products that result from technological opportunity are:
 The microwave oven - developed as a consequence of research done by physicists into
wave energy.
 Ceramic knives (the edge will last a lifetime) and ceramic engine components developed
from research carried out by engineers working on the space shuttle at NASA. The
shuttle nose cone is covered with ceramic tiles. The only material that would withstand
the impact of reentry into the Earth’s atmosphere.
 The Sony Walkman - this product was only possible through advances in
microelectronics making it possible for a cassette tape player to be manufactured in a size
that will fit in the pocket.
ConsumerDemand
Consumer demand, sometimes referred to as market pull, produces products that derive from the
demands of the market. In general this demand is identified through market research.
Manufacturers and designers are always looking for new markets in which to sell their products,
or markets for which they can design new products (market niche). Specialist market research
consultancies are constantly gathering data on the requirements of the market place. This data is

often gathered through the use of questionnaires. It is quite commonplace to see market
researchers with their clipboards on our high streets particularly on a Saturday. Sometimes the
market research will involve gathering together general information which will be offered ‘for
sale’ by the market research company. Alternatively the market researchers may be given a
specific area to research for a client. Any designer/manufacturer that does not carry out thorough
market research is taking a great risk. To invest large sums of money in design, setting up a
manufacturing facility and producing the product without checking out whether or not that it is
what the public wants is very foolish.
A classic example of this is the Sinclair C5 which was
developed by Sir Clive Sinclair. The C5 was developed on the
back of enormous success with personal computers by
Sinclair Industries. The C5 was a small electric three wheeled
vehicle intended to be an alternative to the bicycle. It is true to
say that the C5 was extremely innovative and technologically
a success. However, detailed market research was not done to
establish whether or not people would use such a vehicle. The
C5 did not sell. This error lead to the failure of Sinclair
Industries.
In contrast to this many products have been introduced or redesigned following detailed
investigation of the market and have been a great success. For example Volkswagen introduced
the VW Golf which was the first real hatchback car. This design satisfied the need for a small
economical utility vehicle fitting in perfectly with the lifestyle of the modern European. The Golf
was a major success and has had a major impact on the design of cars today and has resulted in
the enormous expansion of the VW/Audi Group. Prior to the Golf, VW only manufactured the
Beetle and the VW Variant. In other words VW identified what the market wanted and then
designed it.
Other successes in this area have been products that satisfy the need to provide for a healthy,
environmentally sound, lifestyle. Examples of these are organic foods, biodegradable detergents
and sports equipment such as home exercise equipment.

Social Behaviour
Changes in patterns of social behaviour must be considered by the designer when working on
new products. Factors that would have been considered important in the design of products 50
years ago would not be seen as important today. Today lifestyles are such that leisure time is
very important. Generally both adults in the family unit work. Therefore tasks such as cooking
and cleaning need to made much quicker and easier to do. Hence the increase in the use of
products that permit this, such as food processors and fully automatic washing machines with
combined tumble dryers. The increase in the use of precooked foods, freezers and microwave
ovens have also contributed to increased efficiency in carrying out domestic chores.
This has in turn lead to a situation where people have more spare time which has increased
demand for home entertainment such as stereo systems, video and more recently home
cinema. Linked to this desire for good use of leisure time has also seen an increase in the use of
sports/leisure equipment such as exercise bikes and sun beds.
Economics
The motor industry is a good example of an increase in the importance of this factor. At one time
the price of petrol was such that the fuel consumption of a vehicle was not important. In the late
1970’s the price of oil increased sharply making large gas guzzling vehicles impractical. This
brought about the development of lean burn engines and an increase in the use of diesel engines
which are more economical (diesel fuel is also less expensive). The aerodynamics of cars has
also been significantly improved. Today it is not uncommon for vehicles to be able to do 50 mpg
compared to 20 mpg or less which was the norm before the fuel crisis.
Generally products today are cheaper to buy than in the past. This is largely due to the economies
of scale. Most products nowadays are produced in large quantities using manufacturing
processes that are expensive to set up but which, once established, can produce products quickly
and very cheaply. The more products that are produced the cheaper the price of a single product.

The development of modern materials such as plastics and composites
means that highly complex components, that may have been constructed
from a number of components in the past, can now be made as a single
item by processes such as injection moulding.
Designers also make use of standard components to reduce costs. Whether the product is
something as simple as a torch or as complex as a motor car, standard components are available
from such things as simple fixings (special screws, bolts etc.) to bulbs, switches, alternators and
even whole engines. The current Vauxhall Omega Turbo Diesel is in fact fitted with a BMW
turbo diesel engine. This practice is effective because the standard component manufacturer is
able to produce the parts in large quantities making them cheaper.
Savings can also be made by carefully selecting the best material and manufacturing process for
the item being designed. Because most markets are so competitive the price can not afford to be
unnecessarily high as this could prevent the product from selling. Often manufacturers will set
up factories in countries where costs are low. Many products today are manufactured in countries
like China where labour costs are very low, compared to Europe, and efficiency is high.

The price of a product depends on creating a balance between:
 Manufacturing costs (materials and processes);
 Advertising and distribution costs;
 Design and development costs;
 Profit, overheads and reinvestment;
 Prices set by other manufacturers.
CommercialEnterprise
Probably the single most important factor the designer must consider is cost. This obviously
effects the volume of sales and consequently the profit for the shareholders.
When designing products the designer should seek to take advantage of any factor which creates
a market niche. This will give the product an advantage in the market place as it ensures reduced
competition. Creating a market niche can be achieved in a number of ways:
 utilising new technology making it possible to produce a new and better product than
before. Ceramic edge to kitchen knives stays sharp for a lifetime.
 innovative cost savings through the use of new materials, manufacturing processes
etc. Use of injection moulded panels in car body manufacture.
 creating a new use or image for a product giving it a new lease of life. Storing text and
film images on CD’s which were originally created for the music industry.

use of innovative marketing, advertising and sales techniques to encourage the customer
to buy. Linking products to fashion trends, blockbuster films etc. such as books and toys
that use the characters from the latest film.
The client
Jawaharlal Nehru Stadium Delhi

Designers usually work for someone who pays them to solve a design problem. This is the client
- and it is usually the client (an individual or a company) who gives the designer a design brief,
and turns his or her ideas into products for consumers in the market place. Since the client is
paying, their wishes are also a key influence on product design.
For example, the designers of the Jawaharlal Nehru Stadium Delhi, Schlaich Bergermann &
Partner, were working for the Indian government, which was their client. Note that the client is
different from the user, who in this example was the general public (you and I). In the designing
and building the Schlaich Bergermann & Partner would have employed specialists, such as
construction companies, thus becoming clients themselves.
Aesthetics
Product design (i.e., industrial design) is perhaps most associated with aesthetic considerations.
While aesthetic considerations (e.g., shape, symmetry, texture, etc.) usually pertain to the
external surface(s) which house or protect the inner workings (e.g., mechanical or electrical
components) of a product, these considerations are not entirely independent of other design
concerns. For example, aesthetic considerations are influenced by (product) structure (i.e.,
mechanisms and components that allow the product to perform a particular function). This is
especially true of designs that strive to communicate the function of a product rather than to
conceal it. In such cases, many elements of a product design that are thought of as being
"aesthetic" (e.g., shape) are, in fact, frequently the principal means by which the purpose and use
of the object are communicated. This is particularly true today since computer chip technology
has freed many products from having to assume forms determined by the larger mechanical
components used in the past. Thus, aesthetic considerations in product design can be quite
complex and broad in scope since aesthetics (i.e., form, configuration) often plays a central role
in object perception, recognition, interpretation, understanding, and use.

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