The document discusses different types of learning including classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and observational learning. Classical conditioning involves learning associations between stimuli through processes like Pavlov's dog experiments. Operant conditioning involves learning through reinforcement and punishment of behaviors. Observational learning refers to learning through observing and imitating others.
5. Associative Learning
= learning that certain events occur together.
The events may be two stimuli (as in
classical conditioning) or a response and
its consequence (as in operant
conditioning).
8. Classical Conditioning
= a type of learning in which one learns to
link two or more stimuli and anticipate
events.
9. Behaviorism
= the view that psychology (1) should be an
objective science that (2) studies behavior
without reference to mental processes.
Most research psychologists today agree
with (1) but not with (2).
13. Unconditioned Response (UR)
= in classical conditioning, the unlearned,
naturally occurring response to the
unconditioned stimulus (US), such as
salivation when food is in the mouth.
14. Unconditioned Stimulus (US)
= in classical conditioning, a stimulus that
unconditionally – naturally and
automatically – triggers a response.
15. Conditioned Response (CR)
= in classical conditioning, the learned
response to a previously neutral (but now
conditioned) stimulus (CS).
16. Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
= in classical conditioning, an originally
irrelevant stimulus that, after association
with an unconditioned stimulus (CS),
comes to trigger a conditioned response.
18. Acquisition
= in classical conditioning, the initial stage,
when one links a neutral stimulus and an
unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral
stimulus begins triggering the conditioned
response. In operant conditioning, the
strengthening of a reinforced response.
19. Higher-order Conditioning
= a procedure in which the conditioned
stimulus in one conditioning experience is
paired with a new neutral stimulus,
creating a second (often weaker)
conditioned stimulus. For example, an
animal that has learned that a tone
predicts food might then learn that a light
predicts the tone and begin responding to
the light alone. (Also called second-order
conditioning.)
21. Extinction
= the diminishing of a conditioned response;
occurs in classical conditioning when an
unconditioned stimulus (US) does not
follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs
in operant conditioning when a response is
no longer reinforced.
27. Discrimination
= in classical conditioning, the learned ability
to distinguish between a conditioned
stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an
unconditioned stimulus.
40. Law of Effect
= Thorndike’s principle that behaviors
followed by favorable consequences
become more likely, and that behaviors
followed by unfavorable consequences
become less likely.
42. Operant Chamber
= in operant conditioning research, a
chamber (also known as a Skinner Box)
containing a bar or key that an animal can
manipulate to obtain a food or water
reinforcer; attached devices record the
animal’s rate of bar pressing or key
pecking.
44. Shaping
= an operant conditioning procedure in
which reinforcers guide behavior toward
closer and closer approximations of the
desired behavior.
45. Discriminative Stimulus
= in operant conditioning, a stimulus that
elicits a response after association with
reinforcement (in contrast to related stimuli
not associated with reinforcement).
48. Positive Reinforcement
= increasing behaviors by presenting
positive stimuli, such as food. A positive
reinforcer is any stimulus that, when
presented after a response, strengthens
the response.
49. Negative Reinforcement
= increases behaviors by stopping or
reducing negative stimuli, such as shock.
A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that,
when removed after a response,
strengthens the response (Note: negative
reinforcement is NOT punishment).
51. Skinner’s Experiments
Types of Reinforcers
• Primary reinforcer
• Conditioned reinforcer
–Secondary reinforcer
• Immediate vs delayed reinforcers
52. Primary Reinforcer
= an innately reinforcer stimulus, such as
one that satisfies a biological need.
53. Conditioned Reinforcer
= a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power
through its association with a primary
reinforcer; also known as a secondary
reinforcer.
56. Partial (intermittent)
Reinforcement
= reinforcing a response only part of the
time; results in slower acquisition of a
response but much greater resistance to
extinction than does continuous
reinforcement.
66. Skinner’s Experiments
Punishment
• Negatives of using punishment
–Punished behavior is suppressed not
forgotten
–Punishment teaches discrimination
–Punishment can teach fear
–Physical punishment may increase
aggression
70. Latent Learning
= learning that occurs but is not apparent
until there is an incentive to demonstrate
it.
71. Cognitive Map
= a mental representation of the layout of
one’s environment. For example, after
exploring a maze, rats act as if they have
learned a cognitive map of it.
72. Insight
= a sudden and often novel realization of the
solution to a problem.
74. Extrinsic Motivation
= a desire to perform a behavior to receive
promised rewards or avoid threatened
punishment.
75. Contrasting Classical and Operant
Conditioning
• Similarities between classical and
operant conditioning
• Differences between classical and
operant conditioning
82. Mirror Neurons
= frontal lobe neurons that fire when
performing certain actions or when
observing another doing so. The brain’s
mirroring of another’s action may enable
imitation and empathy.