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SetTheory.ppt

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bryanchristianbrione1

1. Set theory deals with operations between, relations among, and statements about sets. 2. A set is an unordered collection of distinct objects that can be defined by listing its elements or using set-builder notation. 3. Basic set operations include union, intersection, difference, and complement. The union of sets A and B contains all elements that are in A, B, or both. The intersection contains all elements that are in both A and B.

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1 Set Theory Rosen 6th ed., §2.1-2.2
2 Introduction to Set Theory • A set is a structure, representing an unordered collection (group, plurality) of zero or more distinct (different) objects. • Set theory deals with operations between, relations among, and statements about sets.
3 Basic notations for sets • For sets, we’ll use variables S, T, U, … • We can denote a set S in writing by listing all of its elements in curly braces: – {a, b, c} is the set of whatever 3 objects are denoted by a, b, c. • Set builder notation: For any proposition P(x) over any universe of discourse, {x|P(x)} is the set of all x such that P(x). e.g., {x | x is an integer where x>0 and x<5 }
4 Basic properties of sets • Sets are inherently unordered: – No matter what objects a, b, and c denote, {a, b, c} = {a, c, b} = {b, a, c} = {b, c, a} = {c, a, b} = {c, b, a}. • All elements are distinct (unequal); multiple listings make no difference! – {a, b, c} = {a, a, b, a, b, c, c, c, c}. – This set contains at most 3 elements!
5 Definition of Set Equality • Two sets are declared to be equal if and only if they contain exactly the same elements. • In particular, it does not matter how the set is defined or denoted. • For example: The set {1, 2, 3, 4} = {x | x is an integer where x>0 and x<5 } = {x | x is a positive integer whose square is >0 and <25}
6 Infinite Sets • Conceptually, sets may be infinite (i.e., not finite, without end, unending). • Symbols for some special infinite sets: N = {0, 1, 2, …} The natural numbers. Z = {…, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, …} The integers. R = The “real” numbers, such as 374.1828471929498181917281943125… • Infinite sets come in different sizes!
7 Venn Diagrams
8 Basic Set Relations: Member of • xS (“x is in S”) is the proposition that object x is an lement or member of set S. – e.g. 3N, “a”{x | x is a letter of the alphabet} • Can define set equality in terms of  relation: S,T: S=T  (x: xS  xT) “Two sets are equal iff they have all the same members.” • xS : (xS) “x is not in S”
9 The Empty Set •  (“null”, “the empty set”) is the unique set that contains no elements whatsoever. •  = {} = {x|False} • No matter the domain of discourse, we have the axiom x: x.
10 Subset and Superset Relations • ST (“S is a subset of T”) means that every element of S is also an element of T. • ST  x (xS  xT) • S, SS. • ST (“S is a superset of T”) means TS. • Note S=T  ST ST. • means (ST), i.e. x(xS  xT) T S / 
11 Proper (Strict) Subsets & Supersets • ST (“S is a proper subset of T”) means that ST but . Similar for ST. S T /  S T Venn Diagram equivalent of ST Example: {1,2}  {1,2,3}
12 Sets Are Objects, Too! • The objects that are elements of a set may themselves be sets. • E.g. let S={x | x  {1,2,3}} then S={, {1}, {2}, {3}, {1,2}, {1,3}, {2,3}, {1,2,3}} • Note that 1  {1}  {{1}} !!!!
13 Cardinality and Finiteness • |S| (read “the cardinality of S”) is a measure of how many different elements S has. • E.g., ||=0, |{1,2,3}| = 3, |{a,b}| = 2, |{{1,2,3},{4,5}}| = ____ • We say S is infinite if it is not finite. • What are some infinite sets we’ve seen?
14 The Power Set Operation • The power set P(S) of a set S is the set of all subsets of S. P(S) = {x | xS}. • E.g. P({a,b}) = {, {a}, {b}, {a,b}}. • Sometimes P(S) is written 2S. Note that for finite S, |P(S)| = 2|S|. • It turns out that |P(N)| > |N|. There are different sizes of infinite sets!
15 Ordered n-tuples • For nN, an ordered n-tuple or a sequence of length n is written (a1, a2, …, an). The first element is a1, etc. • These are like sets, except that duplicates matter, and the order makes a difference. • Note (1, 2)  (2, 1)  (2, 1, 1). • Empty sequence, singlets, pairs, triples, quadruples, quintuples, …, n-tuples.
16 Cartesian Products of Sets • For sets A, B, their Cartesian product AB : {(a, b) | aA  bB }. • E.g. {a,b}{1,2} = {(a,1),(a,2),(b,1),(b,2)} • Note that for finite A, B, |AB|=|A||B|. • Note that the Cartesian product is not commutative: AB: AB =BA. • Extends to A1  A2  …  An...
17 The Union Operator • For sets A, B, their union AB is the set containing all elements that are either in A, or (“”) in B (or, of course, in both). • Formally, A,B: AB = {x | xA  xB}. • Note that AB contains all the elements of A and it contains all the elements of B: A, B: (AB  A)  (AB  B)
18 • {a,b,c}{2,3} = {a,b,c,2,3} • {2,3,5}{3,5,7} = {2,3,5,3,5,7} ={2,3,5,7} Union Examples
19 The Intersection Operator • For sets A, B, their intersection AB is the set containing all elements that are simultaneously in A and (“”) in B. • Formally, A,B: AB{x | xA  xB}. • Note that AB is a subset of A and it is a subset of B: A, B: (AB  A)  (AB  B)
20 • {a,b,c}{2,3} = ___ • {2,4,6}{3,4,5} = ______ Intersection Examples  {4}
21 Disjointedness • Two sets A, B are called disjoint (i.e., unjoined) iff their intersection is empty. (AB=) • Example: the set of even integers is disjoint with the set of odd integers. Help, I’ve been disjointed!
22 Inclusion-Exclusion Principle • How many elements are in AB? |AB| = |A|  |B|  |AB| • Example: {2,3,5}{3,5,7} = {2,3,5,3,5,7} ={2,3,5,7}
23 Set Difference • For sets A, B, the difference of A and B, written AB, is the set of all elements that are in A but not B. • A  B : x  xA  xB  x   xA  xB   • Also called: The complement of B with respect to A.
24 Set Difference Examples • {1,2,3,4,5,6}  {2,3,5,7,9,11} = ___________ • Z  N  {… , -1, 0, 1, 2, … }  {0, 1, … } = {x | x is an integer but not a nat. #} = {x | x is a negative integer} = {… , -3, -2, -1} {1,4,6}
25 Set Difference - Venn Diagram • A-B is what’s left after B “takes a bite out of A” Set A Set B Set AB Chomp!
26 Set Complements • The universe of discourse can itself be considered a set, call it U. • The complement of A, written , is the complement of A w.r.t. U, i.e., it is UA. • E.g., If U=N, A ,...} 7 , 6 , 4 , 2 , 1 , 0 { } 5 , 3 { 
27 More on Set Complements • An equivalent definition, when U is clear: } | { A x x A   A U A
28 Set Identities • Identity: A=A AU=A • Domination: AU=U A= • Idempotent: AA = A = AA • Double complement: • Commutative: AB=BA AB=BA • Associative: A(BC)=(AB)C A(BC)=(AB)C A A  ) (
29 DeMorgan’s Law for Sets • Exactly analogous to (and derivable from) DeMorgan’s Law for propositions. B A B A B A B A      
30 Proving Set Identities To prove statements about sets, of the form E1 = E2 (where Es are set expressions), here are three useful techniques: • Prove E1  E2 and E2  E1 separately. • Use logical equivalences. • Use a membership table.
31 Method 1: Mutual subsets Example: Show A(BC)=(AB)(AC). • Show A(BC)(AB)(AC). – Assume xA(BC), & show x(AB)(AC). – We know that xA, and either xB or xC. • Case 1: xB. Then xAB, so x(AB)(AC). • Case 2: xC. Then xAC , so x(AB)(AC). – Therefore, x(AB)(AC). – Therefore, A(BC)(AB)(AC). • Show (AB)(AC)  A(BC). …
32 Method 3: Membership Tables • Just like truth tables for propositional logic. • Columns for different set expressions. • Rows for all combinations of memberships in constituent sets. • Use “1” to indicate membership in the derived set, “0” for non-membership. • Prove equivalence with identical columns.
33 Membership Table Example Prove (AB)B = AB. A A B B A A B B ( (A A B B) ) B B A A B B 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0
34 Membership Table Exercise Prove (AB)C = (AC)(BC). A B C A A B B ( (A A B B) ) C C A A C C B B C C ( (A A C C) ) ( (B B C C) ) 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1
35 Generalized Union • Binary union operator: AB • n-ary union: AA2…An : ((…((A1 A2) …) An) (grouping & order is irrelevant) • “Big U” notation: • Or for infinite sets of sets:  n i i A 1   X A A 
36 Generalized Intersection • Binary intersection operator: AB • n-ary intersection: AA2…An((…((A1A2)…)An) (grouping & order is irrelevant) • “Big Arch” notation: • Or for infinite sets of sets:  n i i A 1   X A A 

More Related Content

SetTheory.ppt

  • 1. 1 Set Theory Rosen 6th ed., §2.1-2.2
  • 2. 2 Introduction to Set Theory • A set is a structure, representing an unordered collection (group, plurality) of zero or more distinct (different) objects. • Set theory deals with operations between, relations among, and statements about sets.
  • 3. 3 Basic notations for sets • For sets, we’ll use variables S, T, U, … • We can denote a set S in writing by listing all of its elements in curly braces: – {a, b, c} is the set of whatever 3 objects are denoted by a, b, c. • Set builder notation: For any proposition P(x) over any universe of discourse, {x|P(x)} is the set of all x such that P(x). e.g., {x | x is an integer where x>0 and x<5 }
  • 4. 4 Basic properties of sets • Sets are inherently unordered: – No matter what objects a, b, and c denote, {a, b, c} = {a, c, b} = {b, a, c} = {b, c, a} = {c, a, b} = {c, b, a}. • All elements are distinct (unequal); multiple listings make no difference! – {a, b, c} = {a, a, b, a, b, c, c, c, c}. – This set contains at most 3 elements!
  • 5. 5 Definition of Set Equality • Two sets are declared to be equal if and only if they contain exactly the same elements. • In particular, it does not matter how the set is defined or denoted. • For example: The set {1, 2, 3, 4} = {x | x is an integer where x>0 and x<5 } = {x | x is a positive integer whose square is >0 and <25}
  • 6. 6 Infinite Sets • Conceptually, sets may be infinite (i.e., not finite, without end, unending). • Symbols for some special infinite sets: N = {0, 1, 2, …} The natural numbers. Z = {…, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, …} The integers. R = The “real” numbers, such as 374.1828471929498181917281943125… • Infinite sets come in different sizes!
  • 8. 8 Basic Set Relations: Member of • xS (“x is in S”) is the proposition that object x is an lement or member of set S. – e.g. 3N, “a”{x | x is a letter of the alphabet} • Can define set equality in terms of  relation: S,T: S=T  (x: xS  xT) “Two sets are equal iff they have all the same members.” • xS : (xS) “x is not in S”
  • 9. 9 The Empty Set •  (“null”, “the empty set”) is the unique set that contains no elements whatsoever. •  = {} = {x|False} • No matter the domain of discourse, we have the axiom x: x.
  • 10. 10 Subset and Superset Relations • ST (“S is a subset of T”) means that every element of S is also an element of T. • ST  x (xS  xT) • S, SS. • ST (“S is a superset of T”) means TS. • Note S=T  ST ST. • means (ST), i.e. x(xS  xT) T S / 
  • 11. 11 Proper (Strict) Subsets & Supersets • ST (“S is a proper subset of T”) means that ST but . Similar for ST. S T /  S T Venn Diagram equivalent of ST Example: {1,2}  {1,2,3}
  • 12. 12 Sets Are Objects, Too! • The objects that are elements of a set may themselves be sets. • E.g. let S={x | x  {1,2,3}} then S={, {1}, {2}, {3}, {1,2}, {1,3}, {2,3}, {1,2,3}} • Note that 1  {1}  {{1}} !!!!
  • 13. 13 Cardinality and Finiteness • |S| (read “the cardinality of S”) is a measure of how many different elements S has. • E.g., ||=0, |{1,2,3}| = 3, |{a,b}| = 2, |{{1,2,3},{4,5}}| = ____ • We say S is infinite if it is not finite. • What are some infinite sets we’ve seen?
  • 14. 14 The Power Set Operation • The power set P(S) of a set S is the set of all subsets of S. P(S) = {x | xS}. • E.g. P({a,b}) = {, {a}, {b}, {a,b}}. • Sometimes P(S) is written 2S. Note that for finite S, |P(S)| = 2|S|. • It turns out that |P(N)| > |N|. There are different sizes of infinite sets!
  • 15. 15 Ordered n-tuples • For nN, an ordered n-tuple or a sequence of length n is written (a1, a2, …, an). The first element is a1, etc. • These are like sets, except that duplicates matter, and the order makes a difference. • Note (1, 2)  (2, 1)  (2, 1, 1). • Empty sequence, singlets, pairs, triples, quadruples, quintuples, …, n-tuples.
  • 16. 16 Cartesian Products of Sets • For sets A, B, their Cartesian product AB : {(a, b) | aA  bB }. • E.g. {a,b}{1,2} = {(a,1),(a,2),(b,1),(b,2)} • Note that for finite A, B, |AB|=|A||B|. • Note that the Cartesian product is not commutative: AB: AB =BA. • Extends to A1  A2  …  An...
  • 17. 17 The Union Operator • For sets A, B, their union AB is the set containing all elements that are either in A, or (“”) in B (or, of course, in both). • Formally, A,B: AB = {x | xA  xB}. • Note that AB contains all the elements of A and it contains all the elements of B: A, B: (AB  A)  (AB  B)
  • 18. 18 • {a,b,c}{2,3} = {a,b,c,2,3} • {2,3,5}{3,5,7} = {2,3,5,3,5,7} ={2,3,5,7} Union Examples
  • 19. 19 The Intersection Operator • For sets A, B, their intersection AB is the set containing all elements that are simultaneously in A and (“”) in B. • Formally, A,B: AB{x | xA  xB}. • Note that AB is a subset of A and it is a subset of B: A, B: (AB  A)  (AB  B)
  • 20. 20 • {a,b,c}{2,3} = ___ • {2,4,6}{3,4,5} = ______ Intersection Examples  {4}
  • 21. 21 Disjointedness • Two sets A, B are called disjoint (i.e., unjoined) iff their intersection is empty. (AB=) • Example: the set of even integers is disjoint with the set of odd integers. Help, I’ve been disjointed!
  • 22. 22 Inclusion-Exclusion Principle • How many elements are in AB? |AB| = |A|  |B|  |AB| • Example: {2,3,5}{3,5,7} = {2,3,5,3,5,7} ={2,3,5,7}
  • 23. 23 Set Difference • For sets A, B, the difference of A and B, written AB, is the set of all elements that are in A but not B. • A  B : x  xA  xB  x   xA  xB   • Also called: The complement of B with respect to A.
  • 24. 24 Set Difference Examples • {1,2,3,4,5,6}  {2,3,5,7,9,11} = ___________ • Z  N  {… , -1, 0, 1, 2, … }  {0, 1, … } = {x | x is an integer but not a nat. #} = {x | x is a negative integer} = {… , -3, -2, -1} {1,4,6}
  • 25. 25 Set Difference - Venn Diagram • A-B is what’s left after B “takes a bite out of A” Set A Set B Set AB Chomp!
  • 26. 26 Set Complements • The universe of discourse can itself be considered a set, call it U. • The complement of A, written , is the complement of A w.r.t. U, i.e., it is UA. • E.g., If U=N, A ,...} 7 , 6 , 4 , 2 , 1 , 0 { } 5 , 3 { 
  • 27. 27 More on Set Complements • An equivalent definition, when U is clear: } | { A x x A   A U A
  • 28. 28 Set Identities • Identity: A=A AU=A • Domination: AU=U A= • Idempotent: AA = A = AA • Double complement: • Commutative: AB=BA AB=BA • Associative: A(BC)=(AB)C A(BC)=(AB)C A A  ) (
  • 29. 29 DeMorgan’s Law for Sets • Exactly analogous to (and derivable from) DeMorgan’s Law for propositions. B A B A B A B A      
  • 30. 30 Proving Set Identities To prove statements about sets, of the form E1 = E2 (where Es are set expressions), here are three useful techniques: • Prove E1  E2 and E2  E1 separately. • Use logical equivalences. • Use a membership table.
  • 31. 31 Method 1: Mutual subsets Example: Show A(BC)=(AB)(AC). • Show A(BC)(AB)(AC). – Assume xA(BC), & show x(AB)(AC). – We know that xA, and either xB or xC. • Case 1: xB. Then xAB, so x(AB)(AC). • Case 2: xC. Then xAC , so x(AB)(AC). – Therefore, x(AB)(AC). – Therefore, A(BC)(AB)(AC). • Show (AB)(AC)  A(BC). …
  • 32. 32 Method 3: Membership Tables • Just like truth tables for propositional logic. • Columns for different set expressions. • Rows for all combinations of memberships in constituent sets. • Use “1” to indicate membership in the derived set, “0” for non-membership. • Prove equivalence with identical columns.
  • 33. 33 Membership Table Example Prove (AB)B = AB. A A B B A A B B ( (A A B B) ) B B A A B B 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0
  • 34. 34 Membership Table Exercise Prove (AB)C = (AC)(BC). A B C A A B B ( (A A B B) ) C C A A C C B B C C ( (A A C C) ) ( (B B C C) ) 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1
  • 35. 35 Generalized Union • Binary union operator: AB • n-ary union: AA2…An : ((…((A1 A2) …) An) (grouping & order is irrelevant) • “Big U” notation: • Or for infinite sets of sets:  n i i A 1   X A A 
  • 36. 36 Generalized Intersection • Binary intersection operator: AB • n-ary intersection: AA2…An((…((A1A2)…)An) (grouping & order is irrelevant) • “Big Arch” notation: • Or for infinite sets of sets:  n i i A 1   X A A 

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