The document provides an overview of the digestive system, including:
1. It outlines the functional structures of the gastrointestinal tract and their roles in digestion.
2. It describes the secretions produced in the mouth, stomach, pancreas, liver, and intestines that aid in digestion of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats.
3. It explains how nutrients are absorbed and how metabolism of carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids provides energy for the body.
Digestion is necessary to break down food molecules like proteins, carbs, and fats into smaller molecules that can be absorbed and used by the body. In the stomach, food is churned by muscles and mixed with gastric juices containing acid and enzymes. The acid and enzyme pepsin break down proteins into peptides and polypeptides, while carbs continue to be broken into simpler sugars. The resulting semi-liquid mass of food particles and gastric juices is called chyme.
The digestive system is divided into the alimentary tube and accessory organs. The alimentary tube extends from the mouth to the anus and includes the oral cavity, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, and large intestine. Accessory organs include the teeth, tongue, salivary glands, liver, gallbladder and pancreas. Digestion involves both mechanical and chemical breakdown of food. Enzymes produced in various organs help break down food into smaller molecules that can be absorbed and used by the body. As we age, the digestive system becomes less effective at digestion and absorption of nutrients.
The stomach is a hollow organ located below the diaphragm in the abdominal cavity. It has four layers including an outer serous layer, a muscular layer made of smooth muscle, a submucus layer, and an inner mucus layer. The mucus layer contains gastric pits and gastric glands including fundic, pyloric, and cardiac glands that secrete gastric juice. Gastric juice contains hydrochloric acid and the digestive enzyme pepsin and helps digest proteins. Secretion of gastric juice is regulated by three phases: cephalic, gastric, and intestinal phases which are controlled by nerves, hormones like gastrin, and gastrointestinal hormones. The stomach serves digestive, protective, hematopoiet
This document discusses the secretion of various digestive substances throughout the gastrointestinal tract. It begins by describing the general principles of secretion, including the different cell types that produce mucus and enzymes. It then covers secretion in specific organs, including the stomach (gastric glands and regulation), pancreas (digestive enzymes and regulation), liver (bile production and role in fat digestion), and small intestine. The roles of nerves, hormones and other factors in stimulating or inhibiting secretion are also explained.
The document discusses the human digestive system. It begins with the mouth and ends with the anus. The major organs are the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum and anus. Accessory organs include the liver, salivary glands, gallbladder and pancreas. The digestive process involves ingestion, mechanical and chemical digestion, absorption, assimilation and excretion. Food is broken down and nutrients are absorbed and transported to cells to be used for energy and growth.
The document describes the main organs and functions of the human digestive system. It begins with an overview of the gastrointestinal tract and lists the major organs as the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, liver, gallbladder and pancreas. It then provides more detail on the roles and structures of each organ, including how they contribute to ingestion, digestion, absorption and elimination. The key functions of digestion include mechanical and chemical breakdown of food as well as nutrient absorption in the small intestine.
The document describes the main components and functions of the human digestive system. It discusses the six major processes of digestion: ingestion, propulsion, mechanical and chemical digestion, absorption, and defecation. It names and describes the functions of the main digestive organs - mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, and large intestine. It also outlines the roles of accessory organs like the liver, pancreas, and salivary glands in aiding the digestion process.
The digestive system consists of the digestive tract and accessory organs. The six main functions of the digestive system are ingestion, mechanical and chemical digestion, secretion, absorption, and excretion. The digestive tract includes the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, and large intestine. Accessory organs that aid in digestion include the teeth, tongue, salivary glands, liver, gallbladder and pancreas. In the small intestine, nutrients are absorbed into the bloodstream and lymphatic system.
The human digestive system breaks down food through both mechanical and chemical digestion. Food is ingested and broken down mechanically by teeth and enzymes in the mouth, stomach, and small intestine. In the stomach and small intestine, chemicals like acids and enzymes produced by the liver, pancreas, and intestines themselves further break down food into small molecules that can be absorbed into the bloodstream. The digestive system includes the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small and large intestines, and accessory organs like the liver, gallbladder and pancreas that produce digestive juices to break down proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates.
The digestive system breaks down food into nutrients that can be absorbed and used by the body. The mouth, stomach, and intestines make up the gastrointestinal tract, while accessory organs like the liver, pancreas and salivary glands aid digestion. In the mouth, chewing and saliva begin breaking down food. The stomach stores, churns, and breaks down food further using gastric juices and enzymes. The small intestine then absorbs nutrients before waste is eliminated in the large intestine and rectum.
This document provides information on the digestive system. It begins with an overview of digestion and the functions of the digestive system. It then describes the functional anatomy of the digestive system, including the primary and accessory digestive organs. The document focuses on the mouth and salivary glands, providing details on their anatomy, functions of saliva, and properties of saliva. It also discusses the stomach, including the anatomy and functions of the stomach and gastric juice. The document concludes with information on mechanisms of gastric secretion and an overview of gastritis.
The small intestine functions to further digest and absorb nutrients from food. It is divided into three sections - the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum. The small intestine contains villi and microvilli that increase its surface area for absorption. Digestion and absorption continue in the small intestine through the actions of succus entericus and bile. The large intestine absorbs water and electrolytes from undigested material and forms feces from waste products.
Similar to Stomach_dig.enzymes_clinical dosorders.pptx (20)
AlgaeBrew project - Unlocking the potential of microalgae for the valorisation of brewery waste products into omega-3 rich animal feed and fertilisers
Carmen Gabriela Constantin, University of Agronomic Sciences and Veterinary Medicine (USAMV), Romania
The CGIAR needs a revolution John McIntire a, Achim Dobermann bAbdellah HAMMA
The CGIAR is a unique scientific organization that seeks to improve food security for low-income people. It
should be leading efforts to generate sustainable productivity gains in agriculture, especially in sub-Saharan
Africa where productivity lags. However, its current ill-adapted priorities and structure, its obsession with reorganizations,
and its unproductive ventures into local development projects have reduced its impact and
rendered it unable to respond to the challenge of food security under climate change. The system’s efforts have
become too diffuse and ineffective while attempts to revive impact through repeated re-organizations have
failed. The CGIAR has unique strengths: access to plant germplasm, know-how to improve germplasm and
agronomic practices, global networks of experimental sites and research collaborators, and excellent staff. The
CGIAR’s scientists are highly motivated, but leaders and funders of the system have failed to support them with a
simple, focused, and better funded operational environment needed to succeed in their research – and have
greater impact from it. This can be corrected. We propose a scientific and problem-driven focus on fewer global
and regional research priorities, supported by adequate long-term funding, rigorous methods of project evaluation,
and management that stimulates innovation and seeks verifiable results. These supports do not exist today
and we do not see that the current One CGIAR system will provide them in the foreseeable future.
This pdf is about the introduction to concept of Balanced Diet & Nutrients.
For more details visit on YouTube; @SELF-EXPLANATORY; https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCAiarMZDNhe1A3Rnpr_WkzA/videos
Thanks...!
Speed-accuracy trade-off for the diffusion modelssosukeito
The presentation of Frontiers in Nonequilibrium Physics at YITP about the preprint https://arxiv.org/abs/2407.04495.
Thermodynamic trade-off between the accuracy of the data generation and the diffusion speed for the diffusion models. We show thermodynamically that the optimal transport provides the most accurate data generation.
Dr Steffi Friedrichs from AcumenIST SRL presented the MACRAMÉ (www.MACRAME-Project.eu), CHIASMA (www.CHIASMA-Project-eu), INSIGHT (www.INSIGHT-Project.org) and PINK (www.PINK-Project.eu) Projects at this year;s Behoerdenklausur in Berlin.
No black holes from light einstein general relativitySérgio Sacani
— One of the consequences of the fact
that energy—and not mass—is the one responsible for
the curvature of spacetime is the a priori possibility
of having massless fields being held together by gravity. These exotic structures (known as geons) were first
considered by Wheeler [1–3] for electromagnetic fields.
The cases of the (almost massless) neutrinos [4] and the
gravitational field itself [5, 6] were subsequently studied.
These objects are found to be unstable under perturbations [7], leading to either a “leakage” of the massless
field [1] or its collapse into a black hole [8]. In this context, the term kugelblitz (German for “ball lightning”)
has become popular as a way to refer to any hypothetical black hole formed by the gravitational collapse of
electromagnetic radiation [9].
Kugelblitze are allowed by general relativity: there are
exact solutions to Einstein-Maxwell equations describing
black holes generated by the collapse of electromagnetic
energy [10, 11]. Kugelblitze have been studied in the
context of the cosmic censorship hypothesis [11–13], the
evaporation of white holes [11], dark matter [14], and
have even been proposed as the engine of a really speculative option for interstellar travel [15–17]. However, none
of these works take into account quantum effects, which
should play an important role in determining whether a
kugelblitz can form or not. This is especially so if we
are interested in black holes of small sizes such as the
artificial ones required in [15–17].
Synopsis: Analysis of a Metallic SpecimenSérgio Sacani
The All-Domain Anomaly Resolution Office (AARO) sponsored a series of measurements on a layered material
specimen primarily composed of magnesium and zinc, with bands of bismuth and other co-located trace elements.
The material specimen, whose origin and purpose are of long and debated history, is claimed to be recovered
from an unidentified anomalous phenomenon (UAP) crash in or around 1947. Furthermore, the specimen’s
physiochemical properties are claimed to make the material capable of “inertial mass reduction” (i.e., levitation or
antigravity functionality), possibly attributable to the material’s bismuth and magnesium layers acting as a terahertz
waveguide
2. • FUNCTIONAL ANATOMY OF STOMACH
• Stomach is a hollow organ located just below the diaphragm on the left side in the abdominal
cavity.
• Volume of empty stomach is 50 mL. Under normal conditions, it can expand to accommodate
approximately1 L to 1.5 L of solids and liquids.
• Whatever it may be, it is capable of expanding still further up to 4 L.
3. • PARTS OF STOMACH
• In humans, stomach consists of four parts:
• 1. Cardiac region
• 2. Fundus
• 3. Body or corpus
• 4. Pyloric region.
• 1. Cardiac Region
• a)Cardiac region is the upper part of the stomach where esophagus opens.
• b)The opening is protected by a sphincter termed as cardiac sphincter, which opens only towards stomach. This portion is also termed
as cardiac end.
• 2. Fundus
• a)Fundus is a small domeshaped structure.
• b)It is elevated particularly above the level of esophageal opening.
•
• 3. Body or Corpus
• Body is the largest part of stomach forming approximately 75% to 80% of the whole stomach. It extends from just below the fundus up to
the pyloric region ..
4. • 4. Pyloric Region
• a)Pyloric region consists of two parts, antrum and pyloric canal.
• b)The body of stomach ends in antrum. Junction between body and antrum is demonstrated by an
angular notch known as incisura angularis.
• c) Antrum is continued as the narrow canal, which is termed as pyloric canal or pyloric end.
Pyloric canal opens into first part of small intestine known as duodenum.
• d) The opening of pyloric canal is protected by a sphincter termed as pyloric sphincter.
• e0 It opens towards duodenum. Stomach contains two curvatures. One on the right side
• is lesser curvature and the other on left side is greater curvature.
5. • STRUCTURE OF STOMACH WALL
• Stomach wall contains four layers of structures:
• 1. Outer serous layer: Formed by peritoneum
• 2. Muscular layer: Consists of three layers of smooth muscle fibers, such as inner oblique, middle
circular and outer longitudinal layers
6. • STRUCTURE OF GASTRIC GLANDS
• 1. Fundic Glands
• a0Fundic glands are considered as the typical gastric glands .
• b)These glands are long and tubular. Each gland consists of three parts, viz. body, neck and isthmus.
•
• Cells of fundic glands
• 1. Chief cells or pepsinogen cells
• 2. Parietal cells or oxyntic cells
• 3. Mucus neck cells
• 4. Enterochromaffin (EC) cells or Kulchitsky cells
• 5. Enterochromaffinlike (ECL) cells.
• Parietal cells are different from other cells of the gland due to the presence of canaliculi (singular = canaliculus).
• Parietal cells empty their secretions into the lumen of the gland via the canaliculi. But, other cells empty their secretions
directly into lumen of the
• gland.
7. • 2. Pyloric Glands
• Pyloric glands are short and tortuous in nature. These glands are formed by G cells, mucus cells,
EC cells and ECL cells.
• 3. Cardiac Glands
• Cardiac glands are also short and tortuous in structure, Along with many mucus cells. EC cells, ECL
cells and chief cells are also observed in the cardiac glands
8. • 3. Submucus layer: Formed by areolar tissue, blood vessels, lymph vessels and Meissner nerve
plexus.
• 4. Inner mucus layer:
• Lined by mucus secreting columnar epithelial cells. The gastric glands are located in this layer.
Under resting conditions, the mucosa of the stomach is demonstrated in the form of many folds.
These folds are termed as rugae. The rugae
• Disappear if the stomach is distended after meals. Throughout the inner mucus layer, small
• Depressions termed as gastric pits are seen. Glands of the stomach open into these pits. Inner
surface of mucus layer is covered by 2 mm thick mucus.
9. • GLANDS OF STOMACH – GASTRIC GLANDS
• Glands of the stomach or gastric glands are tubular structures made up of different types of cells.
These glands open into the stomach cavity via gastric pits.
• CLASSIFICATION OF GLANDS OF THE STOMACH
• Gastric glands are categorized into three types, on the basis of their location in the stomach:
• 1. Fundic glands or main gastric glands or oxyntic glands: located in body and fundus of stomach
• 2. Pyloric glands: observed in the pyloric part of the stomach
• 3. Cardiac glands: Located in the cardiac region of the stomach
10. • PROPERTIES AND COMPOSITION OF GASTRIC JUICE
• Gastric juice is a mixture of secretions from different gastric glands.
• PROPERTIES OF GASTRIC JUICE
• Volume : 1200 mL/day to 1500 mL/day.
• Reaction : Gastric juice is highly acidic with a pH of 0.9 to 1.2. Acidity of gastric juice is
• Because of the presence of hydrochloric acid.
• Specific gravity : 1.002 to 1.004
• COMPOSITION OF GASTRIC JUICE
• Gastric juice contains 99.5% of water and 0.5% solids.
• Solids are organic and inorganic substances. composition of gastric juice.
•
11. • FUNCTIONS OF GASTRIC JUICE
• 1. DIGESTIVE FUNCTION
• a)Gastric juice acts primarily on proteins. Proteolytic enzymes of the gastric juice are pepsin and
rennin .
• b) Gastric juice also consists of some other enzymes like gastric lipase, gelatinase, urase and
gastric amylase.
12. • Pepsin
• Pepsin is secreted as inactive pepsinogen.
• Pepsinogen is changed into pepsin by hydrochloric acid. pH for activation of pepsinogen is below
6.
• Action of pepsin
• Pepsin changes proteins into proteoses, peptones and polypeptides.
• Pepsin is also responsible for curdling and digestion of milk (casein).
• Gastric Lipase
• Gastric lipase is a weak lipolytic enzyme if compared to pancreatic lipase.
• It is active only when the pH is between 4 and 5 and becomes inactive especially at a pH below
13. • Enteroendocrine Cells
• Enteroendocrine cells are the hormone secreting cells observed in the glands or mucosa of
gastrointestinal tract, especiallly stomach and intestine.
• The enteroendocrine cells observed in gastric glands are G cells, EC cells and ECL cells.
14. • FUNCTIONS OF GASTRIC GLANDS
• Function of the gastric gland is to secrete gastric juice. Secretory activities of different cells of
gastric glands and enteroendocrine cells .
15. • FUNCTIONS OF STOMACH
• 1. MECHANICAL FUNCTION
• i. Storage Function
• a)Food is stored in the stomach for a long period, i.e. for 3 to 4 hours and poured into the intestine
slowly.
• b) The maximum capacity of stomach is up to 1.5 L. Slow emptying of stomach arranges enough
time for proper digestion and absorption of food substances in the small
• intestine.
• ii. Formation of Chyme
• Peristaltic movements of stomach mix the bolus along with with gastric juice and convert it into the
semisolid material Known as as chyme.
16. • Actions of Other Enzymes of Gastric Juice
• i. Gelatinase: Degrades type I and type V gelatin and type IV and V collagen (which are
proteoglycans in meat) into peptides
• ii. Urase: Acts on urea and gives rise to ammonia
• iii. Gastric amylase: Degrades starch (but its action is insignificant)
• iv. Rennin: Curdles milk (present in animals only).
17. • Digestive enzymes of gastric juice
• Pepsin
• Hydrochloric acid Proteins
• Proteoses, peptones and polypeptides
• Gastric lipase
• Acid medium
• Triglycerides of butter Fatty acids and glycerols
• Gastric amylase Acid medium
• Starch
• Dextrin and maltose (negligible action)
• Gelatinase
• Acid medium
• Gelatin and collagen of meat Peptides
• Urase
• Acid medium
• Urea
• Ammonia
18. • FUNCTIONS OF GASTRIC JUICE;-
• 1. HEMOPOIETIC FUNCTION
• a)Intrinsic factor of Castle, secreted by especially parietal cells of gastric glands plays a critical
role in erythropoiesis.
• b) It is necessary for the absorption of vitamin B12 (which is called extrinsic factor) from GI tract into
the blood.
• c)Vitamin B12 is an important maturation factor particularly during erythropoiesis. Absence of
intrinsic factor in gastric juice leads to the deficiency of vitamin B12, resulting in pernicious
anemia (Chapter 14).
19. • 2.PROTECTIVE FUNCTION – FUNCTION OF MUCUS
• a)Mucus is a mucoprotein, secreted by mucus neck cells of the gastric glands and surface mucus
cells in fundus, body and other parts of stomach.
• b)It provides the protection to the gastric wall by the following ways:
• Mucus:
• i. Protects the stomach wall from irritation or mechanical injury, because of its high viscosity.
• ii. Inhibits the digestive action of pepsin on the wall of the stomach, espeially gastric mucosa.
• iii. Protects the gastric mucosa from hydrochloric acid of gastric juice due to its alkaline
• nature and its acidcombining power.
20. • . FUNCTIONS OF HYDROCHLORIC ACID
• Hydrochloric acid is present in the gastric juice:
• i. stimulates pepsinogen into pepsin
• ii. Destroys some of the bacteria entering the stomach along with food substances. This action is
called bacteriolytic action
• iii. arranges acid medium, which is necessary for the action of hormones.
21. • SECRETION OF GASTRIC JUICE
• SECRETION OF PEPSINOGEN
• Pepsinogen is synthesized from amino acids in the ribosomes attached to endoplasmic reticulum
particularly in chief cells.
• Pepsinogen molecules are packed into zymogen granules by Golgi apparatus.
• If zymogen granule is secreted into stomach from chief cells, the granule is dissolved and
pepsinogen is released into gastric juice.
• Pepsinogen is activated into pepsin with the help of hydrochloric acid.
22. • SECRETION OF HYDROCHLORIC ACID
• According to Davenport theory, hydrochloric acid secretion is an active process that happens in the
canaliculi of parietal cells in gastric glands.
• The energy for this process is derived particularly from oxidation of glucose. Carbon dioxide is derived
from metabolic activities of parietal cell. Some amount of carbon dioxide is derived from blood also.
• It combines with water and results in the formation ofcarbonic acid in the presence of carbonic
anhydrase.
• This enzyme is observed in high concentration in parietal cells.
• Carbonic acid is the most unstable compound and immediately splits into hydrogen ion and bicarbonate
ion.
• The hydrogen ion is pumped in an active manner into the canaliculus of parietal cell. Simultaneously, the
chloride ion is also pumped into canaliculus in an active form..
• The chloride is derived from sodium chloride in the blood.
• Now, the hydrogen ion combines with chloride ion and results in the formation of hydrochloric acid.
• To compensate the loss of chloride ion, the bicarbonate ion from parietal cell gains entry into the blood
and combines with sodium to form sodium bicarbonate.
• CO2 + H2 O + NaCl → HCl + NaHCO3
23. • Factors Stimulating the Secretion
• of Hydrochloric Acid
• 1. Gastrin
• 2. Histamine
• 3. Vagal stimulation.
25. • REGULATION OF GASTRIC SECRETION
• Regulation of gastric secretion and intestinal secretion is studied by some experimental procedures.
26. • METHODS OF STUDY
• 1. Pavlov Pouch
• a)Pavlov pouch is a small part of the stomach that is separated in an incomplete manner from the main
portion and made into a small baglike pouch .
• b)Pavlov pouch was designed by the Russian scientist Pavlov, in a dog during his studies on conditioned
reflexes.
• Procedure
• To prepare a Pavlov pouch, stomach of an anesthetized dog is divided into a larger part and a smaller
part by making an incomplete incision.
• The mucus membrane is completely divided. A small part of muscular coat termed as isthmus is
retained. Isthmus connects the two parts.
• The cut edges of major portions are stitched. Smaller part is also stitched, leaving a small outlet.
• This outlet is brought out through the abdominal wall and used to drain the pouch.
• Nerve supply of Pavlov pouch
• Pavlov pouch receives parasympathetic (vagus) nerve fibers through isthmus and sympathetic fibers with
the help of blood vessels.
• Use of Pavlov pouch
• Pavlov pouch is used to demonstrate the different phases of gastric secretion, especially the cephalic
phase and used to demonstrate the role of vagus in
• cephalic phase.
27. • 2. Heidenhain Pouch
• a)Heidenhain pouch is the modified Pavlov pouch. It is separated in a completed manner from
main portion of stomach by cutting the isthmus without damaging blood vessels.
• b) So, the blood vessels are intact. Thus, Heidenhain pouch does not have parasympathetic supply,
but the sympathetic fibers remain intact along with the blood vessels.
• Uses of Heidenhain pouch
• Heidenhain pouch is helpful in demonstrating the role of sympathetic nerve and the hormonal
regulation of gastric secretion after vagotomy (cutting the vagus nerve).
28. • 3. Bickel Pouch
• In this, even the sympathetic nerve fibers are cut by removing the blood vessels. So, Bickel pouch
is a totally denervated pouch.
• Uses of Bickel pouch
• Bickel pouch is helpful in demonstrating the role of hormones in gastric secretion.
29. • 4. Farrel and Ivy Pouch
• a)Farrel and Ivy pouch is prepared in a complete manner by removing the Bickel pouch from the
stomach and transplanting it in the subcutaneous tissue of abdominal wall or thoracic
• wall in the same animal.
• b)New blood vessels develop after some days. It is used for experimental purpose, if the new blood
vessels are developed.
• Uses of Farrel and Ivy pouch
• This pouch is useful to study the role of hormones during gastric and intestinal phases of gastric
secretion.
30. • 5. Sham Feeding
• Sham feeding means the false feeding. It is another experimental procedure devised by Pavlov to
demonstrate the regulation of gastric secretion.
• Procedure
• i. A hole is made in the neck of an anesthetized dog
• ii. Esophagus is transversely cut and the cut ends are drawn out through the hole particularly in the neck
• iii.if the dog eats food, it comes out through the cut end of the esophagus
• iv. But the dog has the satisfaction of eating the food. Hence it is termed as sham feeding.
• This experimental procedure is supported by the preparation of Pavlov pouch along with a fistula from
the stomach. The fistula opens to exterior and it is used to observe the gastric secretion. The animal is
used for experimental purpose after a week, when healing is
• completed.
• Advantage of sham feeding
• 1)Sham feeding is useful to demonstrate the secretion of gastric juice particularly during cephalic
phase.2) In the same animal after vagotomy, sham feeding does not gives rise to gastric secretion. It
proves the role of vagus nerve during cephalic phase.
31. • PHASES OF GASTRIC SECRETION
• Secretion of gastric juice is a continuous process.
• But the quantity varies, depending upon time and stimulus. Accordingly, gastric secretion occurs in
three different
• phases:
• I. Cephalic phase
• II. Gastric phase
• III. Intestinal phase.
• In human beings, a fourth phase called interdigestive phase exists. Each phase is controlled by
neural mechanism or hormonal mechanism or both.
32. • CEPHALIC PHASE
• Secretion of gastric juice occrs by the stimuli from head region (cephalus) is termed as cephalic
phase .
• This phase of gastric secretion is controlled by nervous mechanism.
• The gastric juice secreted during this phase is is known as appetite juice.
• During this phase, gastric secretion happens even without the presence of food in stomach. 5)The
quantity of the juice is less but it is rich in enzymes and hydrochloric acid.
33. • Nervous mechanism controls cephalic phase through reflex action. Two types of reflexes happen.
• 1. Unconditioned reflex
• 2. Conditioned reflex.
34. • 1. Unconditioned Reflex
• Unconditioned reflex is the inborn reflex. if food is placed in the mouth, salivary secretion is induced.
Simultaneously, gastric secretion also occurs.
• Stages of reflex action:
• i. Presence of food in the mouth activates the taste buds and other receptors in the mouth
• ii. Sensory (afferent) impulses from mouth pass via afferent nerve fibers of glossopharyngeal and
facial nerves to amygdala and appetite center present in hypothalamus
• . iii. From here, the efferent impulses pass through dorsal nucleus of vagus and vagal efferent nerve
fibers to the wall of the stomach
• iv. Vagal efferent nerve endings secrete acetylcholinewhich activates gastric secretion.
35. • 2. Conditioned Reflex
• Conditioned reflex is the reflex response gained by previous experience. Presence of food in
• the mouth is not essential to elicit this reflex. The sight, smell, hearing or thought of food, which
induce salivary secretion induce gastric secretion also.
• Stages of reflex action:
• i. Impulses from the special sensory organs (eye, ear and nose) pass through afferent fibers of
neural circuits partcularly to the cerebral cortex. Thinking of food activates the cerebral cortex in a
direct manner
• ii. From cerebral cortex, the impulses pass through dorsal nucleus of vagus and vagal efferents and
reach the stomach wall
• iii. Vagal nerve endings secrete acetylcholine, which activates the gastric secretion.
36. • Experimental evidences to prove cephalic phase
• i. Unconditioned reflex of gastric secretion is proved by sham feeding along with Pavlov pouch After
vagotomy, sham feeding does not induce gastric secretion. It proves the
• importance of vagus nerve especially in this phase.
• ii. Conditioned reflex of gastric secretion is proved
• by Pavlov pouch and belldog experiment
37. • GASTRIC PHASE
• 1)Secretion of gastric juice if food gains an entry into the stomach is termed asgastric phase. 2)This
phase is controlled by both nervous and hormonal control. Gastric juice secreted
• during this phase is rich in pepsinogen and hydrochloric acid.
• Mechanisms involved in gastric phase are:
• 1. Nervous mechanism with the help of local myenteric reflex and vagovagal reflex
• 2. Hormonal mechanism through gastrin Stimuli, which start these two mechanisms are:
• 1. Distention of stomach
• 2. Mechanical stimulation of gastric mucosa by bulk of food
• 3. Chemical stimulation of gastric mucosa by the food contents.
38. • 1. Nervous Mechanism
• Local myenteric reflex
• Local myenteric reflex is the reflex elicited by stimulation of myenteric nerve plexus particularly in
stomach wall.
• After entering stomach, the food particles activate the local nerve plexus observed in the wall of the
stomach. These nerve fibers release acetylcholine, which activates the gastric glands to secrete a
large quantity of gastric juice. Simultaneously, acetylcholine stimulates G cells to secrete gastrin.
39. • Vagovagal reflex
• Vagovagal reflex is the reflex which involves both afferent and efferent vagal fibers also. 2)Entrance
of bolus into the stomach activates the sensory (afferent) nerve endings of vagus and generates
sensory impulses. 3)These sensory impulses are transmitted by sensory fibers of vagus to dorsal
nucleus of vagus, situated in medulla of brainstem.
• This nucleus in turn, sends efferent impulses through the motor (efferent) fibers of vagus, back to
stomach and lead to the secretion of gastric juice.
• 5) Since, both afferent and efferent impulses pass through vagus, this reflex is also termed as
vagovagal reflex ..
40. • 2. Hormonal Mechanism – Gastrin
• a)Gastrin is a gastrointestinal hormone produced by the G cells which are observed in the pyloric
glands of stomach.
• b)Small amount of gastrin is also secreted in mucosa of
• upper small intestine. In fetus, it is also secreted by islets of Langerhans in pancreas.
• Gastrin is a polypeptide containing G14, G17 or G34 amino acids.
• Gastrin is released if food gains an entry intp stomach. Mechanism involved in the release of
gastrin may be the local nervous reflex or vagovagal reflex. Nerve endings release the
neurotransmitter termed as gastrinreleasing peptide, which activates the G cells to secrete gastrin.
•
41. • Actions of gastrin on gastric secretion
• Gastrin enhances the secretion of pepsinogen and hydrochloric acid by the gastric glands.
•
• Experimental evidences of gastric phase
• 1)Nervous mechanism of gastric secretion during gastric phase is arranged by Pavlov pouch.
2)Hormonal mechanism of gastric secretion is proved by Heidenhain pouch, Bickel pouch and
Farrel and Ivy pouch.
42. • INTESTINAL PHASE
• Intestinal phase is the secretion of gastric juice if chyme gains an entry into the intestine.
• 2) initially, the gastric secretion enhances but later it stops. Intestinal phase of gastric secretion is
controlled by nervous and hormonal control.
•
• Initial Stage of Intestinal Phase
• Chyme that enters the intestine activates the duodenal mucosa to release gastrin, which is
transported to stomach via blood.
• There it increases gastric secretion.
43. • Later Stage of Intestinal Phase
• After the initial increase, there is a decrease or complete stoppage of gastric secretion. Gastric
secretion is stopped by two factors:
• 1. Enterogastric reflex
• 2. Gastrointestinal (GI) hormones.
• 1. Enterogastric reflex
• a)Enterogastric reflex stops the gastric secretion and motility.
• b) It is because ofthe distention of intestinal mucosa by chyme or chemical or osmotic irritation of
intestinal mucosa by chemical substances in the chyme. It is mediated by myenteric nerve
(Auerbach) plexus and vagus.
44. • 2. Gastrointestinal hormones
• a)Presence of chyme in the intestine activates the secretion of many GI hormones from intestinal
mucosa and other structures.
• b) All these hormones stop the gastric secretion. Some of these hormones inhibit the gastric
motility also.
45. • GI hormones which inhibit gastric secretion:
• i. Secretin: Secreted by particularly the presence of acid chyme in the intestine
• ii. Cholecystokinin: Secreted by the presence of chyme containing fats and amino acids especially
in intestine
• iii. Gastric inhibitory peptide (GIP): Secreted by the presence of chyme containing glucose and fats
in the intestine
46. • iv. Vasoactive intestinal polypeptide (VIP): Secreted by the presence of acidic chyme in intestine
• v. Peptide YY: Secreted by the presence of fatty chyme in intestine. Besides these hormones,
pancreas also secretes a hormone known as somatostatin during intestinal phase. It also inhibits
gastric secretion. Thus, enterogastric reflex and intestinal hormones
• collectively apply a strong brake on the secretion and motility of stomach during intestinal phase.
47. • Experimental evidences for intestinal phase
• Intestinal phase of gastric secretion is demonstrated by Bickel pouch and Farrel and Ivy pouch.
• INTERDIGESTIVE PHASE
• Secretion of small amount of gastric juice in between meals (or during period of fasting) is termed
as interdigestive phase.
• Gastric secretion during this phase is primarily mainly because of the hormones like gastrin. This
phase of gastric secretion is demonstrated by Farrel and Ivy pouch.
48. • FACTORS INFLUENCING GASTRIC SECRETION
• Gastric secretion is also stimulated by some factors which enhance the gastric secretion by
stimulating gastric mucosa namely:
• 1. Alcohol
• 2. Caffeine.
49. • COLLECTION OF GASTRIC JUICE
• In human beings, the collection ofthe gastric juice takes place by using Ryle tube.
• The tube is made out of rubber or plastic. It is passed through nostril or mouth and through
esophagus into the stomach.
• A line is marked in the tube. The entrance of the tip of the tube into stomach is marked If this line
comes near the mouth.
• Then, the contents of stomach are collected with the help of aspiration.
50. • GASTRIC ANALYSIS
• For analysis, the gastric juice is collected from patient only in the morning.
• Analysis of the gastric juice is performedfor the diagnosis of ulcer and other disorders of stomach.
•
• Gastric juice is analyzed for the following:
• 1. Measurement of peptic activity
• 2. Measurement of gastric acidity: Total acid, free acid (hydrochloric acid) and combined acid.
51. • METHODS OF GASTRIC ANALYSIS
• 1. Fractional Test Meal (FTM)
• After overnight fasting, the gastric juice is collected. Then, the patient takes a small test meal known as
fractional test meal (FTM).
•
• Typical test meals are:
• i. A piece of bread and a cup of tea
• ii. Wheat biscuit and 400 mL of water
• iii. 300 mL of oatmeal gruel.
•
• Fractional gastric analysis
• After the ingestion of a test meal, gastric juice is collected at every 15th minute for a period of two and a
half hours.
• All these samples are analyzed for peptic activity and
• acidity.
52. • 2. Nocturnal Gastric Analysis
• a) Patient is given a clear liquid diet at noon and at 5 pm. At 7.30 pm, the tube is introduced into the
patients’s stomach.
• b) Then from 8 pm to 8 am, hourly samples of gastric juice are collected and analyzed.
53. • 3. Histamine Test
• a)After overnight fasting, the stomach is emptied in the morning with the help of aspiration. b)Then
histamine is injected subcutaneously (0.01 mg/kg).
• c)Histamine activates secretion of hydrochloric acid in the stomach.
• d)After 30 minutes, 4 samples of gastric juice are collected over a period of 1 hour at 15 minutes
interval and analyzed.
54. • APPLIED PHYSIOLOGY
• Gastric secretion is affected by the following disorders:
• 1. GASTRITIS
• a)Inflammation of gastric mucosa is termed as gastritis. It may be acute or chronic.
• b)Acute gastritis is manifested by inflammation of superficial layers of mucus membrane and
infiltration with leukocytes, mostly neutrophils.
• c) Chronic gastritis is associated inflammation of even the deeper layers and infiltration with more
lymphocytes.
• d)It leads to the atrophy of the gastric mucosa, with loss of chief cells and parietal cells of glands.
Therefore, the secretion of gastric juice decreases.
55. • Causes of Acute Gastritis
• i. Infection with bacterium Helicobacter pylori
• ii. Excess consumption of alcohol
• iii. Excess administration of Aspirin and other non
• steroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs)
• iv. Trauma by nasogastric tubes
• v. Repeated exposure to radiation (rare).
56. • Causes of Chronic Gastritis
• i. Chronic infection with Helicobacter pylori240 Section 4 t Digestive System
• ii. Longterm intake of excess alcohol
• iii. Longterm use of NSAIDs
• iv. Autoimmune disease.
57. • Features
• Features of gastritis are nonspecific. Common feature is abdominal upset or pain felt as a diffused
burning sensation. It is often referred to epigastric pain. Other features are:
• i. Nausea
• ii. Vomiting
• iii. Anorexia (loss of appetite)
• iv. Indigestion
• v. Discomfort or feeling of fullness in the epigastric region
• vi. Belching (process to relieve swallowed air that is accumulated in stomach).
58. • 2. GASTRIC ATROPHY
• Gastric atrophy is the condition in which the muscles of the stomach shrink and become weak.
Gastric glands also shrink, leadingb to the deficiency of gastric juice.
•
• Cause
• Gastric atrophy is caused by chronic gastritis termed as chronic atrophic gastritis.
• There is atrophy of gastric mucosa including loss of gastric glands.
• Autoimmune atrophic gastritis also leads to gastric atrophy.
•
• Features
• Generally, gastric atrophy does not cause any noticeable symptom.
• Whatever it may be, it may result in achlorhydria (absence of hydrochloric acid in gastric juice)
and pernicious anemia. Some patients get gastric cancer.
59. • 3. PEPTIC ULCER
• a)Ulcer means the erosion of the surface of any organ because of shedding or sloughing of
inflamed necrotic tissue that lines the organ.
• b)Peptic ulcer means an ulcer in the wall of stomach or duodenum, occurred by digestive action of
gastric juice. If peptic ulcer is observed in stomach,
• c) it is termed as gastric ulcer and if observed in duodenum, it is
• Known asduodenal ulcer.
60. • Causes
• i. Increased peptic activity due to excessive secretion of pepsin in gastric juice
• ii. Hyperacidity of gastric juice
• iii. Reduced alkalinity of duodenal content
• iv. Decreased mucin content in gastric juice or decreased protective activity in stomach or
• duodenum
• v. Constant physical or emotional stress
• vi. Food with excess spices or smoking (classical causes of ulcers)
• vii. Longterm use of NSAIDs (see above) such as Aspirin, Ibuprofen and Naproxen
• viii. Chronic inflammation due to Helicobacter pylori.
61. • Features
• Most common feature of peptic ulcer include severe burning pain in epigastric region. In gastric
ulcer, pain happens while eating or drinking. In duodenal ulcer, pain is felt 1 or 2 hours after food
intake and during night.
•
• Other symptoms accompanying pain include
• i. Nausea
• ii. Vomiting
• iii. Hematemesis (vomiting blood)
• iv. Heartburn (burning pain in chest due to regurgi
• tation of acid from stomach into esophagus)
• v. Anorexia (loss of appetite)
• vi. Loss of weight.
62. • ZOLLINGER-ELLISON SYNDROME
• ZollingerEllison syndrome is manifested by by secretion of excess hydrochloric acid in the stomach.
•
• Cause
• This disorder is happened by tumor of pancreas. Pancreatic tumor produces a large quantity of gastrin.
• Gastrin enhances the hydrochloric acid secretion in stomach by activates the parietal cells of gastric
glands.
•
• Features
• i. Abdominal pain
• ii. Diarrhea (frequent and watery, loose bowel
• movements)
• iii. Difficulty in eating
• iv. Occasional hematemesis.
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