Israel Studies

Two types of subterranean chambers found in the Galilee—natural caves at the tops of cliffs (" cliffside shelters ") and rock-cut " hideout complexes " —shed light on Jewish defense methods there in the Hellenistic and Early Roman periods. The plans of 65 caves that may have served as hideout complexes are sketched, presented, and compared with hideout complexes in Judea. The subterranean complexes are divided into six categories: 1. Simple hideout complexes, hewn without any attempt at attractiveness. These were dark and narrow, so one could only move through them by crawling blindly. Twenty-one such hideouts—most of them probably created shortly before the Great Revolt—are known in Galilee towns. 2. Elaborate hideout complexes, hewn with great care and attractively finished and smoothed. Because the ones in the Judean Shephelah have been dated to the time of the Bar Kokhba Revolt, the 24 surveyed in the Galilee may also be from the second century CE. 3. Hideout complexes hewn out of rock-cut subterranean chambers that had been used as storage facilities for agricultural produce, cisterns, olive presses, or ritual baths. Presumably, when space was urgently needed for hideouts, people decided to dispense with the older facilities. In a few cases old cisterns remained in use in hideout complexes. 4. Hideout complexes hewn out of burial caves. 5. Escape crawlways. Because this type is rare, it is hard to know how and to what extent these subterranean cavities were used. According to Josephus, the besieged people of Jotapata used such a passage during the Great Revolt to bring in goods and news. 6. Subterranean cavities that should not be identified as hideout complexes. This category includes cavities that some scholars have thought were hideouts but in my opinion were not because they lack the features of hideouts. The hewing of the Galilean hideout complexes seems to have spanned a long period of time, from the Second Temple period until after the Bar Kokhba Revolt. The Jews of the Galilee used the complexes as places of refuge when they sensed a threat to their lives from the Roman authorities; this occurred frequently during the Early Roman period.

Two phenomena in the Galilee shed light on the history of Jewish defense methods in that region during troubled times in the
Early Roman periods. Two types of rock-cut caves found in the Galilee were apparently used by the Jewish population there.
The first are natural caves at the tops of cliffs near Jewish towns and villages that existed in the Second Temple period. Work
was done to adapt those caves and signs of human activity are visible in them. Historically speaking, most of these chambers
were probably associated with the Jewish population that took part in the First Revolt, although some of the work in the caves
was done earlier. We propose calling this sort of chamber a “cliff shelter.” In two of his works, The Jewish War and The Life,
Josephus describes his activity in the Galilee, where he was sent to make preparations for the Great Revolt.
The second phenomenon, discussed widely here, is that of the hiding complexes. The plans of 70 underground chambers that
served as hiding complexes, which were explored under ancient Jewish settlements, are presented. These complexes are
compared with hiding complexes discovered in the Judean foothills. The typology of these underground chambers in the
Galilee and those in the Judean foothills is almost identical. Thus we divided the hiding complexes in the Galilee into five
categories:
 Small underground chambers created for hiding purposes. They were hewn simply, without any attempt to make them
attractive. They resemble the hiding complexes found in Judea at sites such as Horvat Etri and Horvat Zeta. The turns are not
necessarily ninety-degree angles and the different levels in the caves were not hewn methodically. Apparently, it sufficed that
the hiding complexes were dark and narrow, so one could only move through them by crawling blindly. Twenty-two hiding
complexes of this sort are known in Galilee towns in order to prepare for times of trouble; presumably some of them were
created in the late Second Temple period. We can assume that most of these hiding complexes were made shortly before the
First Revolt.
 Elaborate hiding complexes. These hiding complexes are similar to those in the Judean foothills (e.g., Horvat Midras,
Amatzia, and Horvat Ga’ada). Because the elaborate hiding complexes examined in the Judean foothills are dated to the time
of the Bar Kokhba Revolt, the 15 surveyed complexes in the Galilee may have been hewn in the second century CE.
 Hiding complexes that took over rock-cut underground facilities previously used as storerooms for agricultural produce,
cisterns, olive presses, and ritual baths. These chambers were closed, chilly, and rainproof, and it was a simple matter to turn
them into hiding complexes. Similar hiding complexes were found in the Judean foothills, such as at Ahuzat Hazan. Some of
the hiding complexes found in the Galilee were underground chambers that had previously been used for storing water and
goods; a few had been used as olive presses. Narrow passageways leading to other rock-cut chambers were hewn in these
chambers. Most of these complexes, such as those at Marut and Sepphoris, included cisterns or ritual baths, and the older
facilities were eliminated. This is documented in many of the hiding complexes examined in the Judean foothills, such as
Horvat Levaya. In a few cases the old cisterns remained in use, with a certain amount of water still kept in them. In these
complexes the openings to the passageways were cut a few meters above the cistern floor, and only the water was visible
from above. This is the case at Horvat Aked in the Judean foothills, at Horvat Nakik, and at Nahal Yatir. Presumably, it was
decided in a time of emergency to eliminate these facilities because the space was needed for hiding. The passageways seem
to have been hewn when the Galilee residents realized that such hiding might save lives.
 Underground hiding complexes that took over burial caves. These complexes are extremely rare in Judea, where they were
found only Horvat Burgin and Horvat Benaya. Three of the six burial caves in the Galilee that were adapted for hiding were
found within the village of Iyyei Me’arot. The other three are on the outskirts of towns or outside towns.
 Escape passages. This type of underground chamber was rare, both in Judea and in the Galilee. Because there are so few
of them, it is hard to know how and to what extent they were used. Aside from the description by Josephus, who notes that
the besieged people of Yodfat (Jotapata) used such a passage during the First Revolt to bring in goods and news, we have no information about the use of escape passages in the Second Temple period. One such passage was found at Gischala and the
passageways at Nahal Amal and Tel Amal may also have been used for this purpose. An example of an escape system in
Judea can be found at Nahal Yatir (Rassem Yatir).
Thus we see that the Jews in the Galilee used underground complexes as places of refuge and as hideouts when they felt a
real physical threat to their lives from the Roman authorities.
Keywords
Josephus, Hiding Complexes, First Revolt, Galilee.

During the research and documentation of subterranean caves in the Galilee region in Israel, a phenomenon was
discovered which has shed light on the use of the Galilee cliff caves. Natural caves were further quarried and prepared
by Galilee Jews as an organized enterprise to ensure their safety during times of distress during the Early Roman
Period. Up until now, it has been accepted in research to distinguish between “hideout complexes” and “refuge
caves”. Hideout complexes are subterranean spaces, artificially hewn deep underground, made up of winding narrow
tunnels inclined at sharp angles and constructed at different levels. These were used as underground hiding places
during emergency periods and even as home bases for guerrilla warfare. The hideout complexes had been quarried
and were primarily discovered under the remains of Jewish settlements in Judea and in the Galilee. Refuge caves
were distinguished from hideout complexes in that they were natural caves which were formed by karst dissolution
processes at the peaks of high cliffs both in the Judean desert and in the Binyamin hills. Jews from various locations
sought sanctuary in these refuge caves which were usually far from their homes. Findings discovered in Judea, both
in refuge caves and in hideout complexes have usually indicated that they belonged to the Bar Kokhba revolt period
(132 – 136 AD) although quite some time ago, discoveries in both types of caves testified to their use during the Great
Revolt (66 – 70 AD). During a survey of caves discovered on the Galilee cliff-tops, another type of cave similar to refuge
caves was found, but this type was clearly different in terms of the locations of the caves: while the refuge caves were
far from every Jewish settlement, the Galilee caves were close to Jewish settlements and there was actually a straight
geographical line between a settlement and the steep cave in its vicinity. In surveys I conducted in all of the caves, my
colleges and I discovered findings connecting the caves to the Jewish settlement close to it. Due to this characteristic,
which distinguished them from the refuge caves, I chose to call them “cliff shelters”. All of these cliff shelters had
been quarried inside. We found plastered cisterns, ritual baths, potsherds, coins, storage jars, and other items in the
caves. These helped to date the work done on the caves to the Hellenistic and Early Roman periods. In this article, I
will discuss a number of prominent Jewish settlements and their connection to the cliff shelters nearby, and present
salient findings and the historical evidence of Josephus Flavius who hints at the use made by Galilee Jews of the cliff
shelters during the Great Revolt.
Keywords: man-made caves, cliff shelters, The Great Jewish Revolt, Josephus Flavius.

During the research and documentation of subterranean caves in the Galilee region in Israel, a phenomenon was discovered which has shed light on the use of the Galilee cliff caves. Natural caves were further quarried and prepared by Galilee Jews as an organized enterprise to ensure their safety during times of distress during the Early Roman Period. 
Up until now, it has been accepted in research to distinguish between "hiding complexes" and "refuge caves". Hiding complexes are subterranean spaces, artificially hewn deep underground, made up of winding narrow tunnels inclined at sharp angles and constructed at different levels. These were used as underground hiding places during emergency periods and even as home bases for guerrilla warfare. The hiding complexes had been quarried and were primarily discovered under the remains of Jewish settlements in Judea and in the Galilee.
Refuge caves were distinguished from hiding complexes in that they were natural caves which were formed by karst dissolution processes at the peaks of high cliffs both in the Judean desert and in the Binyamin hills. Jews from various locations sought sanctuary in these refuge caves which were usually far from their homes. Findings discovered in Judea, both in refuge caves and in hiding complexes have usually indicated that they belonged to the Bar Kokhba revolt period (132 – 136 AD) although quite some time ago, discoveries in both types of caves testified to their use during the Great Revolt (66 – 70 AD).
During a survey of caves discovered on the Galilee cliff-tops, another type of cave similar to refuge caves was found, but this type was clearly different in terms of the locations of the caves: While the refuge caves were far from every Jewish settlement, the Galilee caves were close to Jewish settlements and there was actually a straight geographical line between a settlement and the steep cave in its vicinity. In surveys I conducted in all of the caves, my college and I discovered findings connecting the caves to the Jewish settlement close to it. Due to this characteristic, which distinguished them from the refuge caves, I chose to call them "cliff shelters". All of these cliff  shelters had been quarried inside. We found plastered cisterns, ritual baths, potsherds, coins, storage jars, and other items in the caves. These helped to date the work done on the caves to the Hellenistic and Early Roman periods. In my lecture, I will discuss a number of prominent Jewish settlements and their connection to the cliff shelters nearby. I will present salient findings and the historical evidence of Josephus Flavius who hints at the use made by Galilee Jews of the cliff shelters during the Great Revolt.     
Key words: man-made caves, cliff shelters, The Great Jewish Revolt, Josephus Flavius

Abstract
This article presents the findings from four natural caves in the area of the Meiron ridge,
where hundreds of natural caves were first surveyed. In three caves Roman period pottery
was discovered and a fourth cave yielded, among other finds, a bronze bowl. The historical,
archaeological and methodological significance of the caves and finds are discussed. This
is the first archaeological evidence for the use of natural karstic caves that have no signs
of preparation or long-term human habitation during the Roman period in this region.
Caves of this type were likely intended for use for short periods of time only or for times of
emergency and have thus been defined as 'refuge caves'. We suggest that these caves are the
first archaeological evidence for the use of refuge caves in the Galilee during times of danger
in the Roman period.

A METHODOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE ON THE CHRONOLOGY AND TYPOLOGY OF THE HIDING COMPLEXES IN THE GALILEE
SHIVTIEL, Y. and OSBAND, M.

Abstract

Hundreds of rock-hewn subterranean caves discovered in Israel have been attributed to Jewish use as shelters and hiding places, mainly during the Roman period.  Over 74 hiding complexes have been discovered in Galilee to date but only 19 have been excavated, in many cases limited, making a definitive chronology for their construction and use difficult. The Galilean hiding complexes can be divided into two main types: those that were hewn in a crude fashion and those that were hewn meticulously. In the study presented here we address methodological problems in the dating of the complexes and suggest that there is a correlation between hiding complex typology and the chronological data found in these systems.

Water Storage in Zefat (Safed) over the Centuries: The Hospital of the London Society for Promoting Christianity among Jews
Yinon Shivtiel and Shmuel Har Noy, Zefat Academic College
Since its foundation, the elevated topographic and geographical position of Zefat (Safed) has threatened its citizens with dire water shortages, as its few springs provide little water and the city’s needs can only be met by springs located some distance away. For rulers and planners over the centuries, this posed the complex challenge of solving ways in which water could be supplied and conveyed to its residents. In the Crusader and Mamluk periods, Zefat received its water by various means. These included building an open aqueduct and underground tunnels, as well as digging cisterns; in later periods, the city relied mainly on cisterns fed by rainwater. The group of missionaries who came to Zefat in the last decades of the nineteenth century also encountered the problem of its water supply.
During recent conservation work on the hospital built by the London Society for Promoting Christianity among the Jews—inaugurated at the beginning of the 20th century and now part of the Zefat Academic College campus—two large rainwater cisterns were discovered. The planning by the hospital’s architect, Gottlieb Schumacher, and the involvement of the society's trustees in London show the importance attached to supplying water to Zefat’s population at the time. After their chance discovery, the water cisterns were investigated and documented by the authors and the results are presented in this article. Key Words: Water storage, aqueduct, cisterns, spring, missionaries, London Society.

Abstract
Hiding Complexes in Galilee: Aspects and Significance
 
Since the latter part of the twentieth century, following their initial discovery in the 1980s, over fifty ancient hiding complexes have been discovered and documented in Galilee, where seventy-five of these hiding complexes are currently recorded. Their exploration and limited archaeological excavations provide us with new understanding and insights that are corroborated by historical records. It is also now possible to provide some with relative dating, analyze the archaeological and numismatic finds, and draw typological comparisons with the hiding systems in Judea. The exploration of the Galilean hiding complexes has also intensified research into the defensive measures employed by the Jewish population in times of urgent need in the Second Temple period.
The article presents a corpus of all the currently recognized hiding complexes in Galilee, mapping and classifying them according to the Judean hiding systems’ typological characteristics. Many hiding complexes in Galilee were hewn out of and into ancient cisterns, oil presses, ritual baths, burial caves, basements and underground storerooms. Some were roughly and hastily cut without no attempt to smooth the hewn rock, and some were meticulously chiseled and finished. They can therefore be divided into different periods based on their typology. Analysis of the archaeological and numismatic finds strengthens a number of conclusions regarding the function of the hiding complexes in times of need and crisis, specifically in the Roman period. The data gained from the surveys and excavations provides an extra dimension that deepens our understanding of the defensive methods used by the Jews during the two major anti-Roman revolts. The article also investigates the possibility, suggested by the finds from some of the hiding complexes that they were prepared in advance for the Bar Kokhba Revolt, even if the rebellion did not lead to actual armed conflict in Galilee

In 1994, an underground tunnel was discovered by chance in Acre. The tunnel had undergone several adaptations over the years, and today it has three sections exhibiting similar characteristics: a western section, roofed with a single vault; a central section, which includes a large elevated hall; and an eastern section roofed with two vaults. The total length of the tunnel is 170 m and much of it is now open to the public. The tunnel was hewn from west to east along a natural rock fissure replete with seawater springs that fill the tunnel with water as high as the sea level. The base of the tunnel is hewn into the calcareous sandstone, locally termed Kurkar rock and the upper part is built. Investigation of the tunnel revealed numerous architectural elements, such as the 'guard room' and staircase, drainage openings, cisterns, chisel marks and an unusual installation sealing its eastern end. The discovery and interpretation of these features sheds new light on most of the topics discussed in the article. For some time, the academic community has been content with the tunnel's interpretation as an underground passage to the Crusader Templar quarter and possibly also to the port, while not investigating other possibilities. In this article, we offer a renewed interpretation as to the tunnel's original function and its subsequent uses in later periods, without ignoring the obvious conclusion that the tunnel was an alternative access passage to the Templar quarter. The article further proposes an earlier date for the tunnel's construction than has previously been recognized. Key Words: Tunnel, Templar, Acre (‘Akko) port, flushing channel, Crusaders, Ptolemais.

Abstract
Seventeen coins were found during a survey to document cliff shelters and hiding complexes,
carried out in eastern Galilee in 2005–2009. The inaccessibility of the cliff shelters is an
indication that the coins arrived there at a time of distress and crisis. These coins are presented
and the historical circumstances under which they reached the cliff shelters and hiding
complexes are proposed.