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- Duplicating machines were the predecessors of modern document-reproduction technology. They have now been replaced by digital duplicators, scanners, laser printers and photocopiers, but for many years they were the primary means of reproducing documents for limited-run distribution. The duplicator was pioneered by Thomas Edison and David Gestetner, with Gestetner dominating the market up until the late 1990s. Like the typewriter, these machines were products of the second phase of the industrial revolution which started near the end of the 19th century (also called the Second Industrial Revolution). This second phase brought to mass markets technologies like the small electric motors and the products of industrial chemistry without which the duplicating machines would not have been economical. By bringing greatly increased quantities of paperwork to daily life, the duplicating machine and the typewriter gradually changed the forms of the office desk and transformed the nature of office work. They were often used in schools, churches, and small organizations, where revolutionarily economical copying was in demand for the production of newsletters and worksheets. Self-publishers also used these machines to produce fanzines. A few alternatives to hand copying were invented between the mid-17th century and the late 18th century, but none were widely adopted for business use. (en)
- La duplication ou la copie (mécanique) de documents papier désigne un ensemble de procédés techniques permettant la copie de textes et d'images à des échelles variables. Les formes les plus anciennes incluent la lithographie, les duplicateurs à alcool, etc. (fr)
- Powielacz – urządzenie do kopiowania dokumentów, używane od XIX wieku do końca lat osiemdziesiątych XX wieku. Obecnie wyparte już niemal całkowicie przez wygodniejsze urządzenia wykorzystujące skanery i drukarki laserowe, bądź przez kserokopiarki. (pl)
- Копировально-множительная техника — комплекс средств, предназначенных для копирования и размножения документов непосредственно с первичного документа. Постоянная печатная форма при использовании данных средств не используется, как и специальная подготовка оригинала. (ru)
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- La duplication ou la copie (mécanique) de documents papier désigne un ensemble de procédés techniques permettant la copie de textes et d'images à des échelles variables. Les formes les plus anciennes incluent la lithographie, les duplicateurs à alcool, etc. (fr)
- Powielacz – urządzenie do kopiowania dokumentów, używane od XIX wieku do końca lat osiemdziesiątych XX wieku. Obecnie wyparte już niemal całkowicie przez wygodniejsze urządzenia wykorzystujące skanery i drukarki laserowe, bądź przez kserokopiarki. (pl)
- Копировально-множительная техника — комплекс средств, предназначенных для копирования и размножения документов непосредственно с первичного документа. Постоянная печатная форма при использовании данных средств не используется, как и специальная подготовка оригинала. (ru)
- Duplicating machines were the predecessors of modern document-reproduction technology. They have now been replaced by digital duplicators, scanners, laser printers and photocopiers, but for many years they were the primary means of reproducing documents for limited-run distribution. The duplicator was pioneered by Thomas Edison and David Gestetner, with Gestetner dominating the market up until the late 1990s. A few alternatives to hand copying were invented between the mid-17th century and the late 18th century, but none were widely adopted for business use. (en)
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- Duplication (papier) (fr)
- Duplicating machines (en)
- Powielacz (pl)
- Копировально-множительная техника (ru)
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