Under the Roman rule, Alexandria was one of the most important cities of the Mediterranean, and i... more Under the Roman rule, Alexandria was one of the most important cities of the Mediterranean, and its ports were the core of the trade and transport systems in Roman Egypt. The role that Egypt played in the Roman maritime trade was influenced by three main water bodies that met at Alexandria; namely the Mediterranean Sea, the Nile, and the coastal lake of Mareotis. Through a network of navigable canals, Roman Alexandria had direct access to these three water bodies. Therefore, it played a key role in two particular lines of transport; the Alexandria-Rome grain service, and Rome trade in the Indian Ocean. Imported merchandise of the East was arriving at the Red Sea harbours of Egypt, and then convoyed across the Eastern Desert to the Nile harbours, where river vessels carried it to Alexandria, to be shipped to Rome. Moreover, Nile vessels carried Egyptian grain tax that was collected from all over the province to be shipped to the central granaries of Alexandria and hence to Rome. Hence, this paper looks at the Nile as Egypt’s maritime highway, and the principal means for transporting people and goods across the country.
Article summarising the results from the five year survey season along the shores of Lake Mareoti... more Article summarising the results from the five year survey season along the shores of Lake Mareotis, Alexandria. Survey conducted under author direction, over 70 sites identified largely dating to the Hellenistic to late Roman era.
Introduction Lake Mareotis represents one of the most distinctive geomorphic features in the nort... more Introduction Lake Mareotis represents one of the most distinctive geomorphic features in the north-west coastal region of Egypt. In antiquity, it was fed by means of a number of canals, which bifurcated off the Nile’s defunct Canopic Branch, and flowed into the southern and eastern sides of the lake (Fig. 1). Some of these canals were navigable, which enabled merchandise to be transported to and from the hinterland. By the Greco-Roman period the lake was also connected to the sea through a navigable canal that debouched at Alexandria (Strabo 17.1.7). Its connection to both the Nile and the sea resulted in Mareotis becoming a vital conduit of communication in Egypt’s internal transport system. Moreover, it supported around its shores various agricultural activities and embraced major production centres for different industries, which contributed significantly to the economy of Alexandria and to Egypt as a whole. Accordingly, this paper will look at the role that Lake Mareotis played ...
This volume presents the results of a large scale systematic survey of the shores of the western ... more This volume presents the results of a large scale systematic survey of the shores of the western arm of Lake Mareotis, Alexandria, and develops a more detailed picture of its role in the city's ancient economy. Specialist reports cover the important ceramic assemblage, and the geomorphology and environmental evidence, whilst the central section of the book consists of a catalogue of the 73 sites identified by the survey.
This Manual explains the thirty-six Rules of the Annex to the 2001 Convention entitled «Rules con... more This Manual explains the thirty-six Rules of the Annex to the 2001 Convention entitled «Rules concerning activities directed at underwater cultural heritage». These Rules present a directly applicable operation scheme for underwater interventions. Over the years they have become a reference in the field of underwater archaeology. In addition to elaborating on the ethical principles, the Manual offers a series of guidelines concerning: project design; preliminary work; the formulation of project objectives, methodologies and techniques; fund raising and management; project scheduling; competence and qualification requirements; conservation and site management; documentation procedures; safety standards; environmental considerations; reporting; curation of project archives; and dissemination. This Manual is endorsed by the Scientific and Technical Advisory Body of the 2001 Convention on the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage.
Economic and social activities in the Alexandria region were influenced by three main water bodie... more Economic and social activities in the Alexandria region were influenced by three main water bodies throughout its history; the Mediterranean Sea, the River Nile and Lake Mareotis, which extended to the south and west of the city. Almost everybody travelled to Alexandria by means of water. From Alexandria, Egypt was very much accessible via Lake Mareotis and the Nile. Ancient Alexandria was located on the northwestern edge of the Nile Delta, opposite to, and protected by, a relatively large offshore island, the Pharos Island, which had made the area suitable for being utilised as a harbour since the pre-Hellenistic period. Such a unique location has played a significant role in the foundation and development of the city throughout its history. However, the main privilege of the site of Alexandria was not its location in relation to the sea coast but to the River Nile. The Nile was the main water body that affected most aspects of life in Egypt. It was the spine of the transport syste...
Human Interaction with the Environment in the Red Sea
The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia has the longest shoreline on the Red Sea extending for more than 1500... more The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia has the longest shoreline on the Red Sea extending for more than 1500km. Moreover, the Saudi Red Sea towns and settlements have been actively involved in maritime activities for millennia. Yet, maritime archaeology in the kingdom is still a developing discipline. Nevertheless, archaeological projects that took place along the Red Sea coats, mainly in Egypt, indicated that there could be great potential for that field in Saudi Arabia, particularly with the availability of recourses for research and education.
International Handbook of Underwater Archaeology, 2002
Egypt’s rich maritime history has left a variety of archaeological remains and has made a great i... more Egypt’s rich maritime history has left a variety of archaeological remains and has made a great impact on seafaring and shipbuilding traditions in the ancient Near East. Yet modern Egyptians and scholars around the world know little about the ships, ports, and trade routes that helped maintain Egypt’s relationships with other lands and peoples. Egypt’s lucky year was 1994 because of the revival of Egyptian interest in its maritime heritage, although interest in Egypt’s underwater archaeology, especially in Alexandria, started much earlier (Figure 31.1).
Under the Roman rule, Alexandria was one of the most important cities of the Mediterranean, and i... more Under the Roman rule, Alexandria was one of the most important cities of the Mediterranean, and its ports were the core of the trade and transport systems in Roman Egypt. The role that Egypt played in the Roman maritime trade was influenced by three main water bodies that met at Alexandria; namely the Mediterranean Sea, the Nile, and the coastal lake of Mareotis. Through a network of navigable canals, Roman Alexandria had direct access to these three water bodies. Therefore, it played a key role in two particular lines of transport; the Alexandria-Rome grain service, and Rome trade in the Indian Ocean. Imported merchandise of the East was arriving at the Red Sea harbours of Egypt, and then convoyed across the Eastern Desert to the Nile harbours, where river vessels carried it to Alexandria, to be shipped to Rome. Moreover, Nile vessels carried Egyptian grain tax that was collected from all over the province to be shipped to the central granaries of Alexandria and hence to Rome. Hence, this paper looks at the Nile as Egypt’s maritime highway, and the principal means for transporting people and goods across the country.
Article summarising the results from the five year survey season along the shores of Lake Mareoti... more Article summarising the results from the five year survey season along the shores of Lake Mareotis, Alexandria. Survey conducted under author direction, over 70 sites identified largely dating to the Hellenistic to late Roman era.
Introduction Lake Mareotis represents one of the most distinctive geomorphic features in the nort... more Introduction Lake Mareotis represents one of the most distinctive geomorphic features in the north-west coastal region of Egypt. In antiquity, it was fed by means of a number of canals, which bifurcated off the Nile’s defunct Canopic Branch, and flowed into the southern and eastern sides of the lake (Fig. 1). Some of these canals were navigable, which enabled merchandise to be transported to and from the hinterland. By the Greco-Roman period the lake was also connected to the sea through a navigable canal that debouched at Alexandria (Strabo 17.1.7). Its connection to both the Nile and the sea resulted in Mareotis becoming a vital conduit of communication in Egypt’s internal transport system. Moreover, it supported around its shores various agricultural activities and embraced major production centres for different industries, which contributed significantly to the economy of Alexandria and to Egypt as a whole. Accordingly, this paper will look at the role that Lake Mareotis played ...
This volume presents the results of a large scale systematic survey of the shores of the western ... more This volume presents the results of a large scale systematic survey of the shores of the western arm of Lake Mareotis, Alexandria, and develops a more detailed picture of its role in the city's ancient economy. Specialist reports cover the important ceramic assemblage, and the geomorphology and environmental evidence, whilst the central section of the book consists of a catalogue of the 73 sites identified by the survey.
This Manual explains the thirty-six Rules of the Annex to the 2001 Convention entitled «Rules con... more This Manual explains the thirty-six Rules of the Annex to the 2001 Convention entitled «Rules concerning activities directed at underwater cultural heritage». These Rules present a directly applicable operation scheme for underwater interventions. Over the years they have become a reference in the field of underwater archaeology. In addition to elaborating on the ethical principles, the Manual offers a series of guidelines concerning: project design; preliminary work; the formulation of project objectives, methodologies and techniques; fund raising and management; project scheduling; competence and qualification requirements; conservation and site management; documentation procedures; safety standards; environmental considerations; reporting; curation of project archives; and dissemination. This Manual is endorsed by the Scientific and Technical Advisory Body of the 2001 Convention on the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage.
Economic and social activities in the Alexandria region were influenced by three main water bodie... more Economic and social activities in the Alexandria region were influenced by three main water bodies throughout its history; the Mediterranean Sea, the River Nile and Lake Mareotis, which extended to the south and west of the city. Almost everybody travelled to Alexandria by means of water. From Alexandria, Egypt was very much accessible via Lake Mareotis and the Nile. Ancient Alexandria was located on the northwestern edge of the Nile Delta, opposite to, and protected by, a relatively large offshore island, the Pharos Island, which had made the area suitable for being utilised as a harbour since the pre-Hellenistic period. Such a unique location has played a significant role in the foundation and development of the city throughout its history. However, the main privilege of the site of Alexandria was not its location in relation to the sea coast but to the River Nile. The Nile was the main water body that affected most aspects of life in Egypt. It was the spine of the transport syste...
Human Interaction with the Environment in the Red Sea
The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia has the longest shoreline on the Red Sea extending for more than 1500... more The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia has the longest shoreline on the Red Sea extending for more than 1500km. Moreover, the Saudi Red Sea towns and settlements have been actively involved in maritime activities for millennia. Yet, maritime archaeology in the kingdom is still a developing discipline. Nevertheless, archaeological projects that took place along the Red Sea coats, mainly in Egypt, indicated that there could be great potential for that field in Saudi Arabia, particularly with the availability of recourses for research and education.
International Handbook of Underwater Archaeology, 2002
Egypt’s rich maritime history has left a variety of archaeological remains and has made a great i... more Egypt’s rich maritime history has left a variety of archaeological remains and has made a great impact on seafaring and shipbuilding traditions in the ancient Near East. Yet modern Egyptians and scholars around the world know little about the ships, ports, and trade routes that helped maintain Egypt’s relationships with other lands and peoples. Egypt’s lucky year was 1994 because of the revival of Egyptian interest in its maritime heritage, although interest in Egypt’s underwater archaeology, especially in Alexandria, started much earlier (Figure 31.1).
This report contains a situation study, gap analysis and recommended actions for the development ... more This report contains a situation study, gap analysis and recommended actions for the development of underwater archaeology and underwater cultural heritage management in the Arab region.
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Papers by Emad Khalil
The role that Egypt played in the Roman maritime trade was influenced by three main water bodies that met at Alexandria; namely the Mediterranean Sea, the Nile, and the coastal lake of Mareotis. Through a network of navigable canals, Roman Alexandria had direct access to these three water bodies. Therefore, it played a key role in two particular lines of transport; the Alexandria-Rome grain service, and Rome trade in the Indian Ocean.
Imported merchandise of the East was arriving at the Red Sea harbours of Egypt, and then convoyed across the Eastern Desert to the Nile harbours, where river vessels carried it to Alexandria, to be shipped to Rome. Moreover, Nile vessels carried Egyptian grain tax that was collected from all over the province to be shipped to the central granaries of Alexandria and hence to Rome.
Hence, this paper looks at the Nile as Egypt’s maritime highway, and the principal means for transporting people and goods across the country.
The role that Egypt played in the Roman maritime trade was influenced by three main water bodies that met at Alexandria; namely the Mediterranean Sea, the Nile, and the coastal lake of Mareotis. Through a network of navigable canals, Roman Alexandria had direct access to these three water bodies. Therefore, it played a key role in two particular lines of transport; the Alexandria-Rome grain service, and Rome trade in the Indian Ocean.
Imported merchandise of the East was arriving at the Red Sea harbours of Egypt, and then convoyed across the Eastern Desert to the Nile harbours, where river vessels carried it to Alexandria, to be shipped to Rome. Moreover, Nile vessels carried Egyptian grain tax that was collected from all over the province to be shipped to the central granaries of Alexandria and hence to Rome.
Hence, this paper looks at the Nile as Egypt’s maritime highway, and the principal means for transporting people and goods across the country.