Siddharth Singh

Engaged Buddhism in India and Role of Theravada Buddhism:
Perspectives and Prospects

Dr. Siddharth Singh,
Associate Professor,
Department of Pali & Buddhist Studies
Banaras Hindu University,
India

Engaged Buddhism, as a specific term, is originally coined by noted Vietnamese Zen teacher Ven. Thich Nhat Hanh. As we know, during Vietnam War when he and his Dhamma friends were engrossed in their meditative practices and surrounding society was afflicted with the sufferings of the war, the question arose in their mind regarding the objective of their religious life. They thought that when the other part of the society is enveloped with the fear, pain and suffering so would it be appropriate for them to confine themselves to their spiritual practices, hiding from the external world? They decided to expand the field of their actions. As an ideal monk to do the spiritual practices so that they could understand the grief and agony of others, and on the other hand, to go out of their Viharas to offer their services to the common people of the society and they gave this way of life a new Chinese term, translated as Engaged Buddhism into English, although not considered to be very accurate translation.
Engaged Buddhism, as a specific term might have emerged in the recent times but, undoubtedly, as a concept it had already begun with the departure of Gotam, the Buddha from his householder life to the society, to the humanity. It was the first example in the history of humanity by anyone to reject the interest of ‘I’ and ‘mine’ for the whole of the humanity. It is needless to reiterate that, Buddhist scriptures are flooded with the stories of the devotion and commitment of the Buddha as well as his disciples to the society, not only in the form of ideas, but also in the form of action. What can be the better example from the detailed illustrations of the Pāramīs in the different Jātaka stories.
The plan of action, Ven. Thich Nhat Hanh chose to apply was adopted in the situation of war, but in the normal situations, Buddhists can engage themselves even in much wider social perspectives. Active engagement of Buddhist ideas can be divided on two levels: spiritual development and social development. Since the term pertains to the Buddhists who seek the ways to apply the insights gained from meditation practices and Dharma teachings to situations of social, political, and economic suffering and injustice, these two can not be seen as distinct to each other. Both of these compliment each other and, therefore, both are interdependent to each other.
The revived Buddhism in India has not travelled a very long journey in India. Archaeologically, the gradual and slow revival of the Buddhism in India continued from 1750 to 1890 by the British scholars like James Prinsep, Alaxandar Cunningham and several others. Religious revival of Buddhism in India began with the arrival of a young Sinhalese Buddhist named Anagarika Dharmapala, who, inspired by an article of Sir Edwin Arnold written in The Daily Telegraph on pitiable condition of Bodh Gaya, established the Maha Bodhi Society in Ceylon on May 31st, 1891  and his contribution to the revival of Buddhism on historical level is outstanding.
But, the first example of the active application of the social doctrines of Buddhism on the mass level was seen by the Indian people during 1950s of 19th century because of the efforts of a legendary personality named Dr. B. R. Ambedkar. He was born in the 1891 in a family of Mahāra cast which was considered as untouchable during that time. Born as a part of Hindu society, he felt that there was no right or freedom to study, to live with the common society, to participate in the social function to the lower caste people and, especially, untouchables were being treated very cruelly by some feudal minded people of upper caste. He, having got the higher education somehow, tried to improve the condition of suppressed class within the Hindu society and in this context; he had the conflict with the Hindu freedom fighter leaders like Mahatma Gandhi also on several occasions. But the status of Dalits could not be upgraded barring a few incidental successes.
Dr. Ambedkar decided to renounce the Hindu religion on Oct. 13, 1935, saying: “I was born as a Hindu but I will not die as a Hindu, for, this is in my power.”  He had been studying about other religions for a long time and, then after, he began to do so with more commitments so that he could choose the appropriate religion for himself and his followers. He became greatly impressed by studying Tipitaka, the collection of Buddha’s words, and he decided to convert towards Buddhism. In 1950, Dr. Ambedkar made known publicly his determination to revive Buddhism in India. He made his followers aware of the Buddhist doctrines by his lectures and writings and established that the social equality can only be accessible through the path shown by the Buddha. In a talk “Why I like Buddhism”, given to B.B.C. London on May, 12th, 1956, he says: “I prefer Buddhism because it gives three principles in combination which no other religion does. All other religions are bothering themselves with ‘God’ and ‘soul’ and ‘life after death’. Buddhism teaches ‘Prajñā’ (understanding as against superstition and supernaturalism). It teaches ‘Karunā’(love). It teaches ‘Samatā’(equality). This is what man wants for a good and happy life on earth. These three principles of Buddhism make their appeal to me. These three principles should, also make an appeal to the world. Neither God nor soul can save society”. 
Declaring, religion is for man and not man for religion, and announcing: “there was only one man who raised his voice against separatism and untouchability and that was Lord Buddha”,  Dr. Ambedkar, with the half of the million followers of him, took refuge under Buddhism on October 14th, 1956. He popularized Buddhism at great extent in the masses of the modern India. It was the first ever application of Buddhist doctrines at the social level in the modern India. By getting strength from the Buddha’s teachings under the extra-ordinary leadership of Dr. Ambedkar, the down trodden masses of that time could be successful in getting back their lost dignity at large extent, and later became a powerful force in the political system of India. Undoubtedly, whenever the major events related to the history of Engaged Buddhism in India and world in the modern time would be counted; the name of Dr. Ambedkar would be foremost of the names.
In shaping up and modifying the mindset of intellectual community of India, the contribution of three heroes of Buddhism, namely; Rahula Sankrityayana, Bhikkhu Jagdish Kassapa, Bhadanta Ananda Kausalyayana have been stupendous. They draw to attention of the whole of Indian academia towards the depth and magnificence of the Pali literature, Theravada Buddhism and Buddhism in general, by their writings mostly in the Hindi language. 
It is worthwhile to mention here that all the above personalities got their education and training of Buddhism by the help of Pali literature, and applied those teachings under the shade of Theravada tradition. Therefore, it can be said that the Theravada Buddhism played a paramount role in the conditioning of the all the Indian Buddhist scholars in the modern India and it has a great prospects to offer to the next generation also. 
Every country has its own history, its own culture, and its own geographical structure and, therefore, the people of each country maintain a certain kind of mental formation. Every society has its own social structure and, resultantly, its own kind of problems also. India is suffering from population explosion whereas several countries are facing the problem of declining rate of child birth. India’s sixty years old person also do not dare to take any major decision of the family if someone elder than him is alive in the family to take decision, whereas, in many of the European countries it is considered as a healthy tradition to endorse the power of taking independent decision to a son or daughter as soon as he or she becomes young. There are several similar issues which can draw our attention if we compare any two societies.
The way of social application of Buddhism, the level of that application and the limitations can not be decided overlooking the space and time in this world. The statements of the Buddha are sometimes expressed considering the local and spontaneous situation and if we do not understand the core of the Buddha’s teachings and its methodology and we pick up every line of text and put our energy and time to justify that in each and every situation, then it would not be the right understanding of the Dhamma.  Buddha’s teachings are not mere the counting of the philosophical, spiritual, social and moral teachings but are the treasure of the solutions of the problems, and moreover, the Buddha had established the proper methodology to understand the problems and to find their solutions. As the land, time and situation become different, the application and solution also may be selected accordingly. In the words of Dr. Ambedkar, The teachings of Buddha are eternal, but even then Buddha did not proclaim them to be infallible. The religion of Buddha has the capacity to change according to times, a quality which no other religion can claim to have.
In the recent times, Buddhism, undoubtedly, is being paid special attention in the whole world. We often come across the statement by the different people, saying, that Buddhism is getting very fascinating for the non – Buddhist westerners. The adoption of Buddhism by the Hollywood stars or any interview given in the favour of any particular form of Buddhism by any Hollywood actress adds additional glamour to the Buddhism. If any progressive, rational and open-minded person inculcates likeness for Buddhism by understanding its characteristics and virtues, then it is unqu...

How can we comprehend the Buddhist understanding of dialogue in the contemporary world and what can be the significance of that in the today’s perspectives is a major question before the writer of the present paper.

Buddhism certainly can give a tremendous insight to us how we should deal with the members of our larger family i.e. the world. Pāli literature, especially Tipiṭaka, is comprised of enough instances to show the Buddhist reflection on dialogue in order to proceed towards making of a harmonious world. The present paper deals with the various dimensions of dialogue, peace and conflict management as presented in the Pali literature.

Buddhist Karma Theory and the Question of Determinism

                                                                                        Dr. Siddharth Singh
Associate Professor,
Department of Pali & Buddhist Studies
Banaras Hindu University
Varanasi – 5
E mail:ssinghbhu@gmail.com


A popularly known fact is that, according to Buddhism, good action gives us reward and evil action leads us to the bad results. This belief has been the central point of the Buddhist doctrine of Karma since beginning. But most of the time, common readers, who do not have good understanding of Buddha’s intention, and sometimes the students of the Buddhism also, take this theory in the deterministic sense and take it for granted that what ever we have done and will do certainly has, without any exception, to give us the result of it in mathematically exact proportion. If it is so, then the question arises in one’s mind, what are the benefits of doing good deeds now and in the future? An immoral person might think why should he try to become moral if he is bound to reap the fruits of what immoral deeds he had done in the past and, now after, there is no possibility of  transformation of those fruits into pure and correcting the mistakes of the past ? What is the position of free-will in the Buddhist doctrine of Karma?
Before we handle with the issue, we should keep in our mind a very simple definition of the Karma according to the Buddha. Buddha had personally verified Karma and its fructification as two aspects of life through his extra-sensory perception. He was one of the first to give a reasonable and moral definition of the Karma. Buddha throws the light on the importance of karma in the following way—

Kammanā vattatī loko, kammanā vattatī pajā,
Kammanibandhanā sattā, rathassāṇī’va yāyato.
By Karma the world exist, by Karma mankind exists, beings are bound by work as the linchpin of the rolling cart (keeps the wheel on).
In Buddhism, the word Karma is taken as an action motivated by volition. Karma is born from volition; Karma is done by volition that is why Buddha has said – “Cetanāhaṃ, bhikkhave, kammaṃ vadāmi ”. Our future depends on our present volition, and our present state depends on our past volition. “All [mental] states have mind as their forerunner, mind is there chief, and they are mind-made. If one speaks or acts, with a defiled mind, suffering follows one even as the wheel follows the hoof of the draught-ox.”
Manopubbangamā dhammā manosetthā manomaya,
Manasā ce padutthena bhāsati vā karoti vā,
Tato naṃ̣ dukkhamanveti cakkaṃ’va vahato padaṃ .
By giving gold while intending to give a stone, a gift of gold is indeed made, but as it has not been willed, the act is as if it were not done. It is not
appropriate and ‘stored up’(upacita); it will bear no fruit. In the same way, if a man kills his mother when striking at what is believed to be a pumpkin, there is no matricide, there is no murder, there is only destruction of a fruit.
An action to be complete and really fruitful, apt to ripen must consist of three parts: (i) The preparation, which is the first volition and all the arrangements necessary to the principal action. For example, a butcher arises, takes some money, goes to the market, buys a goat, has the knife in his hand; (ii) The principal action: the killing of the goat; (iii) The back of the principal action: the cutting up and selling the meat.
Buddhism divides the Karma into four categories with reference to its time of operation : (i) Ditthadhammavedanīya i.e. Immediately effective Karma which produce fruit in this life, (ii) Upapajjavedanīya i.e. Subsequently effective Karma which produce fruit in the next life, (iii)Aparāparivedanīya i.e. Indefinitely effective Karma which produce fruit in any of the future lives(iv)Ahosi i.e. Ineffective Karma. If Ditthadhammavedanīya Karma does not operate in this life, it becomes ineffective (Ahosi). It is the gravity and intensity of the Karma which decides if it will fructify in this birth, next or in the future birth. Buddhism has classified the Karma again in the four categories according to the priority of effect (Vipākadānavasena) namely: (i) Garuka Karma i.e. Weighty action, (ii) Āsanna Karma i.e. Death-proximate action, (iii)Āciṇṇa Karma i.e. Habitual action, (iv)Katattā Karma i.e. Cumulative action . But the consequence of any action depends to a large extent on the moral status of the sinner. This situation can be illustrated by an instance of the Anguttara Nikāya. If a man throws a lump of salt into small cup water, the water becomes salty and undrinkable. If a man were to throw a similar lump of salt the river Ganges, the water of the Ganges would not become salty and undrinkable. Similarly, if a man is deficient in merit, a slight evil deed will ripen into an infernal existence. But a similar slight evil deed committed by any good man may bring a slight punishment. 
Here we find two persons committing similar evil deeds but reaping the different results in different way because the past collection of merit of latter is richer than the former person. It depicts clearly that the Karma, according to the Buddha, does not possess the rigid nature of the fire which burns every thing irrespective of what it is. Buddha’s karmic-law is different from the fire-law. It should also be borne in the mind that it is not all suffering that has its root in the Karma. There are eight causes by which suffering arise, by which many beings suffer pain. Milindapaňho  speaks of these as follows: (i) superabundance of wind, (ii) and of bile, (iii) and of phlegm, (iv) the union of these humours, (v) variations in temperature, (vi) the avoiding of dissimilarities, (vii) external agency and (viii) karma. From each of these there are some sufferings that arise, and these are the eight causes by which many beings suffer pain. And therein whosoever maintains that it is Karma that injures beings, and besides it there is no other reason for pain, his proposition is false.
On the account of these factors, the justification of the physical pain of the Buddha, like injury by a piece of rock, dysentery etc. has been portrayed in the text. Yes, but it is not possible for these causes to deprive someone of life. Therefore, Karma is not the only but one of the contributory factors among eight factors which are responsible for the physical pain. It is evident from this fact that Buddhist Karma theory is in contrast to the deterministic theory of Karma according to which whatsoever is experienced in this life is due to one’s past Karma.
Despite all the stress on the importance of Karma and all the different kinds of classification of it, considering volition as a nucleus of the Karma theory, this fact remains unchanged that one has all possibility of not only changing his present and future action but also has the chance to make the fruits of his past actions neutralize or ineffective. One is not bound to reap all that in the exact proportion what he has sown. If he is not the master of his Karma then he is not the servant also of it. It is the Buddhist law that we are changing every moment and becoming a completely new being. That new being depends on our own deeds. We are free to change any moment for the better or for the worse. Even the most wicked, most poor or most pitiable person should not be discouraged or despised on the account of his evil nature or bad destiny. He should understand the fact that whatever he is, if that is the fruits or effects of his past Karma, even then also those fruits or effects are not eternal and unchangeable. As much as he will dilute his ill-fate by collecting more and more good deeds, as soon as those effects of his past bad actions will come to an end. Those who are rich, successful and high positioned in the society should neither be proud of their status nor should be indulged in the evil activities having understood the same law.
Some scholars like Poussin  have raised the question of free-will in the Buddhist doctrine of Karma and objects in the following way: ‘The problem of free-will is a difficult one’, ‘Buddhism flatly denies freedom’, and ‘A man is not cruel or covetous because he chooses to be so but because he has just been a tiger or a lustful animal’. According to this opinion, a man is not free to do anything whatever he wants but his past Karma compels to act as he does.
This objection of Karmic determinism on Buddhism is not justified at all because Buddha himself has refuted to all kinds of determinism whether it is Karmic determinism (Pubba-kamma-vāda) or Theistic determinism (Issara-karaṇa-vāda) or Natural determinism (Svabhāva-vāda). Having refuted Karmic determinism (Pubba-kamma-vāda) Buddha spoke thus to the monks in the Anguttara Nikāya:
“So then if owing to a previous action, men will become murderers, thieves, abusive, liars, thus for those who fall back on the former deed as the essential reason there is neither desire to do, nor effect to do, nor necessity to do this deed or abstain from that deed. So then, the necessity for action or inaction not being found to exist in truth and verity the term ‘ Samaṇa’ can not reasonably applied to yourselves (to those who hold this view), since you live in a state of bewilderment with faculties unwarned.”
Buddha further says thus at another place in the same text:
“O monks, if one should say: ‘Exactly according a man does a deed, in such a manner will he experience the result of it’— that being  so there is no holy living , there is no opportunity afforded for the perfect ending of ill. But, monks, if one should say: ‘Exactly according as a man does a deed, that can be experienced hereafter’— that being so there is living of the holy life, there is opportunity afforded for the utter ending of the ill.”
Therefore, Buddhism states that the man is conditioned by many factors and among them Karma plays a major role; one is not determined by any or all of them. One has an element of free-will or personal endeavour by practicing which he can change his own nature as well as his environment. Actually, it is the spirit we should have within us whenever we think of changing the world in a better world. If this freedom had not been in the Buddhism, the elimination and neutralization of evil actions and salvation of Buddha’s disciples would not have been possible. In this very sense Buddhism considers to man as master of his fate.

Attā hi attano nātho, ko hi nātho  paro siyā,
Attanā’va sudantena nāthaṃ labhati dullabhaṃ.

Self is the refuge of self, for who else could be?
By a fully controlled self one obtains a refuge which is hard to gain.
      Conclusively, the Buddhist Doctrine of Karma can be summarized in the following few points:
1. Karma is the major factor responsible for what we are and what we will be, but it is not the only factor. It is one of the many factors responsible for the differences among the human beings.
2. There is every possibility of moulding one’s Karma here. Buddhism provides ample scope to a person to apply his free-will for the transformation of the fruits of his past deeds. One is free to diminish, increase or change the effects of his past good or bad deeds.
3. Had Buddhist Karma theory been deterministic, there must have been arisen the problem of self-contradiction in the Karma theory because of it’s believe in the impermanence (Anicca) of everything (How the fruits of action can be unchangeable?) but, actually, it is not the case here. Buddhist Karma theory is in the accordance with its own theory that every thing can be changed.

Reference:

1. Anderson, Dines & Smith, Helmer (Ed.). The Suttanipāta. London: Pali Text Society,  1965, p.123
2. Hardy, E (Edit.).Anguttara Nikāya , Vol. III. London: Pali Text Society, 1976, p. 415
3. Maha Thera, Narada (Tr. and Ed.): Dhammapada, Mahabodhi Society of India, Calcutta, India, 1992, p. 2
4. Poussin, L.De La Vallee: The Way to Nirvāna, Sri Satguru Publications, Delhi, India, 1982, p. 72
5. Thera, Narada: The Buddha and His Teachings, Buddhist Missionary Society, Malaysia, 1988, p. 367
6. Woodward, F.L. (Trans.): The book of the Gradual Sayings (Anguttara Nikāya), Vol. I, Pali Text Society, London, p.228
7. Davids, T.W.Rhys (Trans.): The questions of King Milinda, S.B.E.,Vol. 35, Motilal Banarasidass, Delhi, India, 1997, pp. 191 - 192
8. Poussin, L.De La Vallee: The Way to Nirvāna, Sri Satguru Publications, Delhi, India, 1982, p. 96
9. Woodward, F.L. (Trans.): The book of the Gradual Sayings (Anguttara Nikāya), Vol. I, Pali Text Society, London, p. 157
10. Ibid, p. 230
11. Maha Thera, Narada (Trans. and Edit.): Dhammapada, Mahabodhi Society of India, Calcutta, India, 1992, p. 116

Vimalakīrti Nirdeśa Sūtra: A Discourse on
Open – mindedness and Shock – treatment

Dr. Siddharth Singh,
Associate Professor,
Department of Pāli & Buddhist Studies,
Faculty of Arts,
Banaras Hindu University,
Varanasi – 221005,
U.P., INDIA
E mail:ssingh_bhu@hotmail.com

Vimalakīrti Nirdeśa Sūtra is a masterpiece of the Mahāyāna Sūtras and, in the various ways, unique also in the whole of the Buddha’s teachings. Vimalakīrti Nirdeśa Sūtra was produced sometimes between the periods of First Cent. B.C. and First Cent. A.D. The time of the Chinese translation of the Vimalakīrti Nirdeśa Sūtra has already been ascertained during 222 A.D. to 229 A.D. and Nāgārjuna, noted master of Buddhist philosophy, also have mentioned a certain passages of Vimalakīrti Nirdeśa Sūtra in his “Sūtra Samuccaya”. In such a case it can be said that Vimalakīrti Nirdeśa Sūtra had been created long before these two treatises because it would have taken a long time for this Sanskrit text to get popular in India and, thenceforth, to arrive in China and being presented there in the form of Chinese rendition.
Although the “Uggradattaparipṛcchā”, an early Discipline Sūtra composed before Nāgārjuna, sets forth the five conditions for a layman to practice the way of Mahāyāna, the Vimalakīrti Nirdeśa Sūtra has this credit of laying the foundation of Laymen Buddhism at the first time in the history of Buddhism in an organized form, applying the philosophy of Śūnya at the level of social thinking. It established an entire tradition of Laymen Buddhist texts in Mahāyāna. We find another text entitled “Mahavaipulyamūrdhrāja Sūtra” of 2-3rd Cent. A.D. which is an extension of the Vimalakīrti Nirdeśa Sūtra and a son of Vimalakīrti is substantially extolled here. In the “Candrottarādārikā - vyākaraṇa Sūtra”, a daughter of Vimalakīrti named Candrottarā is a chief character who propounds Buddhist thoughts endorsed by the Buddha himself. “Śrīmālādevīsiṃhanāda Sūtra”, a treatise extremely revered in the Chinese and Japanese Buddhism, is a discourse delivered by a queen, a lay woman. The texts like “Sumatidārikāparipṛcchā” and “Upāsakapañcaśīlarūpa Sūtra” may also be treated as an adherent of this tradition of Laymen Buddhism.
The central character of the text is a householder named Vimalakīrti belonging to Licchavi clan of Vesali. He is introduced in these words:
“He wore the white clothes of the layman, yet lived impeccably like a religious devotee. He lived at home, but remained aloof from the realm of desire, the realm of pure matter, and the immaterial realm. He had a son, a wife, and female attendants, yet always maintained continence. He appeared to be surrounded by servants, yet lived in solitude. He appeared to be adorned with ornaments, yet always was endowed with the auspicious signs and marks. He seemed to eat and drink, yet always took nourishment from the taste of meditation.”
Mahākāśyapa eulogizes him before the Buddha after having interaction with him:
“Lord, when I heard this teaching, I was astonished and thought: 'Reverence to all bodhisattvas! If a lay bodhisattva may be endowed with such eloquence, who is there who would not conceive the spirit of unexcelled, perfect enlightenment? From that time forth, I no longer recommend the vehicles of the disciples and of the solitary sages but recommend the Mahāyāna.”
Vimalakīrti Nirdeśa Sūtra is not a book that can be comprehended in the terms of the meaning of the lines, paragraphs or chapters. Such an endeavour of reading the text would be a futile effort. Vimalakīrti Nirdeśa Sūtra can only be understood in its whole, in its central message and the message is – “Untie the knots of your mind”. There is neither Hinayāna, nor Mahāyāna. Both are also the relative terms. Every object, every adjective, every thing is relative. Whatever is describable, worth to be spoken of is relative. Even the terms like Śūnyatā and Tathatā are also not appropriate enough. The true and non – dual Dharma is free of syllables, sounds or ideas. The only expression for non – duality can be none other than silence. When Vimalakīrti asked to different Bodhisattvas, sent by the Lord, regarding the nature of the non – dual Dharma, they elaborated it in their own way. Now, while it was the turn of Vimalakīrti himself, he kept silence, saying nothing at all. Mañjuśrī, at that very moment, exclaimed:
"Excellent! Excellent, noble sir! This is indeed the entrance into the non – duality of the bodhisattvas. Here there is no use for syllables, sounds, and ideas."
The episode of the Vimalakīrti’s exchange of ideas with the disciples of the Buddha is undoubtedly the most striking feature of the text. Vimalakīrti Nirdeśa Sūtra presents an illustration of the meetings of historically most eminent disciples and several other Bodhisattvas with Vimalakīrti prior to Buddha’s instruction to them to go to inquire about the health of sick Vimalakīrti. None of them was eager to go to him on the ground of their previous account of meeting with Vimalakīrti. The Buddha’s disciples like Śāriputra, Mahāmaudgalyāyana, Mahākāśyapa, Subhūti, Pūrṇamaitrāyaṇīputra, Mahākātyāyana, Aniruddha, Upāli, Rāhula, Ānanda, and thence after, Bodhisattvas like Maitreya and Jagatīṃdhara got direction by the Buddha one by one respectively. They narrated the story of their previous meeting with Vimalakīrti. These narratives not only depict the extra – ordinary verbal skill and tremendous understanding of the heart of the Buddhist doctrines possessed by Vimalakīrti but, in addition, are a brilliant example of the shock – treatment applied by Vimalakīrti in order to explain the true essence of Buddhism to them. At a glance, the words of Vimalakīrti seem to be disparaging towards them but this way of Vimalakīrti proves to be more striking than that of long discourses as a means of education. It must be borne in the mind that, historically, the time of creation of the Vimalakīrti Nirdeśa Sūtra was the period when there were numerous Buddhist sects and thoughts in India. Each of those had been interpreting the Buddhism in their own way and, resultantly, this period would have been the time of pre – conceived notions, mental tangles and confusion on the part of common people who were being tried to attract by these different sects. Vimalakīrti Nirdeśa Sūtra, probably, makes an attempt to clarify such ambiguity of the Buddhist doctrines by the method of shock – treatment. A few examples of such therapy can be seen in the following conversations:
Vimalakīrti and Mahākāśyapa: Once Mahākāśyapa was begging for food in a street inhabited by poor people. Vimalakīrti came along and said to him:
“Reverend Mahākāśyapa, to avoid the houses of the wealthy, and to favour the houses of the poor - this is partiality in benevolence. Reverend Mahākāśyapa, you should dwell on the fact of the equality of things, and you should seek alms with consideration for all living beings at all times…. . When you enter a town, you should keep in mind its actual void ness, yet you should proceed through it in order to develop men and women ……. . You should see form like a man blind from birth, hear sounds as if they were echoes, smell scents as if they were winds, experience tastes without any discrimination.”
Vimalakīrti and Subhūti: Once Subhūti arrives at Vimalakīrti’s house begging for food, Vimalakīrti took his bowl and filled it with some excellent food and said to him:
“Reverend Subhūti, take this food if you understand the equality of all things, by means of the equality of material objects, and if you understand the equality of all the attributes of the Buddha, by means of the equality of all things.”
Vimalakīrti and Pūrṇamaitrāyaṇīputra: Once Pūrṇa was expounding the Dharma under a tree to a group of newly initiated monks, then Vimalakīrti came to him and said:
“Reverend Pūrṇa, first concentrate yourself regard the minds of these young Bhikkhus, and then teach them the Dharma! Do not put rotten food into a jeweled bowl! First understand the inclinations of these monks, and do not confuse priceless sapphires with glass beads.”
These statements definitely put stress on the purity and unbiased ness of the mind in order to realize the truth as well as show the resemblance to Koans of Zen Buddhism. D.T. Suzuki, erudite scholar of Zen Buddhism, writes:
“Zen has no aversion to book – learning necessarily, but in point of fact Zen can be grasped more readily perhaps by the simple – minded and those who are not stuffed with intellectual accomplishments.”
Likewise Linnart Mäll, a noted authority on Mahāyāna Sūtras, makes a remark:
“In Zen Buddhism the teacher tries with the help of paradoxes to lead his students to mental shock which should accelerate reaching the satori state, and is a kind of threshold for Awakening".
However, actually this method of shock – treatment is not completely unique to Vimalakīrti Nirdeśa Sūtra or Zen Buddhism. We have the example of Channa, charioteer of Gotama, while Gotama was still a Bodhisattva. It was because of his affection for Gotama, and then because of his pride in "our Buddha, our Dhamma", that he was unable to carry out the duties of a true recluse, until he had received the emotional shock (saṃvega) of the imposition of the supreme penalty on him. The description of Buddha's method of instruction as found in the Pali Literature also speaks of two methods in the form of counter question and by keeping absolute silence, which was perhaps promulgated by the Buddha in order to give a shock to the questioner .
Vimalakīrti advocates the view of Śūnyatā to be developed for all conditioned things and lay emphasis on the necessity of remaining an active member of the society in this very world. Neither is the solution to escape from the world nor is to be indulged in the ocean of desires. He is opposed to any kind of escapism from the society and considers it inevitable to live in the world in order to get rid of the impurities like desires, hatred, greed etc. because that victory over our impurity would be a conquest in the real sense of term. Parinirvāṇa or ultimate liberation or getting freedom from the cycle of rebirth after this life is not a goal for Vimalakīrti and so is the case with his stand towards monastic life being an appropriate channel to attain liberation.
"Do not escape, change the world" is a famous novel of an Indian Buddhist stalwart known as Mahāpaṇḍita Rahula Sānkṛtyāyana. This title's message is truly seems to be rooted in the quintessence of Vimalakīrti Nirdeśa Sūtra. Escaping is easy, living in the world of desire with desirelessness is difficult – it is one of the major points of the Vimalakīrti Nirdeśa Sūtra. Vimalakīrti Nirdeśa Sūtra contains several instances in the form of communication between Vimalakīrti and others where he declares that believing the path of monasticism as only path of liberation is an erroneous view. Such beliefs fall in the category of an extremist view. To realize the importance of brightness, one will have to pass through the darkness. A few dialogues, describing such reflections, between Vimalakīrti and others may be cited as follows:
Vimalakīrti to Śāriputra:
“You should absorb yourself in contemplation in such a way that you are released in liberation without abandoning the passions that are the province of the world.”
Vimalakīrti to Subhūti:
“Take this food if, without abandoning desire, hatred, and folly, you can avoid association with them; if you can follow the path of the single way without ever disturbing the egoistic views.”
“'Take this food, reverend Subhūti, if, those who offer you food, reverend, still fall into the three bad migrations; if you associate with all Māra’s; if you entertain all passions; if the nature of passions is the nature of a reverend; if you have hostile feelings toward all living beings; if you despise all the Buddhas; if you criticize all the teachings of the Buddha; if you do not rely on the Saṅgha; and finally, if you never enter ultimate liberation.”
Vimalakīrti to Upāli: Once Upāli was delivering some religious discourse to two monks who had broken some commandments and were too ashamed to appear before the Lord, therefore, had come to Upāli so that he could teach them the rules of repentance. Vimalakīrti approached there and stated:
“Reverend Upāli, do not aggravate further the sins of these two monks. Without perplexing them, relieve their remorse.”
Such reaction of Vimalakīrti is not understandable at this very place but it becomes comprehensible in the next chapter where he expounds his own perspective as:
“As for these living beings, there is nothing to be applied, and there is nothing to be removed; one has only to teach them the Dharma for them to realize the basis from which sicknesses arise. What is this basis? It is object – perception. Insofar as apparent objects are perceived; they are the basis of sickness.”
Any disease can only be treated if its nature and root is identified. To include in liberation from the world without employing expedient methods (Upāya) is bondage even for a Bodhisattva. Wisdom not integrated with expedient methods is bondage but wisdom integrated with expedient methods is liberation, and expedient method of a Bodhisattva does not lie in seeking cessation of body, mind, or sickness. His expedient method consists of not exhausting himself by trying to avoid all physical sickness, and of applying himself to accomplish, it is the standpoint of Vimalakīrti Nirdeśa Sūtra.
Vimalakīrti Nirdeśa Sūtra shows such a path which encourages one to disentangle the tangles of the world through the world and by remaining in this world. Vimalakīrti says:
“Noble sir, flowers like the blue lotus, the red lotus, the white lotus, the water lily, and the moon lily do not grow on the dry ground in the wilderness, but do grow in the swamps and mud banks. Just so, the Buddha-qualities do not grow in living beings certainly destined for the uncreated but do grow in those living beings who are like swamps and mud banks of passions. Likewise, as seeds do not grow in the sky but do grow in the earth, so the Buddha-qualities do not grow in those determined for the absolute but do grow in those who conceive the spirit of enlightenment, after having produced a Sumeru-like mountain of egoistic views.
“Noble sir, through these considerations one can understand that all passions constitute the family of the Tathāgatas. For example, noble sir, without going out into the great ocean, it is impossible to find precious, priceless pearls. Likewise, without going into the ocean of passions, it is impossible to obtain the mind of omniscience.”
Vimalakīrti Nirdeśa Sūtra doesn’t offer place to any kind of social discrimination regarding attainment of the knowledge whatsoever. Each and every part of Vimalakīrti 's message is addressed to Kulaputras (Noble men) and Kulaputrīs (Noble women) both as is reflected in one dialogue held between Vimalakīrti and Mahākāśyapa shown previously in this paper. Vimalakīrti would visit even the brothels so that he could reveal them the evils of desires. He was honoured as a eunuch in royal harem because this was he who taught the young ladies of the inner palaces according to the Dharma. Buddhist nuns and lay women devotees are assigned the same status of member as those of monks and lay men devotees in the Catuśpariśada (Council of Four) in the Vimalakīrti Nirdeśa Sūtra, which would gather to hear the Buddha’s discourses. Vimalakīrti Nirdeśa Sūtra renders an account in which Māra, surrounded with twelve thousand heavenly maidens, approached a Bodhisattva named Jagatīṃdhara and pleaded him to accept those maidens as servants. Jagatīṃdhara answered: "Do not offer me, who am religious and a son of the Śākya, things which are not appropriate.” As is evident from his reply, he considered those maidens as an impure object and obstacle in his spiritual path. Vimalakīrti, observing his response to Māra, moved forward to accept them and exhorted them after accepting with discourse suitable for their development towards supreme enlightenment (Anuttarā – samyaksaṃbodhi) and soon they conceived the spirit of enlightenment abandoning the pleasure in desires.
Another account elaborating the dialogue between Goddess and Śāriputra portrays a refutation of Śrāvakayānistic position of putting women a step inferior to men by the text. Śāriputra, witnessing the eight splendid and astonishing qualities of the house of Goddess, asked her:
Śāriputra: Goddess, what prevents you from transforming yourself out of your female state?
Goddess: Although I have sought my "female state" for these twelve years, I have not yet found it. Reverend Śāriputra, if a magician were to incarnate a woman by magic, would you ask her, "What prevents you from transforming yourself out of your female state?"
Śāriputra: No! Such a woman would not really exist, so what would there be to transform?
Goddess: Just so, reverend Śāriputra, all things do not really exist. Now, would you think, "What prevents one whose nature is that of a magical incarnation from transforming herself out of her female state?"
Thereupon, the goddess employed her magical power to cause the elder Śāriputra to appear in her form and to cause herself to appear in his form. Then the goddess, transformed into Śāriputra, said to Śāriputra, transformed into a goddess, "Reverend Śāriputra, what prevents you from transforming yourself out of your female state?"
And Śāriputra, transformed into the goddess, replied, "I no longer appear in the form of a male! My body has changed into the body of a woman! I do not know what to transform!"
The goddess continued, "If the elder could again change out of the female state, then all women could also change out of their female states. All women appear in the form of women in just the same way as the elder appears in the form of a woman. While they are not women in reality, they appear in the form of women. With this in mind, the Buddha said, 'In all things, there is neither male nor female.”
Vimalakīrti Nirdeśa Sūtra directly centres its focus on the heart of Buddha's teachings throughout the text, not on its external structure which made its entry in the Buddhism in the due course of time during its historical development. Despite rejecting Śrāvakayāna as a wrongly understood teachings of the Buddha and considering the followers of the Śrāvakayāna as blinds from their birth, Vimalakīrti Nirdeśa Sūtra does not go far away from the rationalistic and open – minded spirit of the authentic teachings of the Buddha and thus ideologically and philosophically, it can be considered as a magnificent synthesis of early and later Buddhistic thoughts. Vimalakīrti Nirdeśa Sūtra claims to be a Mahāyānistic text and glorification of the Mahāyāna can be seen at several places of it but when it comes to the question of this common belief that the term "Śraddhā", which once meant, “confidence based on knowledge” in the Pāli canon gradually changed its meaning to “faith” and “devotion” with the emergence of Mahāyāna Buddhism; Vimalakīrti Nirdeśa Sūtra doesn't seem to accept this concept anywhere in its descriptions. The text emphasizes intuitive knowledge of the Dharma by one's own wisdom rather than insisting on the faith on the Buddha for realization of the truth. In an early Pāli sutta named Mahāparinibbāna Sutta, we find a dialogue between Buddha and Ānanda held just before the demise of the former where Buddha declares:
"The truths, and the Rules of the order, which I have set forth and laid down for you all, let them, after I am gone, be the teacher to you."
A similar kind of expression can be found here in the Vimalakīrti Nirdeśa Sūtra in the words addressed by the Tathāgata to prince of gods (Indra):
“Prince of gods, the enlightenment of the Buddhas of the past, present, and future is expressed in this discourse of Dharma. Therefore, prince of gods, when noble sons and daughters accept it, repeat it, understand it deeply, write it completely, and, making it into a book, honor it, those sons and daughters thereby pay homage to the Buddhas of the past, present and future.”
Lord Further Says:
“Prince of gods, the enlightenment of the Buddhas arises from the Dharma, and one honors them by the Dharma worship, and not by material worship. Thus it is taught, prince of gods, and thus you must understand it.”
On the basis of this very spirit, the Buddha has put up a classification of Bodhisattvas in the following manner in his teaching to Maitreya:
"Maitreya, there are two gestures of the Bodhisattvas. What are they? The first gesture is to believe in all sorts of phrases and words, and the second gesture is to penetrate exactly the profound principle of the Dharma without being afraid. Such are the two gestures of the Bodhisattvas. Maitreya, it must be known that the Bodhisattvas who believe in all sorts of words and phrases, and apply themselves accordingly, are beginners and not experienced in religious practice. But the Bodhisattvas, who read, hear, believe, and teach this profound teaching with its impeccable expressions reconciling dichotomies and its analyses of stages of development these are veterans in the religious practice.”
How can we read the Vimalakīrti Nirdeśa Sūtra in the contemporary world and what can be significance of the philosophy of the text in today's perspectives is a major question before the author of this paper? Let's try to understand it. What are the major causes of most of the problems in today's world? Some countries are suffering from political crisis and some from social problems. Many countries are shaken because of conflicts among different religious groups. The misunderstanding regarding each others religion and society is being increased day by day among its followers. Different priests and religious teachers are trying to establish this belief in their adherent’s mind that their own religion and social structure is the best among all, their Gods are the supreme God and all other existing religious and communities are a danger for their own religion, culture as well as society in one way or another. But the biggest question is where actually the danger lies? Where actually this disbelief on others exists? Which factor is responsible for all these religious, social and political problems? It is the mind and only our mind that has the capacity to make this earth a heaven if it is pure and a hell, if polluted. The victory and defeat are the mental notions. Love and hatred also exist in our mind. The brightest gift to the humanity has always been offered by the mind and all the ghastly destructions of the world are also the contribution of the mind. When the United Nations was formed after the horrors of the Second World War, the heads of Nations who gathered to sign the charter agreed that it should begin with the following preamble:
“Since it is in the minds of men that wars begin, it is in the mind of men the ramparts of peace should be erected.”
This very same sentiment seems to be embedded in the first verse of the Dhammapada which states:
“All [mental] states have mind as their forerunner, mind is there chief, and they are mind-made. If one speaks or acts, with a defiled mind, suffering follows one even as the wheel follows the hoof of the draught-ox.”
This mind of everyone of us has its own categories to understand the things, its own preconceived notions towards others and its own prejudices regarding every thing. What we claim to know about others is, generally, by and large based on our preconceived notions. Regarding our neighbours, regarding inhabitants of our neighbouring cities, regarding inhabitants of other countries, regarding inhabitants of other continents, we have our preconceived notions. Similarly, we have our nationalistic and religious taboos and mental formations which make us feel that our nation or religion is supreme among all and this tendency prevents us from considering other culture or religion with the same respect as we have for our own. Every individual has his own preconceived notions for other individuals and every group of human beings also has their own for other communities. When we happen to be alone, we judge others from our own personal definition of ethical or unethical, civilized or uncivilized behaviour. When we are with our family members, we make remarks towards our neighbouring people and try to find any reason to criticize them just because that they are not as we want them to be. When we sit with our own city - men as well as with those of our neighbours, we discuss those differences which we do have with the inhabitants of other cities and, lastly, we come to the conclusion that we are far better than those people of other cities. And we hold the same kind of discussion in the company of our own countrymen regarding other countries. We evaluate their food habits, living style, dressing sense, religious beliefs etc. and find a huge difference from ours own. Lastly, off course, we consider ourselves better than those. Similar approach we do have in our mind-set regarding other factors of the life like caste, creed, colour and religion.
These differences are actually the differences of mental formations which lead us towards our preconceived notions. As much as we start knowing the truth about others, we realize that the differences are not as wide and deep as we had thought of it. These differences appear as a difference because we have made multitude of personal, social, religious and national taboos concerning every aspect of life whether it is the style of living in day to day life or the issues of moral values. Whosoever or whatsoever society does not appear to us in the accordance with own definition of right or good, we immediately declare it a wrong way and inferior to ours own. Even if one knot of our heap of preconceived nations is untied, several other knots of the mind are being built up day after day.
Vimalakīrti Nirdeśa Sūtra is virtually a repudiation of every sort of knots, taboos and preconceived notions of our mind. It affirms that the realization of the true Dharma leads us beyond the sense of all differentiations. As soon as the mental tangles of one are untangled, he doesn't see any difference between others and himself. It is the very objective of the ultimate knowledge in the Buddhism and it has been in the spirit of Buddha's discourses from its commencement. The Dharma has never been taught by the Buddha as something which should be carried upon all the time. The Dharma itself is a an instrument to liberate oneself and as soon as one did it, all the spoken words of different discourses are mere words for him, all the written words of the scriptures doesn't have any value for him because the issue of Dharma and Adharma no longer exists for him. The Buddha himself has explained the Dharma by parable of the raft in his famous discourse by saying:
"I have taught the Dhamma (Pāli word for Dharma) similar to a raft – it is for crossing over, and not for carrying. You, O Monks, who understand that the Dhamma is similar to a raft, should give up even the Dhamma; so what is the question of giving up Adhamma?"
"Dharma is a means, not a goal" – Vimalakīrti renders the similar message to Śāriputra in other words:
"Revered Śāriputra, one who is interested in the Dharma, he is not interested in attachment to the Buddha, attachment to the Dharma or attachment to the Saṅgha."
To conclude we can say, Vimalakīrti Nirdeśa Sūtra is a perfect example of the synthesis of early and later Buddhist thoughts. On the social front it denies the necessity of monastic life to attain the liberation as Theravāda suggests and commends the Mahāyānistic way of life. On the other hand, it seemingly endorses the Theravādistic standpoint regarding wisdom manifested in the earliest Pāli texts. The text also contains the seeds of Pure Land Buddhism, Mādhyamaka and, off course, of Zen philosophies of Buddhism. Therefore, Vimalakīrti Nirdeśa Sūtra is the text which crosses over the domain of sectarianism in its spirit and advocates that kind of pure and original Buddhism which is against every kind of 'ism' and taboos and, due to this spirit, the author of the text would not like his writing to be treated even as a "Buddhist" thought as this approach also might seem to him as a production of "a category of mind". Vimalakīrti Nirdeśa Sūtra does not cling even to the Buddha, Dharma or Saṅgha and expounds the path towards that knowledge of non-duality where our minds stop perceiving any distinction even between a sinner and the Buddha. If after the realization of the Dharma, one’s mind attains that stage where he doesn’t feel any difference between external and internal, male and female, rich and poor, friend and enemy and sinner and meritorious then it is the real liberation; the Vimalakīrti Nirdeśa Sūtra asserts. Vimalakīrti Nirdeśa Sūtra is a philosophy of rationality as well as open – mindedness and may be considered as a revolutionary text against all kind of pre – conceived notions, taboos, distinctions and mental tangles. Moreover, the author of the text occasionally uses a hunter to make this truth understandable to us.

References:
. Thurman, Robert A.F. (Tr.): The Holy Teaching of Vimalakīrti, Motilal Banarasidass, Delhi, 1991, p. 20 – 21
. Ibid, p. 27
. Ibid, p.77
. Ibid, p.26
. Ibid, p.27
. Ibid, p.28
. Suzuki, D.T.: Studies in the Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra, Motilal Banarasidass, Delhi,1999, p.61
. Mäll , Linnart : Studies in the Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā and other essays, Centre for oriental studies, University of Tartu, Tartu, 2003, p. 89
. In order to guide his disciples to realize the Dhamma, the Buddha would answer their questions in the four ways:
(a). By giving a categorical answer (Ekaṅsa Vyākaraṇa)
(b). By asking a counter question (Paṭipucchā Vyākaraṇa)
(c ). By keeping complete silence (Jhāpanīya Vyākaraṇa)
(d). By an analytical answer (Vibhajja Vyākaraṇa)
Woodward, F.L.(Tr.): The Book of the Gradual Sayings (Anguttara Nikāya), Vol. II, Pali Text Society, 1973, p. 54
. Thurman, Robert A.F. (Tr.): The Holy Teaching of Vimalakīrti, Motilal Banarasidass, Delhi, 1991, p. 24
. Ibid, p. 27
. Ibid, p. 30
. Ibid, p. 45 – 46
. Ibid, p. 66
. Ibid, p. 21
. Ibid, p. 12
. Ibid, p. 37
. Ibid, p. 38
. Ibid, p. 61 – 62
. Rhys Davids, T.W. & C.A.F. (Tr.): Dialogues of the Buddha, Vol. II, MLBD, Delhi, 2000, p.171
. Thurman, Robert A.F. (Tr.): The Holy Teaching of Vimalakīrti, Motilal Banarasidass, Delhi, 1991, p. 96
. Ibid, p. 97
. Ibid, p. 101
. Dhammananda, K. Sri: What Buddhists Believe, The Corporate Body of the Buddha Educational Foundation, Taipei, 1993, p. 285
. Mahathera, Narada(Ed. and Tr.): Dhammapada, Mahabodhi Society of India, Calcutta, 1971,
p. 2
. Horner, I.B. (Tr.): Middle Length Sayings (Majjhima Nikāya), Vol. I, Pali Text Society, London, 1977, p. 174
. Thurman, Robert A.F. (Tr.): The Holy Teaching of Vimalakīrti

ASPECTS OF DĀNA IN EARLY BUDDHISM

Dr. Siddharth Singh,
Associate Professor,
Department of Pali & Buddhist Studies
Banaras Hindu University, India


The life of the Buddha is an unique example of a human being's effort to get perfected himself by cultivating virtues in several former births for the welfare of worldly being's suffering from birth, decay and death. According to Buddhist tradition, one does not become Buddha in just one life. Before attaining Buddhahood, a Bodhisatta passes through numerous former births in which he acquires perfection in ten merits called Dasapāramitā. Dāna i.e. giving or charity is foremost of these ten pāramitās. As we look at many Jātakas, Bodhisatta accomplishes the Dāna Pāramitā by not only sacrificing his wealth, family members, parts of the body but by his own life also at the time of need of others. Mahāsudassana Jātaka, Mahāgovinda Jātaka, Sasa Jātaka, Vessantara Jātaka, Nimi Jātaka, Sivi Jātaka, Candrakumāra Jātaka etc. are the stories narrating the account of such sacrifices.
Although Pāramitā, as a specific term for collection of ten perfection, is not enumerated in the four main nikāyas and is usually associated with the later literature, however, different parts of these have been extolled by the Buddha in manifold ways.
Dāna as Volition
Dāna, a term used in a very wide sense, is more concerned with volition than quantity or value of the gift. There are two aspects of Dāna - (1) Cetanā Dāna, (2) Vatthu Dāna.  Offerings of goods, robes, monasteries etc. are classified as Vatthu (material) Dāna, while the good-will in these charitable acts is called Cetanā (volition) Dāna. This mental attitude, not the material things that are offered, which is projected onto the offering, produces the good results in the present and future existences. It is you who gives yourself the gift of merits simultaneously while giving material things with good volition to others. 
Although offerings such as alms-food and recipients of offerings can not follow the donor to the next life and bring benevolence, they certainly help to promote a keen Cetanā in the donors. Normally, the respective efforts exerted to offer different amount of offerings may differ accordingly. For the zealous efforts in procuring a large quantity of offerings, there will arise a strong Cetanā. Procuring only a small quantity of offerings will naturally call for less effort and the corresponding Cetanā will be relatively less. In preparation of a large amount of offerings, the Pubba-Cetanā (volition before the moment of giving) will accordingly be immense. Here Dānas of large and small amount differ in effects not because of the quantity of the offering but of the duration of the continuous stream of Cetanā (volition) occurs in the donor's mind-continuum.
Quantity or quality of offering always can not determine the generosity or moral height of a donor. Some immoral donors offer alms food, building, clothes ritually or without faith to a accumulate merits. If so, even Dāna  may be lavish and grand, their Cetanā is no match to it; they do not feel appreciative joy because the good deed was done with little volition by immoral person. Therefore, they will accumulate merit in the proportion of intensity of their Cetanā and morality, not of the quantity or quality of their offering. On being asked the Buddha in a verse:
"Why is their offering, abundant, lavish,
Not equal to the poor man's righteous gift?
How it the thousand gifts of thousand donors,
Are not in value equal to his mite?"

Exalted one replied in a verse:
"Some give with inconsistent ways of conduct,
First smiting, murdering, then comfort giving.
These offerings (besmirched by) tears and blows,
Have not the value of the righteous gift."1

Who deserves the Dāna
The fruits of the gifts are determined according to the qualities of the giver as well as recipient of the gift. Five qualities have been described of good man's gifts-Giving a gift in faith, with deference, in time, with unconstrained heart and without hurting to self or others.2 The intention or volition of the donor is not just enough to produce the fruits of gifts, but recipient must also be noble and worthy of gift. Buddha says:
Khettūpamā arahanto dāyakā kassakūpamā,
Bījūpamaṁ deyyadhammaṁ etto nibbattate phalaṁ.
"Recipients are fields, Donors are farmers, Offerings are the seeds sown, Benefits in future are the fruits."3
In agriculture, the type of soil whether good or bad determines the yield. Similarly, the integrity and nobility of the recipient also determines the nature of beneficial results. In the Petavatthu it is mentioned that farmlands, in general, are of three grades: the very fertile, the mediocre, and the poor. Likewise, recipients are also of different grades. Just as farms free of weeds and grass are highly productive, so also if recipients are void of greed, hatred and ignorance, the donor enjoy benefits all the more. Just as farms will yield a plentiful harvest when they are rich in manure and fertilizers, so also good results will accrue to donors when the recipients are persons of virtue and wisdom.4
Just as during the war a youth, to whichever social class he belongs, trained, skilled, expert, practiced, drilled, bold, of steady nerve, undismayed is employed in the army to fight for the nation. Only such kind of youths can produce a winning result. Similarly, a gift given to a person, who has abolished desire for sensuous pleasures, ill-will, sloth and torpor, distraction, worry and doubt, bears much fruitful results than a gift given to vicious person.5 In Aṭṭhakanipāta of Aṅguttara-Nikāya, Buddha says: "Monks, gifts given to recluses and godly men possessing eight qualities - wrong views, wrong intentions, wrong speech, wrong actions, wrong livelihood, wrong effort, wrong mindfulness and wrong concentration are not very fruitful, nor very advantageous, nor very splendid, nor very thrilling."6
Buddha does not only advise the donors to give gifts with good volition but also instructs the monks to be restraint, while receiving the gifts, and thoroughly prescribes the rules to the monks in the Pātimokkha. Defining the Samaṇa word in the true sense Buddha spoke thus: "Samaṇa (recluses), Samaṇa, so the people know you, monks and you, on being asked : 'who are you?' should acknowledge: we are samaṇa, such being your designations, monks, such being your vocations, thus you should train yourselves, monks: we will go forward undertaking those things that are to be done by recluses, that are to be done by brahmaṇas ; thus will this designation of ours become true and the vocation real; and the gifts of those things we make use of - robe material, alms-food, lodgings, medicine for the sick - will come to be of great fruit, of great advantage to us; this our going forth will come to be not barren but fruitful and growing."7
A true donor enjoys the feelings of mettā (amity), karuṇā (compassion), muditā (joy) while giving the gifts but still remains equanimous (Upekkhāvāna) towards recipients. He does not crave for the fruits of giving otherwise taṇhā will arise within him. In this sense Dāna is opposite of Taṇhā which roots out false attachments towards the things a man considers as his own. Dāna is recognized as one of the four virtues that make the world go around as linchpin serves the rolling car.8
Classification of the Dāna 
Dāna is classified into various categories in the Pali Literature. Gifts are recognized not only in the terms of material things but Dhamma also. Buddha, after attaining Buddhahood, throughout his life gave the sublimest kind of Dāna to the human world that was of the Dhamma. Dhamma-Dāna is described as supreme of all types of giving. Buddha says - "Monks, there are these two gifts. What two?
The carnal and the spiritual. These are the two. Of these the spiritual gift is pre-emienent."9
In another way, Dāna may be classified into three levels: Hīna Dāna (inferior charity), Majjhima Dāna (medium charity) and Paṇīta Dāna (superior charity). This classification is based on the offerings donated. If the offerings are inferior to what one consumes, it is Hīna Dāna. If one donates the things that are of equal quantity to what one uses, it is Majjhima Dāna. If one gives away offerings better than what one consumes, it is Paṇīta Dāna.
It is not that Pubba-cetanā (volition before the moment of Kamma) of giving always remains full of faith. Eight grounds for giving is mentioned by Buddha himself. Some give alms out of impulse; some give out of exasperation; some give under a misapprehension; some give from fear; some give following his family tradition; some give to be reborn in the blissful heaven-world; some give to find peace, joy and gladness in heart and some give to enrich and mellow their heart.10
An ideal offering is called six fold-endowed wherein the giver's part and the receiver’s part is threefold respectively. Buddha says: "Herein, monks, before the gift he (giver) is glad at heart; in giving the heart is satisfied; and uplifted is the heart when he was given. This is the giver's threefold part. 
And what is the receiver's threefold part? Herein, monks, they are lust freed or stepping to cast lust out; are hate-freed or stepping to cast hate out; are delusions freed or stepping to become so. This is receiver’s threefold part."11
Buddha does not blindly praise the Dāna just to make available the required things to his saṅgha but establishes the theory of Dāna on the basis of morality (sīla). On moral ground, Buddha classifies Dāna in another way which consists of four modes - (1) When a gift is purely made on the part of the giver, but not purely received; (2) When a gift is made pure by the recipient, not by the giver; (3) When the gift is made pure by both; (4) When the gift is made pure by neither.12 Of course third mode of these considered as supreme by the Buddha.
Sometimes, Dāna serves individual only, sometimes whole society and sometimes both of these. Dāna must be meant for large community of people rather than individual while being given in the proper and planned way. Buddha always gave less importance to the charity given to the individual in the comparison of the offering served to the Saṅgha that is why Buddha even refused to accept a pair of new clothes prepared by his maternal aunt Mahāpajāpati Gotamī and requested her to donate these things to Saṅgha having said: "I say that an offering to the order is incalculable and immeasurable."13
Saṅghika Dāna i.e. charity meant for the Saṅgha entitles all the members of the community to share the things which make them self-less, free from the feelings of individuality and enhance amity among them. Even if your offer alms to one, two or more bhikkhus, if you select them in personal terms, the Dāna becomes Puggalika Dāna (charity meant for individuals). If you do so, even though you offer alms to a thousand bhikkhus, you are doing only Puggalika Dāna. Except Dāna specially offered to Buddha and Paccekabuddhas, Saṅghika Dāna excels Puggalika Dāna and becomes more fruitful.
Results of the Dāna 
The advantages of the charity are abundant according to the Buddha. A noble donor who gives to the noble recipient with wisdom enjoys the results of this virtue in this world as well as in heavens. The advantages of the gifts are described by Buddha as follows: "Monks, there are these five advantages from gifts. What five?"
"One who gives happens to be good and dear to many folk; god and wise men love him; a good report is spread abroad about him; he strays not from the householder's Dhamma; and on the breaking up of the body after death he is reborn in the happy heaven world."14 Even just in giving a meal, a giver gives long life, beauty, happiness and strength to the recipient and doing so he himself becomes a partaker in each quality, be it as deva or human.15
According to Buddhist doctrine of karma, wealthy persons have been definitely generous donors in their past lives and the poor are bound to be those who had no credit of Dāna in their previous existences. When Queen Mallikā asks Buddha the reason of some being rich and some poor, Buddha gave the only reason as Dāna offered in the past life for this difference.16 Buddhist legends suggests that Queen Mallikā was a poor flower girl who gave her only cake to the Buddha as his first meal for the day. The immediate fruit of this gift was that she became that very day the Queen of the King Pasendi. The same views can be found in the dialogue of the Buddha and Sāriputta where Sāriputta is answered by the Buddha in the regard of prosperity of rich people.17
Buddhist cosmology divides this cosmos into thirty one planes of existences consist of four woeful planes, seven sensuous blissful planes and twenty brahmā planes. In these planes a person goes on account of his wholesome or unwholesome deeds and this process of getting birth is not governed by any god or creator but by the law of karma. The virtue of noble Dāna leads one to get birth in the seven sensuous blissful planes i.e. in the Manussaloka (human world), Catumahārājika (the realm of the four kings), Tāvatiṁsa (the realm of the thirty three goods), Yama (the realm of yama gods), Tusita (the delightful realm), Nimmānarati (the realm of gods enjoying their own creation) and Paranimmitavasavatti (the realm of gods lording over the creation of others) as well as in the company of the devas of Brahmā's hosts.18 Gift given disrespectfully, not with own hand, without due consideration, gift of what is useless can cause a man to get birth as animal and in the hell also.19
World has passed through innumerable calamities and mishaps and could overcome those just because of the generous nature of some people who came forth to help the suffered class. Buddhist teachings encourage a man to go beyond the feeling of caste, community, even nation and to become a part of global family where all of us depend on each other. Independence is nothing but a relative term. Having thought so, we should be concern with the need of the people living neglected and in the scarcity. In the modern time, when selfishness is increasing day by day and is breaking even the relations of family members, Buddhist theory of Dāna teaches us to become self-less and to donate the things or the qualities whatever we possess, for the cause of humanity whether it is money, knowledge or virtues like love and compassion. Doing so, you don't lose anything but enrich yourself with the satisfaction and joy of being a real human being moving a step ahead in the direction of the Buddhahood. 

References:

1. Woodward, F.L (Trans.): Gradual Sayings (Aṅguttara-Nikāya), Vol.I, Pali Text Society, London, 1970, pp.28-29
2. Hare, E.M. (Trans.):Gradual Sayings (Aṅguttara - Nikāya), Vol.III, Pali Text Society, London,1973, p.130
3. Jayawickrama  N. A.(Edit.): Petavatthu, Pali Text Society, London, 1977, p.1
4. Ibid,p.36;  Hare, E. M. (Trans.): Gradual Sayings (Aṅguttara - Nikāya), Vol.IV, Pali Text Society, London,1978,p.162
5. Davids, Mrs. Rhys (Trans.): Kindred Sayings (Saṁyutta-Nikāya), Vol.I, Pali Text Society, London, 1979, p.124
6. Hare, E. M(Trans.):Gradual Sayings (Aṅguttara - Nikāya), Vol.IV, Pali Text Society, London,1978,p.162
7. Horner, I.B. (Trans.): Middle Length Sayings (Majjhima-Nikāya), Vol.I, Pali Text Society, London, 1977, p.325
8. Davids, T.W & C.A. F. Rhys (Trans.): Dialogues of the Buddha (Dīgh - Nikāya) Vol.III, Motilal Banarasidass, Delhi, 2000, p.184
9. Woodward, F.L.(Trans.): Gradual Sayings (Aṅguttara - Nikāya), Vol.I, Pali Text Society, London, 1970, p.81
10. Hare, E. M.(Trans.): Gradual Sayings (Aṅguttara - Nikāya), Vol.IV, Pali Text Society, London,1978, p.161
11. Hare, E.M.(Trans.):Gradual Sayings (Aṅguttara - Nikāya), Vol.III, Pali Text Society, London,1973, p.236
12. Davids, T.W & C.A. F. Rhys(Trans.): Dialogues of the Buddha (Dīgh - Nikāya) Vol.III, Motilal Banarasidass, Delhi, 2000, p.222
13. Horner, I.B.(Trans.): Middle Length Sayings (Majjhima- Nikāya), Vol.III, Pali Text Society, London, 1977, p.304
14. Hare, E.M.(Trans.): Gradual Sayings (Aṅguttara - Nikāya), Vol.III, Pali Text Society, London,1973, p.31
15. Woodward, F.L.(Trans.): Gradual Sayings (Aṅguttara - Nikāya), Vol.II, Pali Text Society, London, 1973, p.72;Vol.III,p.34
16. Ibid, p.215
17. Ibid, p.91
18. Hare, E. M.(Trans.): Gradual Sayings (Aṅguttara - Nikāya), Vol.IV, Pali Text Society, London,1978, pp.163-165; Davids, T.W & C.A. F. Rhys(Trans.):Dialogues of the Buddha (Dīgh - Nikāya) Vol.II, Motilal Banarasidass, Delhi, 2000,. p.373
19. Horner, I.B. (Trans.): Middle Length Sayings (Majjhima-Nikāya), Vol.III,  Pali Text Society, London, 1977,p.72

Disease and Medicine as Depicted in I-Tsing's Travel Account: A Retrospection

Dr. Siddharth Singh
Associate Professor,
Department of Pali and Buddhist Studies,
Banaras Hindu University
                                                                                                                                      Varanasi-221005
                                                                                                                                    U.P, INDIA

I-Tsing was the second important Chinese Buddhist Pilgrim after Yuan Chwang, who has presented a detailed and systematic picture of the Nalanda. He arrived in India in 671 A.D and studied in Nalanda for a considerable time. He collected some 400 texts, amounting to 500,000 shlokas. Having acquired the knowledge of different branches of the great Indian literature and philosophy and experiencing the life here, he rendered a tremendous record of the contemporary India in the form of memoirs which proved as a major source of our historical information complimenting earlier sources.
Perhaps I-Tsing is the only foreigner pilgrim among all, who has given us such detailed information regarding the way of treatments as were being practiced by the monks as well as by the common people in 7th cent.A.D in the India. Although Yuan Chwang also has devoted a few lines on the sickness and death in his account but that hardly has any special value to understand the popular way of treatment by the Indian people at that time. Needless to say, I-Tsing's experiences, especially of monastic system, were largely based on what he gathered at Nalanda. Certainly, these facts can be applied on his presentation of the Indian way of medication also.
We find ample evidences of the illness and treatment described in the Tipitaka. The renowned physician Jeevak, is well known to everybody and it is evident from a number of stories of the Tipitaka as to how Jeevaka cured Bimbisara, Chanda Pradyota, many others and to Buddha himself. There are references to his skill not only in medicine but also in surgery1. He was responsible for the introduction of the Vinaya rules permitting sick monks to have medical and surgical aids2. The Bhesajja Khandhaka3 of Mahavagga (Vinaya Pataka) also provides a certain piece of information regarding medicines to treat different problems of the monks.
I-Tsing's concern towards health precautions followed by the monks of Nalanda monastery begins with the depiction of bathing habit of the monks. There were more than ten great pools, with abundant water, near Nalanda monastery and there every morning a bell was sounded to remind the monks of the bathing hour4.  Monks would always take meals after bath because it had two benefits. First, the body becomes pure and empty, being free from all dirt. Second, the food will be well digested, as the bathing makes one free from phlegm or any disease of the internal organs5. I-Tsing presents here a Chinese concept of cleanliness quoting a Chinese saying: "Wash hair when hungry, but bathe after food". But, he says, "Bathing after a good meal is forbidden in the (Indian) science of medicine'' (Cikitsa Vidya)6. The regulations instructed to build a bath-room, use of bathing-sheet, way of coming to bathing place and taking bath with the reference of medical bath and use of oil instructed by Buddha himself, is also expounded.
The rules of sleeping and resting followed by monks are given, along with the note on the importance of exercise. Generally, monks and laymen would take a walk in the forenoon (before eleven o' clock) and late in the afternoon. I-Tsing says, "If any one neglects this exercise he will suffer from ill health, and often be troubled by a swelling of the legs or of the stomach, a pain in the elbows or the shoulders. A phlegmatic complaint likewise is caused by sedentary habits7". But walking round a temple or a caitya must be performed with special reverence for the sake of religious merit. Unfortunately, "This suitable practice has long since been discontinued at China" I-Tsing laments. Senior monks while accepting the salutation by the junior monks would say 'Arogya'. "This word implies one's praying that the one addressed may not have any disease"8 I-Tsing explains.
In his twenty seventh chapter, I-Tsing begins with suggestions regarding meals, certainly having observed the practices of the Buddhist monks. One should take a small meal according to the condition the four great elements of which one's body consists9. Day break is generally called 'the time of phlegm' when the juice of the night food is still hanging about the chest, being as yet undispersed. Any food taken at this time disagrees. He gives an example here- "If, for example, one add fuel when the fire is already flaming, the added fuel will be consumed, but if one put grass over a fire which is not as yet blazing, the grass will remain as it is, and the fire will not even burn"10.
Food at an improper time was forbidden in the monastic system but, in the case of disease one may eat food at any unprescribed time if this be the physician's order. "In such case, the Buddha said, the food is to be given in a private place"11. I-Tsing refers medical science as one of the five sciences (Vidya) of the India, which is also described by Yuan Chwang in his travel account12. Who does not understand the secret of eight sections of Cikitsa Vidya, he falls into mistakes- "The following are the eight sections of the Cikitsa vidya : The first treats all kinds of sores; the second, of acupuncture for any disease above the neck; the third, of the diseases of the body; the fourth, of demoniac disease; the fifth, of the Agada medicine (i.e. antidote); the sixth, of the diseases of children, the seventh, of the means of lengthening one's life; the eighth, of the methods of invigorating the legs and body"13. 
I-Tsing further describes the subdivision of the above mentioned diseases also. Having examined the classifications presented by I-Tsing, one can easily understand that Monks would follow Ayurvedic method of treatment as these are the eight sections of Ayurveda, with a little difference that the I-Tsing's fifth section 'Agada' is the sixth and sixth section 'Kaumarabhritya' is the fifth section of the Ayurveda.
I-Tsing gives credit to 'a man' who epitomized these eight sections in one book, which formerly existed in eight different books. Takakusu, in his additional notes, states that "this epitomizer may be susruta, a famous physician, disciple of Dhanvantari and contemporary of I-Tsing or just before I-Tsing"14. I-Tsing in this context gives a small account of his Divine Land's (China) herbs and Indian herbs also. Chinese herbs viz. "Ginseng (Aralia Quinquefolia), the Chinese fungus (Panchyma cocos), the Tang-Kuei (Aralia Cordata), the Yuan-chih (Polygala sibirica), the tubers of Aconite (Aconitum fischeri), the Fu-tsze (Aconitum variegatum), the Ma-huang (Corchorus capsularis), the Hsihsin (Asarum sieboldii) and such like are best herbs in the China, and are never found in the West (i.e. India)"15 he says.
Haritaka, Saffron, Assafoetida, Baroos camphor, three kinds of Cardamoms and two kinds of Cloves were used in India in the same way as in China. I-Tsing repeatedly warns the people to be alert in their food habit. He is in full agreement with the way of life of Buddhist monks of Nalanda, stating that an established disease may be cured without expending much medicine, and that a fresh disease may be prevented by leading a life of abstinence and controlling the mind. "Each man is himself the king of physicians and any one can be the Jeevaka,"16  these words of him reminds us the words of the Buddha as said in the Dhammapada : atta hi attano natho, atta hi attano gati i.e. self, indeed, is the saviour of self; self, indeed is the refuge of self.17  I-Tsing, despite attributing the past actions (Karma) as the cause of present suffering or happiness, does not forget to accept the importance of a free-will to make our life healthy or hell and, therefore, he suggests that one should try his best to avoid the situation that leads to disease in the present life.
I-Tsing has devoted his twenty eighth chapter describing rules on giving medicine. He starts with the reference of a Sutra preached by the Buddha on the Art of Medicine, which asserts that the disharmony of the four elements of the body makes us diseased. Disharmony of the earth should be understood by the 'inflammation of the abdomen' or 'chronic enlargement of spleen'. Disharmony of the latter three elements represents what is called, Tri-Dosh, a disturbance of the three humours of the body i.e phlegm (Kapha), bile (Pitta) and wind (Vata) in the Ayurveda. I-Tsing has prescribed a certain rules of medication18 which can be summarized as follows :
1. One should examine himself the cause of illness in the morning.
2. If any disturbance in the four elements is found on inspection, abstaining from eating must be observed as first aid.
3. If one feel that there is food remaining in the stomach, one should drink hot water mixed with dry ginger. Putting the finger inside the throat to cause vomiting can also be a solution.
4. It someone is severely suffering from the problem of phlegm, fasting is an effective cure and is in accordance with the general rule of the science of medicine (Cikitsa Vidya).
5. Take the bark of Haritaka, dry ginger and sugar in equal quantities, grind the former two and mix them with sugar by means of some drops of water, and then prepare them in pills. This pill is effective to cure a sudden rush of blood causing fever, a violent pain in the hands and feet, any injury or wound of the body by any cause, cholera, diarrhea, headache, heart disease, eye disease and toothache.
6. If one bite a piece of Haritaka every day and swallow its juice, one's whole life will be free from disease.
7. After disease is cured, one should eat newly boiled rice and drink a plenty of well boiled lentil water mixed with some pepper, ginger or the piper longum (pippali) to recover from weakness caused by disease.
8. If one feels cold, kashgarian onions or wild mustard must be applied.
9. Anything of acrid or hot flavour removes a cold, with the exception of dry ginger but if ginger is mixed with other thing, it is also good.
10. In the case of being troubled by cold or fever, medical decoction prepared by well boiling a bitter ginseng is the treatment. Ghee, oil and honey also help.
11. It is not good to force a sick person attacked by violent fever to take cooked rice or food. It can be a dangerous thing.
12. Fasting for a week can be fatal also if the body is not diseased. But if it is diseased, fasting for a long time also can be beneficial.
I-Tsing also informs us that Indian people, generally, would not eat onions at that time. Having observed the Indian people's practice of fasting, he proposes that Chinese people should also adopt the same. As compared to Chinese people, who always would eat uncooked fish and vegetables, Indians eat well cooked food mixed with assafoetida, butter, oil and spice, he states. I-Tsing is highly pained and grieved with some wrong practices existed on the name of the treatment in India. In the case of sickness, people would use urine and feces as medicine, sometimes the dung of pigs or cats, which was put on a plate or kept in a jar. People would call it the "Dragon Decoction"19.
I-Tsing attacks on the foul practices and suggests some real medicinal substances to tackle the problems, like, stones of sulphur, flowers of sulphur and gamboge for snake-bite as antidote, decoction of liquorice root, wild tea and bitter ginseng for malaria and so on20. The people, who take 'Dragon Decoction' are doing grave offence to the noble teaching (of the Buddha), he says.  Unfortunately, a lot of such kind of foul practices can still be traced in the many Indian villages. While on the other hand, he says, in the Buddhist monasteries, even onions were allowed in the case of illness only. A monk, who has eaten onions, had to keep himself in a separate room to be purified by washing and bathing for seven days.
Therefore, we see that I-Tsing gives a liberal account of the advantages of the proper exercise to health, symptoms of illness, rules of giving medicine, variety of medicines used for different diseases as well as the kind of medicines which must be avoided. Moreover, at many stages, he narrates the practices of the Chinese people in the same situation. This description not only throws abundant light on the way of treatment adopted by the monks of Nalanda and common Indian people, but also encourages us to conduct a comparative study of the both way of treatments in that age on the ground of  such evidences.
References:
1. Tr. by Sankrityayana, Rahul, Vinaya Pitaka, Bouddha Akar Granth Mala, Kashi Vidyapith, Varanasi, 1994, p. 266-274.
2. Dutta, Nalinaksha, Development of Buddhism in Uttar Pradesh, Govt. of U.P., 1956, p. 110.
3. Tr. by Sankrityayana, Rahul, Vinaya Pitaka, Bouddha Akar Granth Mala, Kashi Vidyapith, Varanasi, 1994, p. 215-255.
4. Tr. by Takakusu, J; A Record of The Buddhist Religion (By I-Tsing), MRML, N. Delhi, 1966, p.108.
5. Ibid, p.110.
6. Ibid.
7. Ibid, p. 114.
8. Ibid, p. 115.
9. I-Tsing clearly endorses here the Buddhist concept of matter described in Abhidhamma Texts. For example, Abhidhammatthasangaho expounds that earth, water, fire and air are the essential rupas. Editor, Tripathi, Ramshankar; Abhidhammatthasangaho, Vol II, Pub. Sampoornanand Sanskrit University, Varanasi, 1992, p.622.
10. Tr. by Takakusu, J; A Record of The Buddhist Religion (By I-Tsing), MRML, N. Delhi, 1966, p.127.
11. Ibid.
12. Watters, T; On Yuan Chwang's Travels in India Vol. I, MRML, 1996, p. 154-155.
13. Tr. by Takakusu, J; A Record of The Buddhist Religion (By I-Tsing), MRML, N. Delhi, 1966, p.128.
14. Ibid, p. 222.
15. Ibid, p. 128.
16. Ibid, p. 133.
17. Tr. by Narada Thera, Dhammapada, Maha Bodhi Society of India, Calcutta, 1992, p.285.
18. Tr. by Takakusu, J; A Record of The Buddhist Religion (By I-Tsing), MRML, N. Delhi, 1966, p.132-137.
19. Ibid, p. 138.
20. Ibid, p. 140.