The purpose of this article is to take a single concept, unionateness, and to illustrate the way ... more The purpose of this article is to take a single concept, unionateness, and to illustrate the way in which theoretical and operational considerations interact in leading to its refinement and elaboration. A distinction is introduced between enterprise and society unionateness, and the problems associated with the operationalization and measurement of each of these new concepts are discussed. The importance of measurement procedures as an intrinsic part of the problem of conceptualization is emphasized, particularly in relation to certain techniques of measurement which are not widely used. In a concluding section there is a brief presentation of findings which demonstrate the value of the distinction introduced.
International Journal of Social Research Methodology, 2012
ABSTRACT The paper reviews different approaches to, and current knowledge of the measurement of o... more ABSTRACT The paper reviews different approaches to, and current knowledge of the measurement of occupational segregation, using the case of gender segregation. It shows that most popular segregation ‘indices’ are actually statistics of association in a 2x2 table, often with distorting weightings. The dimensions of segregation comprise a vertical dimension measuring inequality and an orthogonal horizontal one measuring difference without inequality. Together, the dimensions make up segregation as generally understood; so segregation and its dimensions require consistent measurements. Conditions for suitable measures are considered, and the limitations of the various measures noted. The alternative conception of segregation, where all occupations are treated as though they were the same size, is shown to be seriously flawed. The most useful measures are selected and shown to be related as Lorenz curves. Since all segregation measures vary with the number of occupations considered, standardisation on 200 occupations is introduced for the chosen measures.
The importance of occupational gender segregation is well established and needs no explanation. H... more The importance of occupational gender segregation is well established and needs no explanation. However, there remains considerable confusion on the precise meaning of the term, and how segregation should be measured. In the first place it is necessary to distinguish segregation from the related but logically distinct concepts of concentration and exposure. Then the actual measurement should not be contaminated by other aspects of the labour market or the occupational classification used. Finally, and most importantly from a ...
Abstract Occupational gender segregation has generally been assumed to be a structure of gender i... more Abstract Occupational gender segregation has generally been assumed to be a structure of gender inequality in the labour market; high levels of segregation are equated with high levels of gender inequality in a society. The paper questions this assumption. It examines, across a range of countries, the relations between United Nations development measures of gender equality and segregation levels. Contrary to conventional expectations, correlations are found to be positive. To explain these results it is argued that segregation, as ...
The purpose of this article is to take a single concept, unionateness, and to illustrate the way ... more The purpose of this article is to take a single concept, unionateness, and to illustrate the way in which theoretical and operational considerations interact in leading to its refinement and elaboration. A distinction is introduced between enterprise and society unionateness, and the problems associated with the operationalization and measurement of each of these new concepts are discussed. The importance of measurement procedures as an intrinsic part of the problem of conceptualization is emphasized, particularly in relation to certain techniques of measurement which are not widely used. In a concluding section there is a brief presentation of findings which demonstrate the value of the distinction introduced.
International Journal of Social Research Methodology, 2012
ABSTRACT The paper reviews different approaches to, and current knowledge of the measurement of o... more ABSTRACT The paper reviews different approaches to, and current knowledge of the measurement of occupational segregation, using the case of gender segregation. It shows that most popular segregation ‘indices’ are actually statistics of association in a 2x2 table, often with distorting weightings. The dimensions of segregation comprise a vertical dimension measuring inequality and an orthogonal horizontal one measuring difference without inequality. Together, the dimensions make up segregation as generally understood; so segregation and its dimensions require consistent measurements. Conditions for suitable measures are considered, and the limitations of the various measures noted. The alternative conception of segregation, where all occupations are treated as though they were the same size, is shown to be seriously flawed. The most useful measures are selected and shown to be related as Lorenz curves. Since all segregation measures vary with the number of occupations considered, standardisation on 200 occupations is introduced for the chosen measures.
The importance of occupational gender segregation is well established and needs no explanation. H... more The importance of occupational gender segregation is well established and needs no explanation. However, there remains considerable confusion on the precise meaning of the term, and how segregation should be measured. In the first place it is necessary to distinguish segregation from the related but logically distinct concepts of concentration and exposure. Then the actual measurement should not be contaminated by other aspects of the labour market or the occupational classification used. Finally, and most importantly from a ...
Abstract Occupational gender segregation has generally been assumed to be a structure of gender i... more Abstract Occupational gender segregation has generally been assumed to be a structure of gender inequality in the labour market; high levels of segregation are equated with high levels of gender inequality in a society. The paper questions this assumption. It examines, across a range of countries, the relations between United Nations development measures of gender equality and segregation levels. Contrary to conventional expectations, correlations are found to be positive. To explain these results it is argued that segregation, as ...
It is well known that women and men tend to work in different occupations, and generally held tha... more It is well known that women and men tend to work in different occupations, and generally held that this disadvantages women. In order to understand how far this occupational segregation entails gender inequality it is necessary to examine the vertical and horizontal dimensions of the segregation. The horizontal dimension measures difference without inequality while the vertical dimension measures the extent of the occupational inequality. Two measures of vertical inequality are used: pay and social stratification (CAMSIS). Measurements over a number of industrially developed countries show the expected male advantage with regard to pay. However, contrary to popular beliefs, women are consistently advantaged in terms of stratification. Also, it is found that the position of women is more favourable where the overall segregation is higher – the lower the male advantage on pay and the greater the female advantage on stratification.
Occupational gender segregation – the tendency for women and men to work in
different occupation... more Occupational gender segregation – the tendency for women and men to work in
different occupations – is an important feature of all societies, and particularly
the wealthy industrialized ones. To understand this segregation, and to explain
its signifocance, we need to distinguish between vertical segregation entailing
inequality and horizontal segregation representing difference without inequality,
with overall segregation being the resultant of these components. Three major
theoretical approaches to understanding occupational gender segregation are
examined: human capital/rational choice, patriarchy, and preference theories.
All are found to be inadequate; they tend to confuse overall segregation with its
vertical component, and each entails a number of other faults. It is generally
assumed or implied that greater empowerment of women would reduce gender
segregation. This is the reverse of what actually happens; in countries where the
degree of women’s empowerment is greater, the level of gender segregation is
also greater. An alternative theoretical approach based on processes of social
reproduction is shown to be more useful.
The importance of occupational gender segregation is well established and needs no explanation. H... more The importance of occupational gender segregation is well established and needs no explanation. However, there remains considerable confusion on the precise meaning of the term, and how segregation should be measured. In the first place it is necessary to distinguish segregation from the related but logically distinct concepts of concentration and exposure. Then the actual measurement should not be contaminated by other aspects of the labour market or the occupational classification used. Finally, and most importantly from a ...
Despite the importance of occupational segregation as an area of investigation concerned with und... more Despite the importance of occupational segregation as an area of investigation concerned with understanding women's employment status, pay levels, and promotional prospects during the last 20 years, there has been relatively little attention paid to the problems of trying to measure segregation levels in quantitative data. This paper argues that there are serious measurement problems which it illustrates by showing that two of the principal indices, the widely-used Index of Dissimilarity and the OECD's WE Index are highly flawed and produce unreliable results. It demonstrates the importance of these deficiencies using cross-national data from 9 countries for the period 1970-1982. The paper introduces a new way of analysing the form of these indices in the Basic Segregation Table, which is a 2 x 2 table of gendered occupations by sex. The paper suggests a new approach to measuring occupational segregation which provides more consistent and valid results. This is called Marginal Matching. The paper ends with an analysis of occupational gender segregation in England and Wales from 1951 to 1981. It concludes that, in contrast to research claims to date, the trend in segregation over this period is one of overall stability.
Two important issues concerning the measurement of segregation are raised by Richard Lampard. He ... more Two important issues concerning the measurement of segregation are raised by Richard Lampard. He shows the relationship between the Gini coefficient (G) and the marginal matching measure (MM), and he suggests that G may have a particular advantage as a measure of segregation in that it retains more information than MM. It is worth developing these points further, and seeing whether G really does have an advantage. We shall demonstrate that MM retains just as much relevant inform ation as the Gini coefficient and, furthermore, that it has the additional advantage that it allows for better comparisons over time or between situations, making it the most suitable measure of segregation available at present. As a first step we prove that G is just another statistic of association, being a special case of Somers' D. This makes its limitations clearer. We also show that both MM and the Index of Dissimilarity are specific instances of G. The Gini coefficient and MM First of all, it is necessary to point out that the measure described by Lampard is indeed the Gini coefficient. He presents the measure in a novel form, relating the number of women to the number of workers across occupations. However, a little algebraic manipulation will convert it into the form presented below for the Gini coefficient. Lampard is correct in pointing out that MM is a particular case of the Gini coefficient. Indeed we would go further, for it can be shown that in a 2 x 2 table G becomes the difference of proportions, which permits a more systematic understanding of the relation of G to other measures of segregation.
This manual is a contribution to the ongoing debate on the measurement of occupational segregatio... more This manual is a contribution to the ongoing debate on the measurement of occupational segregation. It was written by Janet Siltanen from the University of Edinburgh, and Jennifer Jarman and Robert M. Blackburn from the University of Cambridge, in the United Kingdom. The manual, which can be used as a self-learning or as a teaching tool, is intended for all users who are interested in understanding the phenomenon of occupational segregation and who want to know how to calculate and interpret data on this subject. It starts by ...
ABSTRACT The paper is concerned with the occupation-based inequalities of women and men in econom... more ABSTRACT The paper is concerned with the occupation-based inequalities of women and men in economically developed societies. The inequalities in their working lives lead to inequalities in retirement, and particularly the greater poverty endured by women. Occupational gender segregation, the tendency for women and men to work in different occupations, results in gender inequalities. The inequalities are measured by pay and class-status. The extent of the inequality in a country is measured as the vertical dimension of the occupational segregation, which varies appreciably across countries. In employment, men almost always have an advantage on the vertical dimension of pay, while on class-status the advantage lies with women. The gender inequalities in working lives carry over into retirement, though in a somewhat different manner. In retirement there is a wide range of experience from affluence to poverty, with a great many experiencing poverty. Those from lower class-status levels who earned too little to save for pensions, including those who worked part-time, suffer poverty in retirement. The occupational status advantage of women disappears, while their income disadvantage combines with greater life expectancy, with the consequence that women are among the majority of retired people in poverty.
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Papers by Bob Blackburn
different occupations – is an important feature of all societies, and particularly
the wealthy industrialized ones. To understand this segregation, and to explain
its signifocance, we need to distinguish between vertical segregation entailing
inequality and horizontal segregation representing difference without inequality,
with overall segregation being the resultant of these components. Three major
theoretical approaches to understanding occupational gender segregation are
examined: human capital/rational choice, patriarchy, and preference theories.
All are found to be inadequate; they tend to confuse overall segregation with its
vertical component, and each entails a number of other faults. It is generally
assumed or implied that greater empowerment of women would reduce gender
segregation. This is the reverse of what actually happens; in countries where the
degree of women’s empowerment is greater, the level of gender segregation is
also greater. An alternative theoretical approach based on processes of social
reproduction is shown to be more useful.