The paper presents the results of a dendrochronological research focused on the medieval churches... more The paper presents the results of a dendrochronological research focused on the medieval churches of the Ciuc Basin (East Carpathians, Harghita County). More of these churches preserved the medieval chancels although the exact building dates were unknown and only indirect data, such as altar and bell inscriptions, give a more precise dating. Earlier dendrochronological sampling remained unsuccessful because of the timber species used: Norway spruce for which we had no valid local chronology. After a campaign dedicated to a new chronology, sampling was repeated and more roof structures were successfully dated. The dendrochronological data (Mihăileni 1491 chancel, 1492 nave, Cârța 1505, Cozmeni 1506, Armășeni 1532 chancel and 1533 nave, Ciucsângeorgiu 1533) assures narrow limits for the chronology of the Late Gothic constructions, and also provides important knowledge regarding environment reconstruction, historical carpentry etc.
The present paper discusses the research carried out at the Black Church in Brașov where a
consis... more The present paper discusses the research carried out at the Black Church in Brașov where a consistent effort to accurately date the wooden structures and the framework of the roof was recently undertaken. A total of 141 samples were taken from the wooden structure of the building and were examined using dendrochronological analysis in order to date the relevant elements, identify the original structure as well as and later additions, and to determine the tree species. We have studied 55 samples extracted from the nave’s roof framework, 31 from the choir, 35 from the tower’s roof frame and its interior wooden structure, 15 from pine shingles and 5 from above the pipe organ. The analysis performed at the Miercurea Ciuc dendrochronology laboratory (Anno Domini Dendrolab) indicated that the aforementioned Brasov roof framework was built between 1689 and 1694 and can be identified as the earliest known structure of its kind in Transylvania consolidated through the liegender Stuhl system.
The paper presents the results of a recent (2020) dendrochronological research in Csík seat (East... more The paper presents the results of a recent (2020) dendrochronological research in Csík seat (East Transylvania, Harghita County, Romania), that led to the identification of more, earlier unknown roof structures from the Middle Ages. While above four churches the historical roof are still in function (Mihăileni 1491 chancel/1492 nave, Cozmeni 1506, Armășeni 1532 chancel and 1533 nave, Ciucsângeorgiu 1533), in Cârța the late 18th century structure preserved more elements of the earlier chancel roof (1505). All of them were made of Norway Spruce. The dendrochronological data gives a precise ante quem dating for the Late Gothic constructions of these churches, and also provides important knowledge regarding environment reconstruction, historical carpentry etc.
The roof structure above the Lutheran
Parish Church in Sibiu consists of several
units. Based on ... more The roof structure above the Lutheran Parish Church in Sibiu consists of several units. Based on the dendrochronological studies conducted between 2012 and 2016, the building and repair of the 14th-16th century roof structures can be dated accurately to a year, and at the same time the church’s building history, which was previously uncertain, can be easily traced. The roof structures in Sibiu are the earliest still standing roof structures in Transylvania, thus they deserve special attention, especially as they allow us to observe the development of mediaeval carpentry and roof structures.
The paper presents the dendrochronological research and medieval dating of a "unknown" bell tower... more The paper presents the dendrochronological research and medieval dating of a "unknown" bell tower in East-Transylvania (Sântimbru, Harghita-county, Romania).
Abstract: The roof structure above the Lutheran Parish Church in Sibiu consists of several units.... more Abstract: The roof structure above the Lutheran Parish Church in Sibiu consists of several units. Based on the dendrochronological studies conducted between 2012 and 2016, the building and repair of the 14 th-16 th century roof structures can be dated accurately to a year, and at the same time the church's building history, which was previously uncertain, can be easily traced. The roof structures in Sibiu are the earliest still standing roof structures in Romania, thus they deserve special attention , especially as they allow us to observe the development of mediaeval carpentry and roof structures.
Dendrochronology is a dating method which uses tree ring data of living trees and tree ring serie... more Dendrochronology is a dating method which uses tree ring data of living trees and tree ring series measured on historical and archaeological wood. In optimal circumstances dendrochronology can produce absolute dating with a half-year accuracy. Due to research carried out by our team, initiated in 2003, we can use now two master chronologies to date oak and fi r structures in Transylvania for the period between the 13th and 19th centuries, a couple of absolutely dated series for the 12th to 14th centuries, and also some fl oating series for the late migration period (7th ‒ 8th centuries) and Roman period. Th e article presents a few case studies of dendrochronological research on medieval churches from this region (Dârjiu, Târgu Mureş, Cetatea de Baltă, Bistriţa, Sibiu). During these campaigns of fi eldwork and following analyses we successfully dated more medieval roofs and later renovation phases. So far the earliest dated roof is the structure above the Evangelic church in Sibiu, where the timber material comes from trees felled at the middle of the 14th century. Th e method is also used to date art objects (altar panels) and wood installations (painted ceilings, furniture). To extend the validity of the present chronologies, both in time and space (in Moldova and the Romanian Plain), stronger archaeological involvement will be needed.
This paper presents some results of dendrochronological researches carried out on historical
woo... more This paper presents some results of dendrochronological researches carried out on historical
wooden installations and furniture by the Transylvanian Dendrochronological Laboratory in the
past few years. The main tools for dating these ecclesiastical objects (Gothic painted panels, Baroque
altars, historical doors, painted ceilings, breastwork of galleries) are two local chronologies for oak
(Quercus sp.) and fir (Abies Alba) which cover the period between the 13th and 19th centuries.
Naturally, in the case of art objects, the dendrochronological data is obtained without real sampling,
only with non-destructive methods such as surface measurement and macro-digital photography.
Beside exact dating, the main achievements are the proof of local fabrication of a supposed
„import” altarpiece, the connection with art history, written sources and dendro data, and comparison
of fir and pine data from contemporary artifacts.
The successes achieved on different types of objects and installations investigated from various
periods has shown again the usefulness and importance of the dendrochronological method for art
historical studies.
SZENT MIHÁLY oltalma alatt Emlékkönyv a felújított műemléktemplom ünnepélyes megáldására, 2021
The recent dendrochronological research sucsesfully identified and dated a late Medieval (1492 AD... more The recent dendrochronological research sucsesfully identified and dated a late Medieval (1492 AD) roof above the nave of the church and at the same time the dendro analysis brought a sharp building date for the west bell tower (1714 AD).
Dendrochronology is a dating method which uses tree ring-width measurements and
analysis of recen... more Dendrochronology is a dating method which uses tree ring-width measurements and analysis of recent and historical wood to specify the procurement date of historical beams, with the aim to date building phases of monuments. The dendrochronological research of the bell tower and roof of the Gheorgheni Catholic church was done in several phases between 2013 and 2015. The goal of the research was to date the construction year of the tower and of later interventions. We collected oak, spruce and elm samples from of the original floor-beams of the tower, and from the beams above the arrow slits. The dendro-data prove that the five floors of the medieval tower were built in the summer of 1498 (in concordance with the inscription above the tower-door), but during the works earlier wood elements from the ’70s of the same century were also used. In 1675, the tower was heightened with one level, while the present form was achieved using spruce timber, procured sometime after 1752, probably during the great Baroque reconstructions. The roof structure of the church was build from spruce, cut during the winters of 1753/1754 and 1754/1755. Some decades later a strange intervention occurred: the original tie-beam/rafter joints were dismounted and new elements were placed among them. These elements come from spruces which were cut down in the winter of 1793/1794.
Summary
This contribution presents the results of dendrochronological analyses made on wood from... more Summary
This contribution presents the results of dendrochronological analyses made on wood from two
archaeological sites located in Transylvania. The material from the rst sample comes from a well at
Lazuri in north-western Romania, dated archaeologically to the end of the 8th and beginning of the 9th
century. The second sample stems from the inner structure of a rampart at Kakasbarázda in the eastern
Carpathian previously radiocarbon-dated to the 7th–8th century. The dendrochronological analysis
revealed that the samples are contemporary: they have an almost 100 year-long common sequence,
and hence the building of the well from Lazuri can be dated to the second half of the 8th or beginning
of the 9th century. A secure tree-ring database for the rst millennium AD does not yet exist for Transylvania
and therefore the absolute dates of the samples cannot be established. Only the systematic
collection of wood from archaeological sites with clear stratigraphy and the application of different
dating methods like radiocarbon dating and dendrochronology will achieve a secure chronology in
the future.
The Reformed church localized inside the castle of Târgu
Mureş (Marosvásárhely) belonged in the ... more The Reformed church localized inside the castle of Târgu
Mureş (Marosvásárhely) belonged in the Middle Ages
to the Franciscan-order. Despite of destructions and
renovations of the last centuries the church preserved
more wood structures which chronological relations
could bring important information about the periods
of the building. The most appropriate method for such
research is the dendrochronology which in optimal
circumstances can result dating with half year accuracy.
For the analysis we took 65 samples in all. In the bell
tower there are no wood elements contemporary with
the construction, the inside structures belong all to the
renovation made after the devastation of 1601–1602,
some are even younger. The roof of the tower and
the beams of the old bell-structure were made from
oak-timber cut in 1603, while the actual bell-structure
is made from oaks felled in the winter of 1834–1835.
Unlike the tower and the nave the roof structure of the
sanctuary contains elements from a much earlier roof.
Four complete trusses on the east side and the elements
in the centre and south part of the structure were made
from oaks cut during the winter of 1479/1480 and the
next summer. One has to presume a bigger intervention,
construction on the friary for this period. The devastations
from the beginning of the 17th century had strong
effects on the north-west part of the roof positioned
near the bell tower, there fore the rafters located here
and also the connected tie-beams were replaced with
wood material cut in winter of 1602/1603. Surprisingly
the assembly marks used on the 17th century elements
are almost the exact copies of those dated in the 15th
century. The following major intervention on the roof
was in the 20th century, when every second secondary
truss was strengthened with a pine structure.
The main importance of the dendrochronological
research is the identification of a historical structure
in the heart of Transylvania on a well-known building,
and the exact dating of the construction and reconstruction
years.
A Csíki Székely Múzeum Évkönyve VIII. (2012), p. 141-148
THE DENDROCHRONOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF THE CENTRAL PANEL 'CORONATION OF THE VIRGIN' FROM SÂNDOMINIC
... more THE DENDROCHRONOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF THE CENTRAL PANEL 'CORONATION OF THE VIRGIN' FROM SÂNDOMINIC
Abstract
The painted panel 'Coronation of the Virgin' comes from an altarpiece and it is kept in the Csíki Székely Múzeum in Miercurea-Ciuc (Csíkszereda). The panel was presented detailed recently (2009.) in a art historical study written by Zsuzsa Szabó. According to this analysis the panel is a import piece made in the style of the artistic circle of Salzburg, and can be dated to the beginnings of the 16th century. The present paper presents the results of the dendrochronological research made on four boards of the panel. The panel is mad of seven silver fir (Abies alba Mill.) boards but only four of them were suitable for denrochronological analysis. The tree-rings of the boards were documented with a digital microscope, then the ring widths were measured with a special software on the pictures. The united data set contains 97 years and could not be dated with German, Austrian, Poland and Swiss chronologies, but precise dating was possible with local Romanian series from Bistrița (Beszterce) and Sibiu (Nagyszeben). The first ring formed in 1389 the last in 1485. The last rings are missing from the boards so one can conclude that the panel was made from trees cut shortly after 1485. At the same time the wood material originates from Transylvania more precisely probably from the south part of the region. This leads us to the conclusion that
independently from the artistic influences the master of the Sândominic (Csíkszentdomokos) panel used local timber so the panel is not a import piece. The main achievement of the research is the definition of the timber provenience of a medieval panel, which is a novelty in the Romanian art history and dendrochronological research.
The paper presents the results of a dendrochronological research focused on the medieval churches... more The paper presents the results of a dendrochronological research focused on the medieval churches of the Ciuc Basin (East Carpathians, Harghita County). More of these churches preserved the medieval chancels although the exact building dates were unknown and only indirect data, such as altar and bell inscriptions, give a more precise dating. Earlier dendrochronological sampling remained unsuccessful because of the timber species used: Norway spruce for which we had no valid local chronology. After a campaign dedicated to a new chronology, sampling was repeated and more roof structures were successfully dated. The dendrochronological data (Mihăileni 1491 chancel, 1492 nave, Cârța 1505, Cozmeni 1506, Armășeni 1532 chancel and 1533 nave, Ciucsângeorgiu 1533) assures narrow limits for the chronology of the Late Gothic constructions, and also provides important knowledge regarding environment reconstruction, historical carpentry etc.
The present paper discusses the research carried out at the Black Church in Brașov where a
consis... more The present paper discusses the research carried out at the Black Church in Brașov where a consistent effort to accurately date the wooden structures and the framework of the roof was recently undertaken. A total of 141 samples were taken from the wooden structure of the building and were examined using dendrochronological analysis in order to date the relevant elements, identify the original structure as well as and later additions, and to determine the tree species. We have studied 55 samples extracted from the nave’s roof framework, 31 from the choir, 35 from the tower’s roof frame and its interior wooden structure, 15 from pine shingles and 5 from above the pipe organ. The analysis performed at the Miercurea Ciuc dendrochronology laboratory (Anno Domini Dendrolab) indicated that the aforementioned Brasov roof framework was built between 1689 and 1694 and can be identified as the earliest known structure of its kind in Transylvania consolidated through the liegender Stuhl system.
The paper presents the results of a recent (2020) dendrochronological research in Csík seat (East... more The paper presents the results of a recent (2020) dendrochronological research in Csík seat (East Transylvania, Harghita County, Romania), that led to the identification of more, earlier unknown roof structures from the Middle Ages. While above four churches the historical roof are still in function (Mihăileni 1491 chancel/1492 nave, Cozmeni 1506, Armășeni 1532 chancel and 1533 nave, Ciucsângeorgiu 1533), in Cârța the late 18th century structure preserved more elements of the earlier chancel roof (1505). All of them were made of Norway Spruce. The dendrochronological data gives a precise ante quem dating for the Late Gothic constructions of these churches, and also provides important knowledge regarding environment reconstruction, historical carpentry etc.
The roof structure above the Lutheran
Parish Church in Sibiu consists of several
units. Based on ... more The roof structure above the Lutheran Parish Church in Sibiu consists of several units. Based on the dendrochronological studies conducted between 2012 and 2016, the building and repair of the 14th-16th century roof structures can be dated accurately to a year, and at the same time the church’s building history, which was previously uncertain, can be easily traced. The roof structures in Sibiu are the earliest still standing roof structures in Transylvania, thus they deserve special attention, especially as they allow us to observe the development of mediaeval carpentry and roof structures.
The paper presents the dendrochronological research and medieval dating of a "unknown" bell tower... more The paper presents the dendrochronological research and medieval dating of a "unknown" bell tower in East-Transylvania (Sântimbru, Harghita-county, Romania).
Abstract: The roof structure above the Lutheran Parish Church in Sibiu consists of several units.... more Abstract: The roof structure above the Lutheran Parish Church in Sibiu consists of several units. Based on the dendrochronological studies conducted between 2012 and 2016, the building and repair of the 14 th-16 th century roof structures can be dated accurately to a year, and at the same time the church's building history, which was previously uncertain, can be easily traced. The roof structures in Sibiu are the earliest still standing roof structures in Romania, thus they deserve special attention , especially as they allow us to observe the development of mediaeval carpentry and roof structures.
Dendrochronology is a dating method which uses tree ring data of living trees and tree ring serie... more Dendrochronology is a dating method which uses tree ring data of living trees and tree ring series measured on historical and archaeological wood. In optimal circumstances dendrochronology can produce absolute dating with a half-year accuracy. Due to research carried out by our team, initiated in 2003, we can use now two master chronologies to date oak and fi r structures in Transylvania for the period between the 13th and 19th centuries, a couple of absolutely dated series for the 12th to 14th centuries, and also some fl oating series for the late migration period (7th ‒ 8th centuries) and Roman period. Th e article presents a few case studies of dendrochronological research on medieval churches from this region (Dârjiu, Târgu Mureş, Cetatea de Baltă, Bistriţa, Sibiu). During these campaigns of fi eldwork and following analyses we successfully dated more medieval roofs and later renovation phases. So far the earliest dated roof is the structure above the Evangelic church in Sibiu, where the timber material comes from trees felled at the middle of the 14th century. Th e method is also used to date art objects (altar panels) and wood installations (painted ceilings, furniture). To extend the validity of the present chronologies, both in time and space (in Moldova and the Romanian Plain), stronger archaeological involvement will be needed.
This paper presents some results of dendrochronological researches carried out on historical
woo... more This paper presents some results of dendrochronological researches carried out on historical
wooden installations and furniture by the Transylvanian Dendrochronological Laboratory in the
past few years. The main tools for dating these ecclesiastical objects (Gothic painted panels, Baroque
altars, historical doors, painted ceilings, breastwork of galleries) are two local chronologies for oak
(Quercus sp.) and fir (Abies Alba) which cover the period between the 13th and 19th centuries.
Naturally, in the case of art objects, the dendrochronological data is obtained without real sampling,
only with non-destructive methods such as surface measurement and macro-digital photography.
Beside exact dating, the main achievements are the proof of local fabrication of a supposed
„import” altarpiece, the connection with art history, written sources and dendro data, and comparison
of fir and pine data from contemporary artifacts.
The successes achieved on different types of objects and installations investigated from various
periods has shown again the usefulness and importance of the dendrochronological method for art
historical studies.
SZENT MIHÁLY oltalma alatt Emlékkönyv a felújított műemléktemplom ünnepélyes megáldására, 2021
The recent dendrochronological research sucsesfully identified and dated a late Medieval (1492 AD... more The recent dendrochronological research sucsesfully identified and dated a late Medieval (1492 AD) roof above the nave of the church and at the same time the dendro analysis brought a sharp building date for the west bell tower (1714 AD).
Dendrochronology is a dating method which uses tree ring-width measurements and
analysis of recen... more Dendrochronology is a dating method which uses tree ring-width measurements and analysis of recent and historical wood to specify the procurement date of historical beams, with the aim to date building phases of monuments. The dendrochronological research of the bell tower and roof of the Gheorgheni Catholic church was done in several phases between 2013 and 2015. The goal of the research was to date the construction year of the tower and of later interventions. We collected oak, spruce and elm samples from of the original floor-beams of the tower, and from the beams above the arrow slits. The dendro-data prove that the five floors of the medieval tower were built in the summer of 1498 (in concordance with the inscription above the tower-door), but during the works earlier wood elements from the ’70s of the same century were also used. In 1675, the tower was heightened with one level, while the present form was achieved using spruce timber, procured sometime after 1752, probably during the great Baroque reconstructions. The roof structure of the church was build from spruce, cut during the winters of 1753/1754 and 1754/1755. Some decades later a strange intervention occurred: the original tie-beam/rafter joints were dismounted and new elements were placed among them. These elements come from spruces which were cut down in the winter of 1793/1794.
Summary
This contribution presents the results of dendrochronological analyses made on wood from... more Summary
This contribution presents the results of dendrochronological analyses made on wood from two
archaeological sites located in Transylvania. The material from the rst sample comes from a well at
Lazuri in north-western Romania, dated archaeologically to the end of the 8th and beginning of the 9th
century. The second sample stems from the inner structure of a rampart at Kakasbarázda in the eastern
Carpathian previously radiocarbon-dated to the 7th–8th century. The dendrochronological analysis
revealed that the samples are contemporary: they have an almost 100 year-long common sequence,
and hence the building of the well from Lazuri can be dated to the second half of the 8th or beginning
of the 9th century. A secure tree-ring database for the rst millennium AD does not yet exist for Transylvania
and therefore the absolute dates of the samples cannot be established. Only the systematic
collection of wood from archaeological sites with clear stratigraphy and the application of different
dating methods like radiocarbon dating and dendrochronology will achieve a secure chronology in
the future.
The Reformed church localized inside the castle of Târgu
Mureş (Marosvásárhely) belonged in the ... more The Reformed church localized inside the castle of Târgu
Mureş (Marosvásárhely) belonged in the Middle Ages
to the Franciscan-order. Despite of destructions and
renovations of the last centuries the church preserved
more wood structures which chronological relations
could bring important information about the periods
of the building. The most appropriate method for such
research is the dendrochronology which in optimal
circumstances can result dating with half year accuracy.
For the analysis we took 65 samples in all. In the bell
tower there are no wood elements contemporary with
the construction, the inside structures belong all to the
renovation made after the devastation of 1601–1602,
some are even younger. The roof of the tower and
the beams of the old bell-structure were made from
oak-timber cut in 1603, while the actual bell-structure
is made from oaks felled in the winter of 1834–1835.
Unlike the tower and the nave the roof structure of the
sanctuary contains elements from a much earlier roof.
Four complete trusses on the east side and the elements
in the centre and south part of the structure were made
from oaks cut during the winter of 1479/1480 and the
next summer. One has to presume a bigger intervention,
construction on the friary for this period. The devastations
from the beginning of the 17th century had strong
effects on the north-west part of the roof positioned
near the bell tower, there fore the rafters located here
and also the connected tie-beams were replaced with
wood material cut in winter of 1602/1603. Surprisingly
the assembly marks used on the 17th century elements
are almost the exact copies of those dated in the 15th
century. The following major intervention on the roof
was in the 20th century, when every second secondary
truss was strengthened with a pine structure.
The main importance of the dendrochronological
research is the identification of a historical structure
in the heart of Transylvania on a well-known building,
and the exact dating of the construction and reconstruction
years.
A Csíki Székely Múzeum Évkönyve VIII. (2012), p. 141-148
THE DENDROCHRONOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF THE CENTRAL PANEL 'CORONATION OF THE VIRGIN' FROM SÂNDOMINIC
... more THE DENDROCHRONOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF THE CENTRAL PANEL 'CORONATION OF THE VIRGIN' FROM SÂNDOMINIC
Abstract
The painted panel 'Coronation of the Virgin' comes from an altarpiece and it is kept in the Csíki Székely Múzeum in Miercurea-Ciuc (Csíkszereda). The panel was presented detailed recently (2009.) in a art historical study written by Zsuzsa Szabó. According to this analysis the panel is a import piece made in the style of the artistic circle of Salzburg, and can be dated to the beginnings of the 16th century. The present paper presents the results of the dendrochronological research made on four boards of the panel. The panel is mad of seven silver fir (Abies alba Mill.) boards but only four of them were suitable for denrochronological analysis. The tree-rings of the boards were documented with a digital microscope, then the ring widths were measured with a special software on the pictures. The united data set contains 97 years and could not be dated with German, Austrian, Poland and Swiss chronologies, but precise dating was possible with local Romanian series from Bistrița (Beszterce) and Sibiu (Nagyszeben). The first ring formed in 1389 the last in 1485. The last rings are missing from the boards so one can conclude that the panel was made from trees cut shortly after 1485. At the same time the wood material originates from Transylvania more precisely probably from the south part of the region. This leads us to the conclusion that
independently from the artistic influences the master of the Sândominic (Csíkszentdomokos) panel used local timber so the panel is not a import piece. The main achievement of the research is the definition of the timber provenience of a medieval panel, which is a novelty in the Romanian art history and dendrochronological research.
MATERIALE ŞI CERCETĂRI ARHEOLOGICE (serie nouă) , 2019
The paper presents new discoveries of the early Slavs in the Eastern Carpathians at the Miercurea... more The paper presents new discoveries of the early Slavs in the Eastern Carpathians at the Miercurea Ciuc-Fodor-kert, Şumuleu site (Harghita County). The dwellings belonged to various types but all had ovens built of stones. It is remarkable the high proportion of clay pans among the exclusively handmade pottery. The dwellings were dated based on analogies but above all by 14 C analysis. Based on these the settlement could have been founded already in the middle of the 5 th century and it was abandoned latest by the middle of the 7 th century.
The article presents new archaeological discoveries of early Slavs from the Ciuc-depression/Easte... more The article presents new archaeological discoveries of early Slavs from the Ciuc-depression/Eastern Carpathians (Romania) which might be one of the earliest signs of the Slavic infiltration into the Carpathian Basin based on archaeological data and C14 analysis.
Previously there was little knowledge about the history of the headwaters region of the Olt River... more Previously there was little knowledge about the history of the headwaters region of the Olt River during the Migration Period. In the wake of the archaeological research from recent years we are now able to outline the settlement history of the region in the 4th century. In the period following the fall of the Roman Empire the traces of the Germanic Goths – the Sântana de Mureș-Chernyakhov culture – can be detected, and they performed intensive ironwork in this area.
Archaeological finds of the Sântana de Mureş–Cerneahov (4th century) culture in the Csík-Basin (A... more Archaeological finds of the Sântana de Mureş–Cerneahov (4th century) culture in the Csík-Basin (Abstract)
Csík-basin lays in the East Carpathians by the sources of the Olt-river. It’s archaeological research was very deficient before the ’80-s of the previous century, specially the those regarding the migration and medieval period. During these decades archaeology meant only field work and poorly documented rescue excavations. Therefore the sites of Csík-basin did not figured in the first synthesis about the remains of the 4thcentury Sântana de Mureş–Cerneahov culture from East Transylvania.
After the political turn more finds from this culture were published and the even the previously identified 4th century sites were also listed. Thanks to the activity of the ofice for cultural heritage and the newly beganed rescue excavations in the last synthesis of such sites seventeen such sites could have been mentioned. Even so the research of the Csík-basin is definitely behind comparing with the neighbour regions such as Covasna county or the valley of Târnava-river. There is no data about the cemeteries of
the culture, not even one house was published, and “naturally” there is no local synthesis about the sites and findings of the culture. As a intermediary substitution of a synthesis the present paper presents the results of the recent excavations and some material of the previous researches. These have no additional
documentation in the Szekler Museum of Ciuc therefore is uncertain if the finds belong to a single complex or there were sorted later.
It looks quite certain that iron smelting was a important activity of the Goths in the Csík-basin, sign of metallurgy can be found in almost all 4th century sites. As raw material for smelting they used siderits and limonits collected from the surface and surroundings of marshes.
Recently more 4th century sites were researched in this region. In Sântimbru, on the terrace of Olt-river the tranches of a sewer crossed a oven. During the control excavation a big pit was found which was surrounded by seven ovens with different shape and dimensions. The baking surface of the ovens and the
loading of the pit contained 4th century ceramics. This is the second Sântana de Mureş–Cerneahov site on the territory of the village, therefore a iron slag found in the neighbourhood is thought to belong to the same horizon.
Just few kilometres away to south, in Sânsimion a big site is known, where among others 4th century material can be collected. In this area several signs of historical metallurgy are known.
Such signs were documented in Mihăileni, where in a Sântana de Mureş–Cerneahov pit six huge iron slag blocks were found, as a clear proof of intensive iron smelting. In the ’60-es in Ineu a 4th century house was excavated, with also slag pieces in the collected material. Near the village the iron smelting is
documented also from later periods.
Goth settlements can be found not just along the terraces of Olt, but also near the smaller side brooks, fro example in Mihăileni, Misentea, Cozmeni, Şumuleu, therefore we have to count in Ciuc
with quite dense settlemet system in the 4th century. More of the Sântana de Mureş–Cerneahov sites have remarkable extension which suggests existence of big, densly populated villages. The belonging cemeteries are yet unknown, but counting with them, in the present the total number of Sântana de Mureş–Cerneahov sites can be estimated around 50.
So far there is no local data about the beginnings end, and (ethnical, social) composition of Sântana de Mureş–Cerneahov culture. Such data can be expected from future researches.
A dolgozat korai szlávokhoz köthető régészeti adatokat ismertet, melyek Csíksomlyón (Csíkszereda,... more A dolgozat korai szlávokhoz köthető régészeti adatokat ismertet, melyek Csíksomlyón (Csíkszereda, Hargita megye, Románia) kerültek elő. A leletanyag jellege és a C14-es elemzések alapján lehetségesnek tűnik, hogy az itt feltárt házak nem csak a Csíki-medence első szláv objektumai, de egyben a korai szlávok Kelet-erdélyi megjelenésének legkorábbi emlékei is egyben.
The article presents new archaeological discoveries of early Slavs from the Ciuc-depression/Eastern Carpathians (Romania) which might be one of the earliest signs of the Slavic infiltration into the Carpathian Basin based on archaeological data and C14 analysis.
Previously there was little knowledge about the history of the headwaters region of the Olt River... more Previously there was little knowledge about the history of the headwaters region of the Olt River during the Migration Period. In the wake of the archaeological research from recent years we are now able to outline the settlement history of the region in the 4 th century. In the period following the fall of the Roman Empire the traces of the Germanic Goths – the Sântana de Mureș-Chernyakhov culture – can be detected, and they performed intensive ironwork in this area.
Previously there was little knowledge about the history of the headwaters region of the Olt River... more Previously there was little knowledge about the history of the headwaters region of the Olt River during the Migration Period. In the wake of the archaeological research from recent years we are now able to outline the settlement history of the region in the 4th century. In the period following the fall of the Roman Empire the traces of the Germanic Goths – the Sântana de Mureș-Chernyakhov culture – can be detected, and they performed intensive ironwork in this area.
The Ciuc‑basin, the former Csík‑seat in medieval times, is located at the eastern periphery of Tr... more The Ciuc‑basin, the former Csík‑seat in medieval times, is located at the eastern periphery of Transylvania, at the border region of the medieval Hungarian Kingdom. Due to its geographical position, it creates a real opportunity to examine the centre – periphery relations, especially because it has preserved almost unchanged the medieval network of settlements and churches. The geographical situation limits the areas available for the human habitation and, in the meantime, compared to the central or the more exposed regions, there are no abandoned churches or deserted settlements. Therefore, the preserved medieval settlement system offers a good opportunity to analyse several aspects of the ecclesiastical topography. This region appeared in the written sources only at the beginning of the 14th century, when 15 churches were mentioned in the Ciuc‑basin (and two more at Gheorgheni and Cașin). These parish churches had, very probably, contemporary subordinated filia villages lacking their own churches. From the 16th‑17th century sources, the number of such filia settlements can be estimated to around 50. A church network could not have been formed without a solid demographic background, although one faces a methodological problem: how far back into the past should we go when taking into consideration the parish churches and their subordinated villages, given the fact that in the written sources they appeared at a later date? The research of place names revealed the fact that local toponymy has several layers, typologically and chronologically different, and some of them seem to originate prior to the 13th‑14th centuries. At the same time, archaeological research (excavations and field work) identified several 11th/12th‑13th century sites even in the filia villages mentioned in documents only in the 16th century. The archaeological material was dated not just by observed analogies but also by independent 14C AMS dates. The archaeological (and toponymic) data supports the affirmation that the settlement system on which the parish network could have formed existed in the 12th century. The archaeological excavations of the last two decades documented pre‑Gothic periods at all investigated churches, although the chronology of these earlier periods is ambiguous or impossible to establish because the dating elements were missing. Ciuc remained Catholic throughout its entire history, with churches and their surrounding cemeteries used continuously from the construction date until the present. Newer, deeper and larger graves systematically destroyed medieval graves, therefore most investigated graves around the medieval churches of Ciuc are relatively recent. Fortunately, in some cases, under later architectural elements (such as buttresses) or in undisturbed places, early graves containing 12th century artefacts/grave goods were documented, with this date also confirmed by 14C dates. Based on this, one can presume that the first churches (some of them of wood?) were built during the 12th century. The parish network was most surely in place by the beginning of the 14th century, and continued to function almost unchanged till the 18th‑19th centuries, when some earlier filia villages obtained parish rights and built new churches of their own. The ratio of the medieval parish churches to villages was 1:3 on average, but this represents a mean value obtained from variable ratios ranging from 1:1 to 1:6. The church network was surprisingly dense, with the distance between two churches of ca. 4‑5 km, and all settlements were within a radius of 5 km from at least one parish church. Chapels were also important elements in the ecclesiastical topography. The first were built in the 14th century outside the villages, but the modalities and the reasons of their construction are not really known. The second group of chapels appeared inside the filia villages in the 15th‑16th centuries. In this case, the motivation can be easily guessed: they were built at the initiative of the local elite and community. The main reason was to create possibilities to have local Masses instead of walking regularly to the neighbourhood parish church. Naturally, those chapels became key elements in the process of founding new parishes in the modern periods, when the present‑day ecclesiastical organisation got its final shape.
The Ciuc-basin is known as one of the coldest regions of the country, where the forests are mainl... more The Ciuc-basin is known as one of the coldest regions of the country, where the forests are mainly formed of pines and this vision is regularly projected to the Medieval Times. Archaeological data does not confirm this presumption, on 3–15th century sites often appear carbonised oak pieces. Oak timber elements can be found also in medieval churches and manors. From the 3 –4th and 16–17th centuries there are several data regarding intensive metallurgy activities which needed a huge amount of hard wood, namely oak and beech. The former oak forests are mentioned in the written sources, their memory is proven by the place names and also by pollen-data of environment history researches. The main conclusions of the paper are: the better climate conditions of the post-roman and medieval periods were more likely with those of central Transylvania and allowed the development of local human communities. The internal low-situated (oak) forests were cleared continuously specially in the 17–18th centuries. Once the climate changes of the small ice-age its effects were stronger in the Ciuc-depression due its high altitude and thermic inversion phenomenon. In these conditions the competition between species was won by the pines. The present flora and forest situation of the intra-mountain depressions was formed by the fallowing factors: human interventions (clearing), cooling of the climate (“little ice age”) and competition among the species. The projection of the present environment situations into the historical times could lead to erroneous interpretations.
REMARKS ON THE MORPHOLOGY OF MEDIEVAL SETTLEMENTS
Abstract
A significant number of publications... more REMARKS ON THE MORPHOLOGY OF MEDIEVAL SETTLEMENTS
Abstract
A significant number of publications regarding the settlement system of the Ciuc-basin propagates the idea that the tenner (Hung: tízes) – as a geographically separate settlement
part – has its origins in the Middle Ages, or even that it was the basic unit during the formation of the villages.Anobjective analysis of the written records, analogies, placenames and archaeological finds did not confirme this theory. Many of the settlement units called tenners in modern times were independent villages until the 16th century, others split from them during the medieval times, but they were called szegek. The place names, and settlement units connected with szegek are surely earlier as those with tenners.
The tenner as a military, social, economical organisation form does originate in the medieval times, but has no connection with the formation of the settlement system. The use of the term tenner with a changed meaning regarding villages, individual settlement
parts (szegek) can be attested only in later periods. Even so the tenner has a great role preserving the identity, territory and name of formal settlement units.
Historical place names reflect many information about the history of a particular region. Such da... more Historical place names reflect many information about the history of a particular region. Such data is essential especially on those cases when written sources do not mention these areas or certain periods. The Csík-basin (Eastern Carpathians) appears in documents first only in the 14th century but even after the documents are very rare. Therefore the archaeological and written data is essential during the reconstruction attempts of the history of the early medieval (10-14th century) history of the area.
The paper presents the classical approach of the literature regarding the place names of Csík. So far a very late ,13-14th century inhabitation was proposed by earlier scholars. Based on archaeological data, that surely proves a earlier settlement system (11-12th century) the paper suggests that a new methodological perspective is necessary for the interpretation of the place names. If the new data is accepted (typologically “early” place names documented not in contemporary but later documents) the contradiction between the archaeological data and toponimy can be resolved. Surely the two methods (archaeology, toponimy) may not influence each other, but the results have to be concluded in a acceptable way, and in the author’s opinion a independent analysis of the separate data has the same result: the first settlements can be dated both archaeologically and also by the place names to the middle of the Árpádian-age (11-12th century).
Questions raised by the development of Miercurea-Ciuc
Miercurea Ciuc appears in the written sourc... more Questions raised by the development of Miercurea-Ciuc Miercurea Ciuc appears in the written sources only in the 16th century, although the toponimy clearly proves that its existence is strongly connected with a medieval market. The town was deeply affected by the communist constructions, so its archaeological remains were rather destructed or still covered. The plan and localisation of the settlement together with the local tradition, already documented in the 18th century, suggest that the formation of the town can be connected with an artificial foundation. Based on indirect historical and archaeological data one can presume that a market near the St John church of Delniţa was moved to the town’s actual location during the 14th century.
Ciomadul (Csomád), The Youngest Volcano in the Carpathians, 2022
The wider region of Ciomadul (Csomád) Hills is a unique area of Székelyland from a varietyof pers... more The wider region of Ciomadul (Csomád) Hills is a unique area of Székelyland from a varietyof perspectives. It lies on the border of the historical Ciuc (Csík) and Trei Scaune (Háromszék) counties (known today as Harghita/Hargita and Covasna/Kovászna, respectively). The largest medieval fortress of Székelyland is also in this region. The landscape dominated by forests and floodplain that we see today was used and shaped by Germans of Scandinavian origin, Slavs from Eastern Europe, and Hungarians and Székelys alike. Based on archaeological finds and written sources, this chapter reviews the history of the area during the third–fifteenth centuries. However, one has to be aware that this region does not appear in any historical sources until the fourteenth century and substantial data only start to leak from the sixteenth century. At the same time the situation of the archaeological research was and still is deficient, because the Migration and Medieval Period was a neglected topic in the communist era (until 1989).
A CSÍKI SZÉKELY MÚZEUM ÉVKÖNYVE XIII-XIV. CSÍKI SZÉKELY MÚZEUM CSÍKSZEREDA, 2019
CELLAR FROM THE 14th CENTURY,
ȘUMULEU-CIUC
dr. Botár István PhD
Abstract
The site Fodor-kert from... more CELLAR FROM THE 14th CENTURY, ȘUMULEU-CIUC dr. Botár István PhD Abstract The site Fodor-kert from Şumuleu (Miercurea Ciuc, Harghita county) is well known due to several excavations which documented a large settlement of the Sântana de Mureş–Cerniahov (3–4th centuries AD) culture. Among the Germanic finds early Slave (6–7th centuries) houses and more houses of a medieval village were also found. The paper presents some data and archaeological material of a cellar, which probably belonged to a house built on the surface. The house and the cellar were built and used during the 14th century. The cellar was digged into a earlier bigger pit which was opened in the 11–12th centuries for clay or irons stone mining. Keywords: mediecal archaeology, Ciuc-basin, 14th century, cellar
The paper presents a pottery oven from the archaeological site in Miercurea Ciuc - Fodorkert (Har... more The paper presents a pottery oven from the archaeological site in Miercurea Ciuc - Fodorkert (Harghita county, Romania). The oven belongs to a medieval settlement located near the parish church and it was inhabited between the 11-14th century. Based on decorations, forms of the excavated pots and clay cauldrons the oven can be dated to the 11-12th century, chronology which was strengthened also by C14 analysis (cal. AD: 1046-1219). The oven is unique in the region and brings important data regarding the settlement system of the Eastern border region of Hungarian Kingdom in the Árpád-period.
Manors were the residences of the local elite during the Medieval Ages. Such prominent houses wer... more Manors were the residences of the local elite during the Medieval Ages. Such prominent houses were probably built since the formation of the medieval settlement system, but so far none of them could have been identified from the first half of the medieval period. The local castles built in the 13th century on distant mountaintops were not used continuously as residences due to their location and poor archaeological material. The first mentions of the local elite and its dwellings are known from the 14thcentury, but these data are limited on adjacent but independent enclaves of Szekler Land. Such noble possession could have existed also in Ciuc (Csík) Seat but these were probably incorporated by the Szekler communities. The common Szeklers regularly attacked and destroyed the houses of their own leaders called “primipili” during the 15-16th century. The leader families vanished from the region; consequently the unknown manors were ruined or even totally destructed. Even so, the recent and old researches documented several totally or partially stonebuilt
manors. The study presents the medieval manors of Ciuc (Csík) Seat using data from archaeological excavations, building archaeology, old maps and written sources, archive and aerial
photographs, toponimy analysis.
A Csíki Székely Múzeum Évkönyve X. (2014), p. 29-46
The paper presents some historical and archaeological data about the beginnings of the parish
ch... more The paper presents some historical and archaeological data about the beginnings of the parish
church in Şumuleu Ciuc and the settlement connected to it. The first phase of the church can be
dated based on stratigraphic observations, C14 analysis and archaeological findings from the 12th
century, which show that an early stone church had already been constructed in the 12th century.
This early edifice was then reconstructed and expanded in the following centuries. More
archaeological complexes – from which the current study presents the remains of two houses and
their findings – have been discovered towards west, on the nearby site. The pottery was periodized
based on analogies from Cluj-Mănăştur, Moreşti, Bratei and the Rica Forrest, through C14 analyses
and coin examination. Due to the tipo-chronology and ornamentation of the pottery, the Şumuleufindings
and settlement can be dated back to the 11–12th centuries, which precedes the first written
mention of the area from 1333 by centuries. This fact is essential for the history of the Eastern
Carpathians, because proves the existence of a very early settlement system forerunning the
colonisation of these regions by the Szeklers in the 13th century. The toponymical analyses suggest
that these settlements can be connected to a mixed, but mostly Hungarian-speaking population.
The determination of functions and historical evaluation of the castles on the eastern, mountaino... more The determination of functions and historical evaluation of the castles on the eastern, mountainous border region of the medieval Kingdom of Hungary is a complex task. There are no contemporary written sources from the period of the building and use of these castles, and archaeological excavations are also rather limited, without any dating finds from several castles.
Formally, two groups of castles seem to be outlined: the simple walled hill forts and the castles, often with towers mostly located near settlements. These are lately defined as
castles of local elites. In the absence of data, the more mysterious, simple mountain castles on both sides of the Harghita Mountains (Eastern Carpathians) were considered by older literature to be 11th–12th-century border castles along old roads
(Racu-Pogányvár, Praid-Rabsóné, Varșag-Tartód castle, Ciceu- Csicsói castle). The archaeological finds from older and recent excavations have not confirmed this early date, and it seems that most of these castles were built and used in the 13th century. However, in recent decades, it has become almost an exclusive opinion, that these castles, situated on hardly accessible hilltops far from the settlements, were the communal defensive strongholds of the local population or, in other cases, the refuge of local elites, even if no such evidence has been found. Although no topographical comparison of the castles and the old roads has been made, “hidden” has become a constant marker of these mountain castles. A further important point also remains unanswered: What could be the reason that all these “hidden, inaccessible forts” have a prehistoric origin? What is the explanation for the fact that castles were built on the same mountains in different periods despite the different demographic, military, and
geopolitical contexts?
During the excavation in 2021 of the Pogány Castle in Racu, the author discovered abandoned deep roads in the area around the castle. Researching the traces and chronology of the roads, and verifying old maps, place names, and written records, more and more evidence came to light suggesting that in earlier centuries several routes crossed the Harghita that have been completely forgotten to the present
times.
These old roads followed the ridges sometimes till very high levels, avoided, if possible, crossing the valleys, and only ran along the lower parts of the streams, as opposed to the modern roads that cross valleys regularly. The reconstruction of the old roads and the topographical comparison of the most important archaeological sites in the mountain area revealed close correlations. Previously the localization of some prehistoric castles, Roman watch towers and castellums, ramparts of the Migration Period, castles of the Árpád period, and the isolated medieval chapels was hard to interpret. From the perspective of old roads, the localizations suddenly made sense: they are clear indicators and dating proofs for the existence of mountain paths.
One can say that these field objects of different ages are the secondary ‘consequences’ of transport corridors used since prehistoric times. According to this model, the prehistoric and medieval castles and Roman monuments were built along these corridors, precisely to control them, as were more of the migration-era (!) ramparts that crossed the roads.
In this light, the medieval forts in the area cannot have been ‘hidden defensive castles’, and their historical value is therefore much greater. The castles under study are evidence of the organized control of the eastern passages by the Kingdom of Hungary’s eastern border region defense system in the 13th century.
The archaeological sites and objects of different ages attest not only to the antiquity and the ‘continuous’ use of the roads but also to their trans-local character. These roads are not only transport channels between the valleys of the Olt and the Târnava rivers but more importantly direct witnesses, intermediate elements of a larger millennial traffic between Transylvania and Moldavia.
Identifying and researching these forgotten roads can have a major impact on the settlement history of more periods in the mountain (border) region of the Eastern
Carpathians.
A short (and first) introduction into the "hidden mountain castles" of Eastern Transylvania - and... more A short (and first) introduction into the "hidden mountain castles" of Eastern Transylvania - and forgotten roads. No, these simple fortifications were not hidden, they were built near roads that crossed the Carpathians. In this meaning the castles mark and prove the defense sistem of the Hungarian Kingdom at the Eastern Borders.
As bell ringing was an important element of mediaeval liturgy, wooden belfries and later stone be... more As bell ringing was an important element of mediaeval liturgy, wooden belfries and later stone bell towers were erected next to village parish churches. For a long time, it was believed that on the territory of the Ciuc Deanery, located at the eastern border of the Transylvanian Bishopric, a series of stone bell towers were built next to churches in the 15th and 16th centuries. Following the research of recent years, however, it became clear that this question cannot be explained by a single “construction wave”. Archaeological excavations and dendrochronological studies proved that certain stone towers started to be erected earlier, already in the 13th-14th centuries, other mediaeval towers, which were not known earlier, have been identified, but at the same time, it became evident that a significant part of the towers considered to date from the late Gothic period were built later, in the 17th and 18th centuries.
Dolgozatok az Erdélyi Múzeum Érem és Régiségtárából. Ú.s. IV. 2013. 157-169.
The study presents the medieval chapels of Csík-seat (East-Transylvania, Romania). The chapels we... more The study presents the medieval chapels of Csík-seat (East-Transylvania, Romania). The chapels were important elements in the ecclesiastical organisation and religious life of the Medieval
Ages. There are no local historic records about the builders and building circumstances of these chapels, they first appeared in the 17th century and later sources. The later interventions often changed the shape of these buildings and, at the same time, very little research was made regarding their building history. This is the reason why chapels got very slight interest in the historiography. Based on Transylvanian written sources chapels started to spread in the 14th century in this region, while the founders belonged to the upper level of the society. We presume that the same process should happened also in Székely Land even if there are no records about it.
Some of the chapels in Csík have archaic plans, dimensions, like the earliest ones, so at least some of them should be dated in the 14th century. In one case this period is definitely confirmed by
wall paintings, in other cases only late medieval existence was proved. These are small buildings with polygonal sanctuary without buttresses, and equal nave-sanctuary width. They all are located outside the villages with parish churches, the actually surrounding cemeteries were formed only after the 18th
century. The second group of the chapels is situated inside of filia status settlements. Their topographical situation and church-like shape reveals the building motivation and function. They were
used for local masses because of the distance from the parish church. As a natural development most of them became independent parish church later in the 18–19th century.
[The archeological research of the Csonkatorony of Tomesti in 2002] The study presents the first ... more [The archeological research of the Csonkatorony of Tomesti in 2002] The study presents the first year's results of the archeological excavation in "Csonkatorony" Tome §ti, Harghita County (Romania). The medieval parish church was almost totally destroyed in the 18 ,h century, except the tower and the medieval wooden statue of Madonna. The tabernacle and the bell were transported in the newly built baroque building. The remains were excavated in 2002 and in the researched surfaces a part of the south ship wall and the southern side of the gothic sanctuary were found. The excavation revealed that the building had two major periods. During the first one the ship was 7,8 m long and had a 6,5 m width. The sanctuary was a five metres long and wide semicircular. Written sources and archeological remains date this phase in the 13* century. Approximately in the middle of the 15* century the first sanctuary was demolished, and a new late-gothic one was build being as wide as the old ship. This polygonal sanctuary was arched with stoneribs, having a 10,6 m length. The bell-tower was built in this period on the west side of the ship. The comparing of the carved stones revealed a close relation between the churches of Tomcsti and the neighbouring parish church from Carta. During the research 101 tombs were excavated. Rezumat: [Cercetarea arheologicä a Turnului Ciuntit din Tomeçti-campania din anul 2002)] Lucrarea prezintä rezultatele primei campanii (2002) de cercetäri arheologice efectuate la a §a-numitul Turn Ciuntit din Tomeçti, judetul Harghita. Biserica parohialä medievalä a satului de odinioarä, aflat la nord de actuala localitate Tome §ti a fost aproape complet demolatä în secolul al XVIIÎdea, pästrandu-se pana astäzi doar turnul-clopotnitä gotic de pe fatada vesticä. Clopotul datând din 1495, tabernaculul gotic si o Madonä sculptatä din lemn din altarul medieval au fost mutate în biserica ridicatä în Stil baroc dupä demolarea bisericii médiévale. In cursul säpäturilor au fost trasatc trei sectiuni, dezvelindu-se partial fundatiile laturii sudice a navei sj a corului gotic precum si portiuni ale necropolei din jurul bisericii médiévale. S-a constatât cä biserica medievalä a fost construite în douä faze. Prima bisericä construite la sfârsjtul secolului al XIIIdea avea o navä de dimensiuni exterioare de 7,8 x 6,5 m si o absidä semicircularä sj a rämas în folosntä pana în prima jumätate a secolului al XVdea. Dupä sfârsitul primei treimi a secolului al XVdea, dupä demolarea vechii abside s-a construit un cor poligonal gotic flancat de contraforti, cu o lähme égala cu cea a navei romanice pästrate. Lungimea noului cor era de 10,6 m si avea bolti cu nervuri din piaträ. Formeie acestora prezintä similitudini cu cele de la Carta (jud. Harghita). Dupä mijlocul aceluiasj secol un turn-clopotnitä a fost adósat fatadei vestice. Biserica a fost abandonatä eel târziu la începutul secolului al XVIIIdea. Pe parcursul säpäturii au fost cercetate în total 101 morminte.
The article presents the main results of the archaeological excavations of the medieval church of... more The article presents the main results of the archaeological excavations of the medieval church of Menaság (Transyalvania, Romania). The village appears in documents only in the 16th century, but thanks to the research two earlier building phases could have been documented. The new data is a important proof that written sources have delay of centuries against archaeological data, which documents the existence of medieval settlements and ecclesiastical organisation even in the hidden valleys since the 13th century.
The Catholic parish church of Sânmartin
(Harghita County, Romania) is a featureless 19th
century ... more The Catholic parish church of Sânmartin (Harghita County, Romania) is a featureless 19th century building without any obvious historical arhitectural element. Written sources although prove that a church already stood in the village at the beginning of the 14th century. At the same time, archaeological material collected during field surveys in the area shows the existence of an earlier settlement, therefore even the existence of the 12th– 13th century church can be presumed. The Medieval church was destroyed before the construction of the actual building, but some Medieval elements (a Gothic Madonna-statue, bell, tabernacle, font) were preserved. During the restoration works, in 2015, we managed to document the walls of the Medieval church, which had more phases: nave, vestry, and chancel. On the South wall of the nave, the trace of the entrance could be observed, and also the remains, pilasters of the later Western gallery. Two blocks of secondary altars came to light by the East corners of the nave. The Late Medieval chancel had a poligonal plan with buttresses and it was covered by a vault made of terracotta ribs. On the South wall, an interior niche (for stalls?) and an exterior buttress could be documented, furthermore the stone block of the altar and a trace of a crypt were also visible. This one very probably belonged to the Becz-family who were the most important patrons of the church during the Middle Ages. The vestry is clearly older then the nave, and very probably earlier than the chancel. After the archaeological surveillance, one could separate the most important building phases, but naturally more details still wait for an answer.
Szent Mihály oltalma alatt. Emlékkönyv a felújított műemléktemplom ünnepélyes megáldására, 2021
The papre presents the main results of the archaeological excavations at the medieval church of M... more The papre presents the main results of the archaeological excavations at the medieval church of Mihaileni (Romania/Transylvania/Harghita-county).
A HATÁRVÉDELEM ÉVSZÁZADAI • SZÉKELYFÖLDÖN • Csíkszék és a Gyimesek vidéke, 2018
A cikk Csíkszentmiklós, Csíkborzsova és Csíkszépvíz középkori településtörténetét, írott adatait,... more A cikk Csíkszentmiklós, Csíkborzsova és Csíkszépvíz középkori településtörténetét, írott adatait, műemlékeit, középkori régészeti lelőhelyeit és néhány itt végzett régészeti ásatás (plébániatemplom, kápolnák) eredményeit ismerteti.
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although the exact building dates were unknown and only indirect data, such as altar and bell inscriptions, give a more precise dating.
Earlier dendrochronological sampling remained unsuccessful because of the timber species used: Norway spruce for which we had no
valid local chronology. After a campaign dedicated to a new chronology, sampling was repeated and more roof structures were successfully
dated.
The dendrochronological data (Mihăileni 1491 chancel, 1492 nave, Cârța 1505, Cozmeni 1506, Armășeni 1532 chancel and 1533 nave, Ciucsângeorgiu 1533) assures narrow limits for the chronology of the Late Gothic constructions, and also provides important knowledge regarding environment reconstruction, historical carpentry etc.
consistent effort to accurately date the wooden structures and the framework of the roof was recently
undertaken. A total of 141 samples were taken from the wooden structure of the building and were
examined using dendrochronological analysis in order to date the relevant elements, identify the
original structure as well as and later additions, and to determine the tree species. We have studied
55 samples extracted from the nave’s roof framework, 31 from the choir, 35 from the tower’s roof
frame and its interior wooden structure, 15 from pine shingles and 5 from above the pipe organ. The
analysis performed at the Miercurea Ciuc dendrochronology laboratory (Anno Domini Dendrolab)
indicated that the aforementioned Brasov roof framework was built between 1689 and 1694 and
can be identified as the earliest known structure of its kind in Transylvania consolidated through the
liegender Stuhl system.
Parish Church in Sibiu consists of several
units. Based on the dendrochronological
studies conducted between 2012 and 2016, the
building and repair of the 14th-16th century roof
structures can be dated accurately to a year,
and at the same time the church’s building
history, which was previously uncertain, can
be easily traced. The roof structures in Sibiu
are the earliest still standing roof structures in
Transylvania, thus they deserve special attention,
especially as they allow us to observe the
development of mediaeval carpentry and roof
structures.
historical and archaeological wood. In optimal circumstances dendrochronology can produce absolute dating with a half-year accuracy.
Due to research carried out by our team, initiated in 2003, we can use now two master chronologies to date oak and fi r structures in
Transylvania for the period between the 13th and 19th centuries, a couple of absolutely dated series for the 12th to 14th centuries, and
also some fl oating series for the late migration period (7th ‒ 8th centuries) and Roman period. Th e article presents a few case studies of
dendrochronological research on medieval churches from this region (Dârjiu, Târgu Mureş, Cetatea de Baltă, Bistriţa, Sibiu). During
these campaigns of fi eldwork and following analyses we successfully dated more medieval roofs and later renovation phases. So far the
earliest dated roof is the structure above the Evangelic church in Sibiu, where the timber material comes from trees felled at the middle
of the 14th century. Th e method is also used to date art objects (altar panels) and wood installations (painted ceilings, furniture).
To extend the validity of the present chronologies, both in time and space (in Moldova and the Romanian Plain), stronger
archaeological involvement will be needed.
wooden installations and furniture by the Transylvanian Dendrochronological Laboratory in the
past few years. The main tools for dating these ecclesiastical objects (Gothic painted panels, Baroque
altars, historical doors, painted ceilings, breastwork of galleries) are two local chronologies for oak
(Quercus sp.) and fir (Abies Alba) which cover the period between the 13th and 19th centuries.
Naturally, in the case of art objects, the dendrochronological data is obtained without real sampling,
only with non-destructive methods such as surface measurement and macro-digital photography.
Beside exact dating, the main achievements are the proof of local fabrication of a supposed
„import” altarpiece, the connection with art history, written sources and dendro data, and comparison
of fir and pine data from contemporary artifacts.
The successes achieved on different types of objects and installations investigated from various
periods has shown again the usefulness and importance of the dendrochronological method for art
historical studies.
analysis of recent and historical wood to specify the procurement date of historical beams, with
the aim to date building phases of monuments. The dendrochronological research of the bell
tower and roof of the Gheorgheni Catholic church was done in several phases between 2013
and 2015. The goal of the research was to date the construction year of the tower and of later
interventions. We collected oak, spruce and elm samples from of the original floor-beams of
the tower, and from the beams above the arrow slits. The dendro-data prove that the five floors
of the medieval tower were built in the summer of 1498 (in concordance with the inscription
above the tower-door), but during the works earlier wood elements from the ’70s of the same
century were also used. In 1675, the tower was heightened with one level, while the present
form was achieved using spruce timber, procured sometime after 1752, probably during the
great Baroque reconstructions.
The roof structure of the church was build from spruce, cut during the winters of
1753/1754 and 1754/1755. Some decades later a strange intervention occurred: the original
tie-beam/rafter joints were dismounted and new elements were placed among them. These
elements come from spruces which were cut down in the winter of 1793/1794.
This contribution presents the results of dendrochronological analyses made on wood from two
archaeological sites located in Transylvania. The material from the rst sample comes from a well at
Lazuri in north-western Romania, dated archaeologically to the end of the 8th and beginning of the 9th
century. The second sample stems from the inner structure of a rampart at Kakasbarázda in the eastern
Carpathian previously radiocarbon-dated to the 7th–8th century. The dendrochronological analysis
revealed that the samples are contemporary: they have an almost 100 year-long common sequence,
and hence the building of the well from Lazuri can be dated to the second half of the 8th or beginning
of the 9th century. A secure tree-ring database for the rst millennium AD does not yet exist for Transylvania
and therefore the absolute dates of the samples cannot be established. Only the systematic
collection of wood from archaeological sites with clear stratigraphy and the application of different
dating methods like radiocarbon dating and dendrochronology will achieve a secure chronology in
the future.
Mureş (Marosvásárhely) belonged in the Middle Ages
to the Franciscan-order. Despite of destructions and
renovations of the last centuries the church preserved
more wood structures which chronological relations
could bring important information about the periods
of the building. The most appropriate method for such
research is the dendrochronology which in optimal
circumstances can result dating with half year accuracy.
For the analysis we took 65 samples in all. In the bell
tower there are no wood elements contemporary with
the construction, the inside structures belong all to the
renovation made after the devastation of 1601–1602,
some are even younger. The roof of the tower and
the beams of the old bell-structure were made from
oak-timber cut in 1603, while the actual bell-structure
is made from oaks felled in the winter of 1834–1835.
Unlike the tower and the nave the roof structure of the
sanctuary contains elements from a much earlier roof.
Four complete trusses on the east side and the elements
in the centre and south part of the structure were made
from oaks cut during the winter of 1479/1480 and the
next summer. One has to presume a bigger intervention,
construction on the friary for this period. The devastations
from the beginning of the 17th century had strong
effects on the north-west part of the roof positioned
near the bell tower, there fore the rafters located here
and also the connected tie-beams were replaced with
wood material cut in winter of 1602/1603. Surprisingly
the assembly marks used on the 17th century elements
are almost the exact copies of those dated in the 15th
century. The following major intervention on the roof
was in the 20th century, when every second secondary
truss was strengthened with a pine structure.
The main importance of the dendrochronological
research is the identification of a historical structure
in the heart of Transylvania on a well-known building,
and the exact dating of the construction and reconstruction
years.
Abstract
The painted panel 'Coronation of the Virgin' comes from an altarpiece and it is kept in the Csíki Székely Múzeum in Miercurea-Ciuc (Csíkszereda). The panel was presented detailed recently (2009.) in a art historical study written by Zsuzsa Szabó. According to this analysis the panel is a import piece made in the style of the artistic circle of Salzburg, and can be dated to the beginnings of the 16th century. The present paper presents the results of the dendrochronological research made on four boards of the panel. The panel is mad of seven silver fir (Abies alba Mill.) boards but only four of them were suitable for denrochronological analysis. The tree-rings of the boards were documented with a digital microscope, then the ring widths were measured with a special software on the pictures. The united data set contains 97 years and could not be dated with German, Austrian, Poland and Swiss chronologies, but precise dating was possible with local Romanian series from Bistrița (Beszterce) and Sibiu (Nagyszeben). The first ring formed in 1389 the last in 1485. The last rings are missing from the boards so one can conclude that the panel was made from trees cut shortly after 1485. At the same time the wood material originates from Transylvania more precisely probably from the south part of the region. This leads us to the conclusion that
independently from the artistic influences the master of the Sândominic (Csíkszentdomokos) panel used local timber so the panel is not a import piece. The main achievement of the research is the definition of the timber provenience of a medieval panel, which is a novelty in the Romanian art history and dendrochronological research.
although the exact building dates were unknown and only indirect data, such as altar and bell inscriptions, give a more precise dating.
Earlier dendrochronological sampling remained unsuccessful because of the timber species used: Norway spruce for which we had no
valid local chronology. After a campaign dedicated to a new chronology, sampling was repeated and more roof structures were successfully
dated.
The dendrochronological data (Mihăileni 1491 chancel, 1492 nave, Cârța 1505, Cozmeni 1506, Armășeni 1532 chancel and 1533 nave, Ciucsângeorgiu 1533) assures narrow limits for the chronology of the Late Gothic constructions, and also provides important knowledge regarding environment reconstruction, historical carpentry etc.
consistent effort to accurately date the wooden structures and the framework of the roof was recently
undertaken. A total of 141 samples were taken from the wooden structure of the building and were
examined using dendrochronological analysis in order to date the relevant elements, identify the
original structure as well as and later additions, and to determine the tree species. We have studied
55 samples extracted from the nave’s roof framework, 31 from the choir, 35 from the tower’s roof
frame and its interior wooden structure, 15 from pine shingles and 5 from above the pipe organ. The
analysis performed at the Miercurea Ciuc dendrochronology laboratory (Anno Domini Dendrolab)
indicated that the aforementioned Brasov roof framework was built between 1689 and 1694 and
can be identified as the earliest known structure of its kind in Transylvania consolidated through the
liegender Stuhl system.
Parish Church in Sibiu consists of several
units. Based on the dendrochronological
studies conducted between 2012 and 2016, the
building and repair of the 14th-16th century roof
structures can be dated accurately to a year,
and at the same time the church’s building
history, which was previously uncertain, can
be easily traced. The roof structures in Sibiu
are the earliest still standing roof structures in
Transylvania, thus they deserve special attention,
especially as they allow us to observe the
development of mediaeval carpentry and roof
structures.
historical and archaeological wood. In optimal circumstances dendrochronology can produce absolute dating with a half-year accuracy.
Due to research carried out by our team, initiated in 2003, we can use now two master chronologies to date oak and fi r structures in
Transylvania for the period between the 13th and 19th centuries, a couple of absolutely dated series for the 12th to 14th centuries, and
also some fl oating series for the late migration period (7th ‒ 8th centuries) and Roman period. Th e article presents a few case studies of
dendrochronological research on medieval churches from this region (Dârjiu, Târgu Mureş, Cetatea de Baltă, Bistriţa, Sibiu). During
these campaigns of fi eldwork and following analyses we successfully dated more medieval roofs and later renovation phases. So far the
earliest dated roof is the structure above the Evangelic church in Sibiu, where the timber material comes from trees felled at the middle
of the 14th century. Th e method is also used to date art objects (altar panels) and wood installations (painted ceilings, furniture).
To extend the validity of the present chronologies, both in time and space (in Moldova and the Romanian Plain), stronger
archaeological involvement will be needed.
wooden installations and furniture by the Transylvanian Dendrochronological Laboratory in the
past few years. The main tools for dating these ecclesiastical objects (Gothic painted panels, Baroque
altars, historical doors, painted ceilings, breastwork of galleries) are two local chronologies for oak
(Quercus sp.) and fir (Abies Alba) which cover the period between the 13th and 19th centuries.
Naturally, in the case of art objects, the dendrochronological data is obtained without real sampling,
only with non-destructive methods such as surface measurement and macro-digital photography.
Beside exact dating, the main achievements are the proof of local fabrication of a supposed
„import” altarpiece, the connection with art history, written sources and dendro data, and comparison
of fir and pine data from contemporary artifacts.
The successes achieved on different types of objects and installations investigated from various
periods has shown again the usefulness and importance of the dendrochronological method for art
historical studies.
analysis of recent and historical wood to specify the procurement date of historical beams, with
the aim to date building phases of monuments. The dendrochronological research of the bell
tower and roof of the Gheorgheni Catholic church was done in several phases between 2013
and 2015. The goal of the research was to date the construction year of the tower and of later
interventions. We collected oak, spruce and elm samples from of the original floor-beams of
the tower, and from the beams above the arrow slits. The dendro-data prove that the five floors
of the medieval tower were built in the summer of 1498 (in concordance with the inscription
above the tower-door), but during the works earlier wood elements from the ’70s of the same
century were also used. In 1675, the tower was heightened with one level, while the present
form was achieved using spruce timber, procured sometime after 1752, probably during the
great Baroque reconstructions.
The roof structure of the church was build from spruce, cut during the winters of
1753/1754 and 1754/1755. Some decades later a strange intervention occurred: the original
tie-beam/rafter joints were dismounted and new elements were placed among them. These
elements come from spruces which were cut down in the winter of 1793/1794.
This contribution presents the results of dendrochronological analyses made on wood from two
archaeological sites located in Transylvania. The material from the rst sample comes from a well at
Lazuri in north-western Romania, dated archaeologically to the end of the 8th and beginning of the 9th
century. The second sample stems from the inner structure of a rampart at Kakasbarázda in the eastern
Carpathian previously radiocarbon-dated to the 7th–8th century. The dendrochronological analysis
revealed that the samples are contemporary: they have an almost 100 year-long common sequence,
and hence the building of the well from Lazuri can be dated to the second half of the 8th or beginning
of the 9th century. A secure tree-ring database for the rst millennium AD does not yet exist for Transylvania
and therefore the absolute dates of the samples cannot be established. Only the systematic
collection of wood from archaeological sites with clear stratigraphy and the application of different
dating methods like radiocarbon dating and dendrochronology will achieve a secure chronology in
the future.
Mureş (Marosvásárhely) belonged in the Middle Ages
to the Franciscan-order. Despite of destructions and
renovations of the last centuries the church preserved
more wood structures which chronological relations
could bring important information about the periods
of the building. The most appropriate method for such
research is the dendrochronology which in optimal
circumstances can result dating with half year accuracy.
For the analysis we took 65 samples in all. In the bell
tower there are no wood elements contemporary with
the construction, the inside structures belong all to the
renovation made after the devastation of 1601–1602,
some are even younger. The roof of the tower and
the beams of the old bell-structure were made from
oak-timber cut in 1603, while the actual bell-structure
is made from oaks felled in the winter of 1834–1835.
Unlike the tower and the nave the roof structure of the
sanctuary contains elements from a much earlier roof.
Four complete trusses on the east side and the elements
in the centre and south part of the structure were made
from oaks cut during the winter of 1479/1480 and the
next summer. One has to presume a bigger intervention,
construction on the friary for this period. The devastations
from the beginning of the 17th century had strong
effects on the north-west part of the roof positioned
near the bell tower, there fore the rafters located here
and also the connected tie-beams were replaced with
wood material cut in winter of 1602/1603. Surprisingly
the assembly marks used on the 17th century elements
are almost the exact copies of those dated in the 15th
century. The following major intervention on the roof
was in the 20th century, when every second secondary
truss was strengthened with a pine structure.
The main importance of the dendrochronological
research is the identification of a historical structure
in the heart of Transylvania on a well-known building,
and the exact dating of the construction and reconstruction
years.
Abstract
The painted panel 'Coronation of the Virgin' comes from an altarpiece and it is kept in the Csíki Székely Múzeum in Miercurea-Ciuc (Csíkszereda). The panel was presented detailed recently (2009.) in a art historical study written by Zsuzsa Szabó. According to this analysis the panel is a import piece made in the style of the artistic circle of Salzburg, and can be dated to the beginnings of the 16th century. The present paper presents the results of the dendrochronological research made on four boards of the panel. The panel is mad of seven silver fir (Abies alba Mill.) boards but only four of them were suitable for denrochronological analysis. The tree-rings of the boards were documented with a digital microscope, then the ring widths were measured with a special software on the pictures. The united data set contains 97 years and could not be dated with German, Austrian, Poland and Swiss chronologies, but precise dating was possible with local Romanian series from Bistrița (Beszterce) and Sibiu (Nagyszeben). The first ring formed in 1389 the last in 1485. The last rings are missing from the boards so one can conclude that the panel was made from trees cut shortly after 1485. At the same time the wood material originates from Transylvania more precisely probably from the south part of the region. This leads us to the conclusion that
independently from the artistic influences the master of the Sândominic (Csíkszentdomokos) panel used local timber so the panel is not a import piece. The main achievement of the research is the definition of the timber provenience of a medieval panel, which is a novelty in the Romanian art history and dendrochronological research.
Csík-basin lays in the East Carpathians by the sources of the Olt-river. It’s archaeological research was very deficient before the ’80-s of the previous century, specially the those regarding the migration and medieval period. During these decades archaeology meant only field work and poorly documented rescue excavations. Therefore the sites of Csík-basin did not figured in the first synthesis about the remains of the 4thcentury Sântana de Mureş–Cerneahov culture from East Transylvania.
After the political turn more finds from this culture were published and the even the previously identified 4th century sites were also listed. Thanks to the activity of the ofice for cultural heritage and the newly beganed rescue excavations in the last synthesis of such sites seventeen such sites could have been mentioned. Even so the research of the Csík-basin is definitely behind comparing with the neighbour regions such as Covasna county or the valley of Târnava-river. There is no data about the cemeteries of
the culture, not even one house was published, and “naturally” there is no local synthesis about the sites and findings of the culture. As a intermediary substitution of a synthesis the present paper presents the results of the recent excavations and some material of the previous researches. These have no additional
documentation in the Szekler Museum of Ciuc therefore is uncertain if the finds belong to a single complex or there were sorted later.
It looks quite certain that iron smelting was a important activity of the Goths in the Csík-basin, sign of metallurgy can be found in almost all 4th century sites. As raw material for smelting they used siderits and limonits collected from the surface and surroundings of marshes.
Recently more 4th century sites were researched in this region. In Sântimbru, on the terrace of Olt-river the tranches of a sewer crossed a oven. During the control excavation a big pit was found which was surrounded by seven ovens with different shape and dimensions. The baking surface of the ovens and the
loading of the pit contained 4th century ceramics. This is the second Sântana de Mureş–Cerneahov site on the territory of the village, therefore a iron slag found in the neighbourhood is thought to belong to the same horizon.
Just few kilometres away to south, in Sânsimion a big site is known, where among others 4th century material can be collected. In this area several signs of historical metallurgy are known.
Such signs were documented in Mihăileni, where in a Sântana de Mureş–Cerneahov pit six huge iron slag blocks were found, as a clear proof of intensive iron smelting. In the ’60-es in Ineu a 4th century house was excavated, with also slag pieces in the collected material. Near the village the iron smelting is
documented also from later periods.
Goth settlements can be found not just along the terraces of Olt, but also near the smaller side brooks, fro example in Mihăileni, Misentea, Cozmeni, Şumuleu, therefore we have to count in Ciuc
with quite dense settlemet system in the 4th century. More of the Sântana de Mureş–Cerneahov sites have remarkable extension which suggests existence of big, densly populated villages. The belonging cemeteries are yet unknown, but counting with them, in the present the total number of Sântana de Mureş–Cerneahov sites can be estimated around 50.
So far there is no local data about the beginnings end, and (ethnical, social) composition of Sântana de Mureş–Cerneahov culture. Such data can be expected from future researches.
The article presents new archaeological discoveries of early Slavs from the Ciuc-depression/Eastern Carpathians (Romania) which might be one of the earliest signs of the Slavic infiltration into the Carpathian Basin based on archaeological data and C14 analysis.
Migration Period. In the wake of the archaeological research from recent years we are now able to outline
the settlement history of the region in the 4th century. In the period following the fall of the Roman Empire
the traces of the Germanic Goths – the Sântana de Mureș-Chernyakhov culture – can be detected, and they
performed intensive ironwork in this area.
This region appeared in the written sources only at the beginning of the 14th century, when 15 churches were mentioned in the Ciuc‑basin (and two more at Gheorgheni and Cașin). These parish churches had, very probably, contemporary subordinated filia villages lacking their own churches. From the 16th‑17th century sources, the number of such filia settlements can be estimated to around 50. A church network could not have been formed without a solid demographic background, although one faces a methodological problem: how far back into the past should we go when taking into consideration the parish churches and their subordinated villages, given the fact that in the written sources they appeared at a later date?
The research of place names revealed the fact that local toponymy has several layers, typologically and chronologically different, and some of them seem to originate prior to the 13th‑14th centuries. At the same time, archaeological research (excavations and field work) identified several 11th/12th‑13th century sites even in the filia villages mentioned in documents only in the 16th century. The archaeological material was dated not just by observed analogies but also by independent 14C AMS dates. The archaeological (and toponymic) data supports the affirmation that the settlement system on which the parish network could have formed existed in the 12th century.
The archaeological excavations of the last two decades documented pre‑Gothic periods at all investigated churches, although the chronology of these earlier periods is ambiguous or impossible to establish because the dating elements were missing. Ciuc remained Catholic throughout its entire history, with churches and their surrounding cemeteries used continuously from the construction date until the present. Newer, deeper and larger graves systematically destroyed medieval graves, therefore most investigated graves around the medieval churches of Ciuc are relatively recent. Fortunately, in some cases, under later architectural elements (such as buttresses) or in undisturbed places, early graves containing 12th century artefacts/grave goods were documented, with this date also confirmed by 14C dates. Based on this, one can presume that the first churches (some of them of wood?) were built during the 12th century.
The parish network was most surely in place by the beginning of the 14th century, and continued to function almost unchanged till the 18th‑19th centuries, when some earlier filia villages obtained parish rights and built new churches of their own. The ratio of the medieval parish churches to villages was 1:3 on average, but this represents a mean value obtained from variable ratios ranging from 1:1 to 1:6. The church network was surprisingly dense, with the distance between two churches of ca. 4‑5 km, and all settlements were within a radius of 5 km from at least one parish church.
Chapels were also important elements in the ecclesiastical topography. The first were built in the 14th century outside the villages, but the modalities and the reasons of their construction are not really known. The second group of chapels appeared inside the filia villages in the 15th‑16th centuries. In this case, the motivation can be easily guessed: they were built at the initiative of the local elite and community. The main reason was to create possibilities to have local Masses instead of walking regularly to the neighbourhood parish church. Naturally, those chapels became key elements in the process of founding new parishes in the modern periods, when the present‑day ecclesiastical organisation got its final shape.
continuously specially in the 17–18th centuries. Once the climate changes of the small ice-age its effects were stronger in the Ciuc-depression due its high altitude and thermic inversion phenomenon. In these conditions the competition between species was won by the pines. The present flora and forest situation of the intra-mountain
depressions was formed by the fallowing factors: human interventions (clearing), cooling of the climate (“little ice age”) and competition among the species. The projection of the present environment situations into the historical times could lead to erroneous interpretations.
Abstract
A significant number of publications regarding the settlement system of the Ciuc-basin propagates the idea that the tenner (Hung: tízes) – as a geographically separate settlement
part – has its origins in the Middle Ages, or even that it was the basic unit during the formation of the villages.Anobjective analysis of the written records, analogies, placenames and archaeological finds did not confirme this theory. Many of the settlement units called tenners in modern times were independent villages until the 16th century, others split from them during the medieval times, but they were called szegek. The place names, and settlement units connected with szegek are surely earlier as those with tenners.
The tenner as a military, social, economical organisation form does originate in the medieval times, but has no connection with the formation of the settlement system. The use of the term tenner with a changed meaning regarding villages, individual settlement
parts (szegek) can be attested only in later periods. Even so the tenner has a great role preserving the identity, territory and name of formal settlement units.
The paper presents the classical approach of the literature regarding the place names of Csík. So far a very late ,13-14th century inhabitation was proposed by earlier scholars. Based on archaeological data, that surely proves a earlier settlement system (11-12th century) the paper suggests that a new methodological perspective is necessary for the interpretation of the place names. If the new data is accepted (typologically “early” place names documented not in contemporary but later documents) the contradiction between the archaeological data and toponimy can be resolved. Surely the two methods (archaeology, toponimy) may not influence each other, but the results have to be concluded in a acceptable way, and in the author’s opinion a independent analysis of the separate data has the same result: the first settlements can be dated both archaeologically and also by the place names to the middle of the Árpádian-age (11-12th century).
Miercurea Ciuc appears in the written sources only in the 16th century, although the toponimy clearly proves that its existence is strongly connected with a medieval market. The town was deeply affected by the communist constructions, so its archaeological remains were rather destructed or still covered.
The plan and localisation of the settlement together with the local
tradition, already documented in the 18th century, suggest that the formation of the town can be connected with an artificial foundation. Based on indirect historical and archaeological data one can presume that a market near the St John church of Delniţa was moved to the town’s actual location during the 14th century.
historical Ciuc (Csík) and Trei Scaune (Háromszék) counties (known today as Harghita/Hargita and Covasna/Kovászna, respectively). The largest medieval fortress of Székelyland is also in this region. The landscape dominated by forests and floodplain that we see today was used and shaped by Germans of Scandinavian origin, Slavs from Eastern
Europe, and Hungarians and Székelys alike.
Based on archaeological finds and written sources, this chapter reviews the history of the area during the third–fifteenth centuries. However,
one has to be aware that this region does not appear in any historical sources until the fourteenth century and substantial data only
start to leak from the sixteenth century. At the same time the situation of the archaeological research was and still is deficient, because the
Migration and Medieval Period was a neglected topic in the communist era (until 1989).
ȘUMULEU-CIUC
dr. Botár István PhD
Abstract
The site Fodor-kert from Şumuleu (Miercurea Ciuc,
Harghita county) is well known due to several excavations
which documented a large settlement of
the Sântana de Mureş–Cerniahov (3–4th centuries
AD) culture. Among the Germanic finds early Slave
(6–7th centuries) houses and more houses of a medieval
village were also found. The paper presents some
data and archaeological material of a cellar, which
probably belonged to a house built on the surface.
The house and the cellar were built and used during
the 14th century. The cellar was digged into a earlier
bigger pit which was opened in the 11–12th centuries
for clay or irons stone mining.
Keywords: mediecal archaeology, Ciuc-basin, 14th
century, cellar
manors. The study presents the medieval manors of Ciuc (Csík) Seat using data from archaeological excavations, building archaeology, old maps and written sources, archive and aerial
photographs, toponimy analysis.
church in Şumuleu Ciuc and the settlement connected to it. The first phase of the church can be
dated based on stratigraphic observations, C14 analysis and archaeological findings from the 12th
century, which show that an early stone church had already been constructed in the 12th century.
This early edifice was then reconstructed and expanded in the following centuries. More
archaeological complexes – from which the current study presents the remains of two houses and
their findings – have been discovered towards west, on the nearby site. The pottery was periodized
based on analogies from Cluj-Mănăştur, Moreşti, Bratei and the Rica Forrest, through C14 analyses
and coin examination. Due to the tipo-chronology and ornamentation of the pottery, the Şumuleufindings
and settlement can be dated back to the 11–12th centuries, which precedes the first written
mention of the area from 1333 by centuries. This fact is essential for the history of the Eastern
Carpathians, because proves the existence of a very early settlement system forerunning the
colonisation of these regions by the Szeklers in the 13th century. The toponymical analyses suggest
that these settlements can be connected to a mixed, but mostly Hungarian-speaking population.
Formally, two groups of castles seem to be outlined: the simple walled hill forts and the castles, often with towers mostly located near settlements. These are lately defined as
castles of local elites. In the absence of data, the more mysterious, simple mountain castles on both sides of the Harghita Mountains (Eastern Carpathians) were considered by older literature to be 11th–12th-century border castles along old roads
(Racu-Pogányvár, Praid-Rabsóné, Varșag-Tartód castle, Ciceu- Csicsói castle). The archaeological finds from older and recent excavations have not confirmed this early date, and it seems that most of these castles were built and used in the 13th century. However, in recent decades, it has become almost an exclusive opinion, that these castles, situated on hardly accessible hilltops far from the settlements, were the communal defensive strongholds of the local population or, in other cases, the refuge of local elites, even if no such evidence has been found. Although no topographical comparison of the castles and the old roads has been made, “hidden” has become a constant marker of these mountain castles. A further important point also remains unanswered: What could be the reason that all these “hidden, inaccessible forts” have a prehistoric origin? What is the explanation for the fact that castles were built on the same mountains in different periods despite the different demographic, military, and
geopolitical contexts?
During the excavation in 2021 of the Pogány Castle in Racu, the author discovered abandoned deep roads in the area around the castle. Researching the traces and chronology of the roads, and verifying old maps, place names, and written records, more and more evidence came to light suggesting that in earlier centuries several routes crossed the Harghita that have been completely forgotten to the present
times.
These old roads followed the ridges sometimes till very high levels, avoided, if possible, crossing the valleys, and only ran along the lower parts of the streams, as opposed to the modern roads that cross valleys regularly. The reconstruction of the old roads and the topographical comparison of the most important archaeological sites in the mountain area revealed close correlations. Previously the localization of some prehistoric castles, Roman watch towers and castellums, ramparts of the Migration Period, castles of the Árpád period, and the isolated medieval chapels was hard to interpret. From the perspective of old roads, the localizations suddenly made sense: they are clear indicators and dating proofs for the existence of mountain paths.
One can say that these field objects of different ages are the secondary ‘consequences’ of transport corridors used since prehistoric times. According to this model, the prehistoric and medieval castles and Roman monuments were built along these corridors, precisely to control them, as were more of the migration-era (!) ramparts that crossed the roads.
In this light, the medieval forts in the area cannot have been ‘hidden defensive castles’, and their historical value is therefore much greater. The castles under study are evidence of the organized control of the eastern passages by the Kingdom of Hungary’s eastern border region defense system in the 13th century.
The archaeological sites and objects of different ages attest not only to the antiquity and the ‘continuous’ use of the roads but also to their trans-local character. These roads are not only transport channels between the valleys of the Olt and the Târnava rivers but more importantly direct witnesses, intermediate elements of a larger millennial traffic between Transylvania and Moldavia.
Identifying and researching these forgotten roads can have a major impact on the settlement history of more periods in the mountain (border) region of the Eastern
Carpathians.
Deanery, located at the eastern border of the Transylvanian Bishopric, a series of stone bell towers were built next to churches in the 15th and 16th centuries. Following the research of recent years, however, it became clear that this question cannot be explained by a single “construction wave”. Archaeological excavations and dendrochronological studies proved that certain stone towers started to be erected earlier, already in the 13th-14th centuries, other mediaeval towers, which were not known earlier, have been identified, but at the same time, it became evident that a significant part of the towers considered to date from the late Gothic period were built later, in the 17th and 18th centuries.
Ages. There are no local historic records about the builders and building circumstances of these chapels, they first appeared in the 17th century and later sources. The later interventions often changed the shape of these buildings and, at the same time, very little research was made regarding their building history. This is the reason why chapels got very slight interest in the historiography. Based on Transylvanian written sources chapels started to spread in the 14th century in this region, while the founders belonged to the upper level of the society. We presume that the same process should happened also in Székely Land even if there are no records about it.
Some of the chapels in Csík have archaic plans, dimensions, like the earliest ones, so at least some of them should be dated in the 14th century. In one case this period is definitely confirmed by
wall paintings, in other cases only late medieval existence was proved. These are small buildings with polygonal sanctuary without buttresses, and equal nave-sanctuary width. They all are located outside the villages with parish churches, the actually surrounding cemeteries were formed only after the 18th
century. The second group of the chapels is situated inside of filia status settlements. Their topographical situation and church-like shape reveals the building motivation and function. They were
used for local masses because of the distance from the parish church. As a natural development most of them became independent parish church later in the 18–19th century.
(Harghita County, Romania) is a featureless 19th
century building without any obvious historical
arhitectural element. Written sources although
prove that a church already stood in the village
at the beginning of the 14th century. At the same
time, archaeological material collected during field
surveys in the area shows the existence of an earlier
settlement, therefore even the existence of the 12th–
13th century church can be presumed. The Medieval
church was destroyed before the construction of the
actual building, but some Medieval elements (a
Gothic Madonna-statue, bell, tabernacle, font) were
preserved. During the restoration works, in 2015,
we managed to document the walls of the Medieval
church, which had more phases: nave, vestry, and
chancel. On the South wall of the nave, the trace
of the entrance could be observed, and also the
remains, pilasters of the later Western gallery. Two
blocks of secondary altars came to light by the East
corners of the nave. The Late Medieval chancel had a
poligonal plan with buttresses and it was covered by a
vault made of terracotta ribs. On the South wall, an
interior niche (for stalls?) and an exterior buttress
could be documented, furthermore the stone block
of the altar and a trace of a crypt were also visible.
This one very probably belonged to the Becz-family
who were the most important patrons of the church
during the Middle Ages. The vestry is clearly older
then the nave, and very probably earlier than the
chancel. After the archaeological surveillance, one
could separate the most important building phases,
but naturally more details still wait for an answer.