This chapter addresses the changes through the years in the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP), one... more This chapter addresses the changes through the years in the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP), one of the oldest and most established policies of the European Union, within the framework of the sustainability and environment, and evaluates the impacts of this change within the Turkish agricultural policies. The chapter has three sections. The introduction offers a background knowledge about CAP. In the second section, the reform progress of the CAP is examined through the years. The third section compares economic data on agriculture in Turkey and the EU. Results of the chapter highlight restructuring of CAP towards policies towards sustainability.
The subject of the railways has been gaining in importance since the second half
of the XIX cent... more The subject of the railways has been gaining in importance since the second half of the XIX century. In terms of Turkey's modernization history, it is seen that railway construction, which started in the Tanzimat Period, continued intensively in the early years ofthe Republic and established social, economic and political ties betweenthe places through which the railway passed and created new centers. Environmental factors are pushing us to rethink the provision of basic needs and transportation today. Railway transport is acknowledged as a viable alternative to alleviate the issues caused by the extensive utilization of road transport, owing to its lower energy consumption and environmentally friendly properties. The main thesis of the study is the question “In the struggle to cope with the climate problem, can a more communitarian, more environmentally friendly, energy-saving railway be a solution to today's problems?” The study aims to understand the railway system in Turkey through historical turning points. At a time when discussions about a sustainable world are being made, thinking about thesocial and environmental impacts created by public transportation requires us to put railway transportation back on the agenda.
Kit kaynak ve sonsuz ihtiyac on kabulleri cercevesinde, gunumuzde hâkim iktisadin ilkelerine bagl... more Kit kaynak ve sonsuz ihtiyac on kabulleri cercevesinde, gunumuzde hâkim iktisadin ilkelerine bagli olarak ortaya cikan elestirel ve destek yonlu cabalar giderek anlam kazanmaktadir. Tum insan faaliyetlerinin, ozellikle de gunumuzde toplumsal eylemin cekirdegi haline gelmis iktisadi faaliyetlerin, tekci (pozitivist) bir yaklasim tarafindan ele alinmasi iktisat biliminin ustune golge dusurmektedir. Hâkim iktisadi yaklasim ile iktisadi faaliyetin, sadece bireyin bakis acisina indirgenerek aciklanmasi; deger yargisi ve subjektivite gibi unsurlarin iktisadin inceledigi nesnenin bir ozelligi olmaktan cikarilmasina neden olmaktadir. Yine, aracsal baglamda ekonometri ile bir degerlendirme yapildiginda, baslangic varsayimlarinin ve deger yargilarinin tekrar uretildigi bir yapinin yaratildigi gorulmektedir.
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC STUDIES ULUSLARARASI SOSYAL VE EKONOMİK ÇALIŞMALAR DERGİSİ Dergi
Kooperatif kavramı dayanışma temellidir ve işbirliğine dayanan bir felsefesi
vardır. Son dönemde... more Kooperatif kavramı dayanışma temellidir ve işbirliğine dayanan bir felsefesi vardır. Son dönemde yaygınlığı artan kooperatifler, kadınların hem ekonomik hem de sosyal alanda güçlenmesinde önemli bir araç haline gelmiştir. Bu çalışma, İzmir’de yer alan kadın kooperatiflerinin pandemi başladığından bu güne deneyimlerini, karşılaşılan sorunları ve çözüm yollarını anlamayı amaçlamıştır. Çalışmanın alan araştırmasında İzmir’de bulunan 8 kadın kooperatifinden 18 katılımcı ile yüz yüze görüşme yapılmıştır. Elde edilen veriler, kadınların kooperatifleşmeye yönelik algılarının olumlu olduğu şeklindedir. Bu bağlamda kadın kooperatiflerinin ekonomik dayanışmayı artırıcı rolünün olduğu saptanmıştır. Kooperatiflerin, pandemi sürecinde kadınların hem ekonomik hem de sosyal alanlarda daha güçlenmesinde kolaylaştırıcı rolü olduğu tespit edilmiştir.
Since the day humans settled down, they have made an effort to transform nature in line with thei... more Since the day humans settled down, they have made an effort to transform nature in line with their own wishes and needs. The damage caused to nature beginning with the industrial revolution has been ignored for a long time. The prevailing understanding of development was that nature overcame this situation by cleansing itself. However, it is obvious that the pollution created in nature does not disappear on its own, as it is thought. The agricultural production process, which is considered the most “innocent”, also contributes negatively to environmental pollution. Especially fertilizers, herbicides, pesticides used in industrial agriculture cause serious damage to the environment. The study aims to deal with the duality of the environmental pollution caused by agriculture and the effects of environmental pollution in agriculture. Sustainable agriculture practices may reduce environmental pollution and enable a sustainable development in terms of agriculture.
The importance of agriculture and food has been well understood once again during the pandemic. F... more The importance of agriculture and food has been well understood once again during the pandemic. Fulfilment of food necessity became the primary concern, which reminded the vital importance of agriculture. This study aims to explore the agricultural and food policies, which grew in importance in our agenda with the pandemic, affect the small producers. The main purpose of the study is to find out the attitudes of small-scaled family farmers in Torbalı against the new situation occurred following the pandemic. In the study qualitative analysis method is used, and the data obtained through in-depth interviews with twenty five producers in ten villages of Torbalı were comparatively analyzed and various findings were reached. Mostly the vegetable producers and dairy farms are negatively affected from the pandemic, however, it is found that the main concern is the structural reasons in agriculture.
Özet Kıt kaynak ve sonsuz ihtiyaç ön kabulleri çerçevesinde, günümüzde hâkim iktisadın ilkelerine... more Özet Kıt kaynak ve sonsuz ihtiyaç ön kabulleri çerçevesinde, günümüzde hâkim iktisadın ilkelerine bağlı olarak ortaya çıkan eleştirel ve destek yönlü çabalar giderek anlam kazanmaktadır. Tüm insan faaliyetlerinin, özellikle de günümüzde toplumsal eylemin çekirdeği haline gelmiş iktisadî faaliyetlerin, tekçi (pozitivist) bir yaklaşım tarafından ele alınması iktisat biliminin üstüne gölge düşürmektedir. Hâkim iktisadi yaklaşım ile iktisadî faaliyetin, sadece bireyin bakış açısına indirgenerek açıklanması; değer yargısı ve sübjektivite gibi unsurların iktisadın incelediği nesnenin bir özelliği olmaktan çıkarılmasına neden olmaktadır. Yine, araçsal bağlamda ekonometri ile bir değerlendirme yapıldığında, başlangıç varsayımlarının ve değer yargılarının tekrar üretildiği bir yapının yaratıldığı görülmektedir. Abstract The general laws of mainstream economics, with the presumptions of scarce resources and unlimited wants, are being questioned. Handling all human activities, especially econo...
Handbook of Research on Social and Economic Development in the European Union, 2020
This chapter addresses the changes through the years in the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP), one... more This chapter addresses the changes through the years in the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP), one of the oldest and most established policies of the European Union, within the framework of the sustainability and environment, and evaluates the impacts of this change within the Turkish agricultural policies. The chapter has three sections. The introduction offers a background knowledge about CAP. In the second section, the reform progress of the CAP is examined through the years. The third section compares economic data on agriculture in Turkey and the EU. Results of the chapter highlight restructuring of CAP towards policies towards sustainability.
Since the day humans settled down, they have made an effort to transform nature in line with thei... more Since the day humans settled down, they have made an effort to transform nature in line with their own wishes and needs. The damage caused to nature beginning with the industrial revolution has been ignored for a long time. The prevailing understanding of development was that nature overcame this situation by cleansing itself. However, it is obvious that the pollution created in nature does not disappear on its own, as it is thought. The agricultural production process, which is considered the most "innocent", also contributes negatively to environmental pollution. Especially fertilizers, herbicides, pesticides used in industrial agriculture cause serious damage to the environment. The study aims to deal with the duality of the environmental pollution caused by agriculture and the effects of environmental pollution in agriculture. Sustainable agriculture practices may reduce environmental pollution and enable a sustainable development in terms of agriculture.
Capitalist accumulation process that differentiated from the feodal production model with its urb... more Capitalist accumulation process that differentiated from the feodal production model with its urban characteristic, at the industrial stage, strongly tied to the territory due to this characteristic. The diminishing tendency of profit rates forced the the capitalist accumulation process to create new technologies and production models emanating from these technologies. In that sense Industrial Revolution brought a plant process based
TOURISM, DEVELOPMENT STUDIES AND URBANIZATION, 2019
Abstract
While the economic growth at the global and local levels increases the income, it also l... more Abstract While the economic growth at the global and local levels increases the income, it also leads to an increase in social and economic inequalities. Cooperatives appear as an alternative to the new production models, marketing strategies and work patterns of the global economy. Today cooperatives, on the one hand constitute an alternative model to the market system, on the other hand have a complementary feature for businesses in the market. Cooperatives all over the world are enterprises in every sector of the economy. Tthey are not only profit oriented, but also within the framework of broader principles and values they operate in a wide range. During the global economic crises, cooperatives can survive as an alternative model and create employment. In this study, it will be discussed whether cooperatives, which have become widespread in recent years against the increasing social and economic inequalities associated with globalization, can constitute an alternative model today. This study constitutes of two parts. In the first part the economic dimensions of globalization, in the second part thorough is the current situation of cooperatives will be assessed in the world and Turkey. Key Words: Globalization, Global Economy, Cooperative
This chapter addresses the changes through the years in the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP), one... more This chapter addresses the changes through the years in the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP), one of the oldest and most established policies of the European Union, within the framework of the sustainability and environment, and evaluates the impacts of this change within the Turkish agricultural policies. The chapter has three sections. The introduction offers a background knowledge about CAP. In the second section, the reform progress of the CAP is examined through the years. The third section compares economic data on agriculture in Turkey and the EU. Results of the chapter highlight restructuring of CAP towards policies towards sustainability.
The subject of the railways has been gaining in importance since the second half
of the XIX cent... more The subject of the railways has been gaining in importance since the second half of the XIX century. In terms of Turkey's modernization history, it is seen that railway construction, which started in the Tanzimat Period, continued intensively in the early years ofthe Republic and established social, economic and political ties betweenthe places through which the railway passed and created new centers. Environmental factors are pushing us to rethink the provision of basic needs and transportation today. Railway transport is acknowledged as a viable alternative to alleviate the issues caused by the extensive utilization of road transport, owing to its lower energy consumption and environmentally friendly properties. The main thesis of the study is the question “In the struggle to cope with the climate problem, can a more communitarian, more environmentally friendly, energy-saving railway be a solution to today's problems?” The study aims to understand the railway system in Turkey through historical turning points. At a time when discussions about a sustainable world are being made, thinking about thesocial and environmental impacts created by public transportation requires us to put railway transportation back on the agenda.
Kit kaynak ve sonsuz ihtiyac on kabulleri cercevesinde, gunumuzde hâkim iktisadin ilkelerine bagl... more Kit kaynak ve sonsuz ihtiyac on kabulleri cercevesinde, gunumuzde hâkim iktisadin ilkelerine bagli olarak ortaya cikan elestirel ve destek yonlu cabalar giderek anlam kazanmaktadir. Tum insan faaliyetlerinin, ozellikle de gunumuzde toplumsal eylemin cekirdegi haline gelmis iktisadi faaliyetlerin, tekci (pozitivist) bir yaklasim tarafindan ele alinmasi iktisat biliminin ustune golge dusurmektedir. Hâkim iktisadi yaklasim ile iktisadi faaliyetin, sadece bireyin bakis acisina indirgenerek aciklanmasi; deger yargisi ve subjektivite gibi unsurlarin iktisadin inceledigi nesnenin bir ozelligi olmaktan cikarilmasina neden olmaktadir. Yine, aracsal baglamda ekonometri ile bir degerlendirme yapildiginda, baslangic varsayimlarinin ve deger yargilarinin tekrar uretildigi bir yapinin yaratildigi gorulmektedir.
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC STUDIES ULUSLARARASI SOSYAL VE EKONOMİK ÇALIŞMALAR DERGİSİ Dergi
Kooperatif kavramı dayanışma temellidir ve işbirliğine dayanan bir felsefesi
vardır. Son dönemde... more Kooperatif kavramı dayanışma temellidir ve işbirliğine dayanan bir felsefesi vardır. Son dönemde yaygınlığı artan kooperatifler, kadınların hem ekonomik hem de sosyal alanda güçlenmesinde önemli bir araç haline gelmiştir. Bu çalışma, İzmir’de yer alan kadın kooperatiflerinin pandemi başladığından bu güne deneyimlerini, karşılaşılan sorunları ve çözüm yollarını anlamayı amaçlamıştır. Çalışmanın alan araştırmasında İzmir’de bulunan 8 kadın kooperatifinden 18 katılımcı ile yüz yüze görüşme yapılmıştır. Elde edilen veriler, kadınların kooperatifleşmeye yönelik algılarının olumlu olduğu şeklindedir. Bu bağlamda kadın kooperatiflerinin ekonomik dayanışmayı artırıcı rolünün olduğu saptanmıştır. Kooperatiflerin, pandemi sürecinde kadınların hem ekonomik hem de sosyal alanlarda daha güçlenmesinde kolaylaştırıcı rolü olduğu tespit edilmiştir.
Since the day humans settled down, they have made an effort to transform nature in line with thei... more Since the day humans settled down, they have made an effort to transform nature in line with their own wishes and needs. The damage caused to nature beginning with the industrial revolution has been ignored for a long time. The prevailing understanding of development was that nature overcame this situation by cleansing itself. However, it is obvious that the pollution created in nature does not disappear on its own, as it is thought. The agricultural production process, which is considered the most “innocent”, also contributes negatively to environmental pollution. Especially fertilizers, herbicides, pesticides used in industrial agriculture cause serious damage to the environment. The study aims to deal with the duality of the environmental pollution caused by agriculture and the effects of environmental pollution in agriculture. Sustainable agriculture practices may reduce environmental pollution and enable a sustainable development in terms of agriculture.
The importance of agriculture and food has been well understood once again during the pandemic. F... more The importance of agriculture and food has been well understood once again during the pandemic. Fulfilment of food necessity became the primary concern, which reminded the vital importance of agriculture. This study aims to explore the agricultural and food policies, which grew in importance in our agenda with the pandemic, affect the small producers. The main purpose of the study is to find out the attitudes of small-scaled family farmers in Torbalı against the new situation occurred following the pandemic. In the study qualitative analysis method is used, and the data obtained through in-depth interviews with twenty five producers in ten villages of Torbalı were comparatively analyzed and various findings were reached. Mostly the vegetable producers and dairy farms are negatively affected from the pandemic, however, it is found that the main concern is the structural reasons in agriculture.
Özet Kıt kaynak ve sonsuz ihtiyaç ön kabulleri çerçevesinde, günümüzde hâkim iktisadın ilkelerine... more Özet Kıt kaynak ve sonsuz ihtiyaç ön kabulleri çerçevesinde, günümüzde hâkim iktisadın ilkelerine bağlı olarak ortaya çıkan eleştirel ve destek yönlü çabalar giderek anlam kazanmaktadır. Tüm insan faaliyetlerinin, özellikle de günümüzde toplumsal eylemin çekirdeği haline gelmiş iktisadî faaliyetlerin, tekçi (pozitivist) bir yaklaşım tarafından ele alınması iktisat biliminin üstüne gölge düşürmektedir. Hâkim iktisadi yaklaşım ile iktisadî faaliyetin, sadece bireyin bakış açısına indirgenerek açıklanması; değer yargısı ve sübjektivite gibi unsurların iktisadın incelediği nesnenin bir özelliği olmaktan çıkarılmasına neden olmaktadır. Yine, araçsal bağlamda ekonometri ile bir değerlendirme yapıldığında, başlangıç varsayımlarının ve değer yargılarının tekrar üretildiği bir yapının yaratıldığı görülmektedir. Abstract The general laws of mainstream economics, with the presumptions of scarce resources and unlimited wants, are being questioned. Handling all human activities, especially econo...
Handbook of Research on Social and Economic Development in the European Union, 2020
This chapter addresses the changes through the years in the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP), one... more This chapter addresses the changes through the years in the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP), one of the oldest and most established policies of the European Union, within the framework of the sustainability and environment, and evaluates the impacts of this change within the Turkish agricultural policies. The chapter has three sections. The introduction offers a background knowledge about CAP. In the second section, the reform progress of the CAP is examined through the years. The third section compares economic data on agriculture in Turkey and the EU. Results of the chapter highlight restructuring of CAP towards policies towards sustainability.
Since the day humans settled down, they have made an effort to transform nature in line with thei... more Since the day humans settled down, they have made an effort to transform nature in line with their own wishes and needs. The damage caused to nature beginning with the industrial revolution has been ignored for a long time. The prevailing understanding of development was that nature overcame this situation by cleansing itself. However, it is obvious that the pollution created in nature does not disappear on its own, as it is thought. The agricultural production process, which is considered the most "innocent", also contributes negatively to environmental pollution. Especially fertilizers, herbicides, pesticides used in industrial agriculture cause serious damage to the environment. The study aims to deal with the duality of the environmental pollution caused by agriculture and the effects of environmental pollution in agriculture. Sustainable agriculture practices may reduce environmental pollution and enable a sustainable development in terms of agriculture.
Capitalist accumulation process that differentiated from the feodal production model with its urb... more Capitalist accumulation process that differentiated from the feodal production model with its urban characteristic, at the industrial stage, strongly tied to the territory due to this characteristic. The diminishing tendency of profit rates forced the the capitalist accumulation process to create new technologies and production models emanating from these technologies. In that sense Industrial Revolution brought a plant process based
TOURISM, DEVELOPMENT STUDIES AND URBANIZATION, 2019
Abstract
While the economic growth at the global and local levels increases the income, it also l... more Abstract While the economic growth at the global and local levels increases the income, it also leads to an increase in social and economic inequalities. Cooperatives appear as an alternative to the new production models, marketing strategies and work patterns of the global economy. Today cooperatives, on the one hand constitute an alternative model to the market system, on the other hand have a complementary feature for businesses in the market. Cooperatives all over the world are enterprises in every sector of the economy. Tthey are not only profit oriented, but also within the framework of broader principles and values they operate in a wide range. During the global economic crises, cooperatives can survive as an alternative model and create employment. In this study, it will be discussed whether cooperatives, which have become widespread in recent years against the increasing social and economic inequalities associated with globalization, can constitute an alternative model today. This study constitutes of two parts. In the first part the economic dimensions of globalization, in the second part thorough is the current situation of cooperatives will be assessed in the world and Turkey. Key Words: Globalization, Global Economy, Cooperative
Kır ve kent arasındaki ilişkinin nasıl (yeniden) kurulacağı yanıtlanması gereken bir soru. Yeni k... more Kır ve kent arasındaki ilişkinin nasıl (yeniden) kurulacağı yanıtlanması gereken bir soru. Yeni köylülük, alternatif gıda inisiyatifleri, üretim ve tüketim kooperatifleri, gıda toplulukları, müşterekler ve yerel yönetimlerin çeşitli uygulamaları son dönemde daha önemli konular haline geldi. Gıda egemenliğinin temel prensiplerinden biri ‘yerel’ olmaktır. Korona virüsü de yerel gıda sistemlerinin ne kadar önemli olduğunu bize tekrardan gösterdi.
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of the XIX century. In terms of Turkey's modernization history, it is seen that
railway construction, which started in the Tanzimat Period, continued
intensively in the early years ofthe Republic and established social, economic and
political ties betweenthe places through which the railway passed and created
new centers. Environmental factors are pushing us to rethink the provision of
basic needs and transportation today. Railway transport is acknowledged as a
viable alternative to alleviate the issues caused by the extensive utilization of
road transport, owing to its lower energy consumption and environmentally
friendly properties. The main thesis of the study is the question “In the struggle
to cope with the climate problem, can a more communitarian, more
environmentally friendly, energy-saving railway be a solution to today's
problems?” The study aims to understand the railway system in Turkey through historical turning points. At a time when discussions about a sustainable world are being made, thinking about thesocial and environmental impacts created by public transportation requires us to put railway transportation back on the agenda.
vardır. Son dönemde yaygınlığı artan kooperatifler, kadınların hem ekonomik
hem de sosyal alanda güçlenmesinde önemli bir araç haline gelmiştir. Bu
çalışma, İzmir’de yer alan kadın kooperatiflerinin pandemi başladığından bu
güne deneyimlerini, karşılaşılan sorunları ve çözüm yollarını anlamayı
amaçlamıştır. Çalışmanın alan araştırmasında İzmir’de bulunan 8 kadın
kooperatifinden 18 katılımcı ile yüz yüze görüşme yapılmıştır. Elde edilen veriler, kadınların kooperatifleşmeye yönelik algılarının olumlu olduğu şeklindedir. Bu bağlamda kadın kooperatiflerinin ekonomik dayanışmayı artırıcı rolünün olduğu saptanmıştır. Kooperatiflerin, pandemi sürecinde kadınların hem ekonomik hem de sosyal alanlarda daha güçlenmesinde kolaylaştırıcı rolü olduğu tespit edilmiştir.
While the economic growth at the global and local levels increases the income, it also leads to an increase in social and economic inequalities. Cooperatives appear as an alternative to the new production models, marketing
strategies and work patterns of the global economy. Today cooperatives, on the one hand constitute an alternative model to the market system, on the other hand have a complementary feature for businesses in the market.
Cooperatives all over the world are enterprises in every sector of the economy. Tthey are not only profit oriented,
but also within the framework of broader principles and values they operate in a wide range. During the global
economic crises, cooperatives can survive as an alternative model and create employment.
In this study, it will be discussed whether cooperatives, which have become widespread in recent years against the
increasing social and economic inequalities associated with globalization, can constitute an alternative model today. This study constitutes of two parts. In the first part the economic dimensions of globalization, in the second
part thorough is the current situation of cooperatives will be assessed in the world and Turkey.
Key Words: Globalization, Global Economy, Cooperative
of the XIX century. In terms of Turkey's modernization history, it is seen that
railway construction, which started in the Tanzimat Period, continued
intensively in the early years ofthe Republic and established social, economic and
political ties betweenthe places through which the railway passed and created
new centers. Environmental factors are pushing us to rethink the provision of
basic needs and transportation today. Railway transport is acknowledged as a
viable alternative to alleviate the issues caused by the extensive utilization of
road transport, owing to its lower energy consumption and environmentally
friendly properties. The main thesis of the study is the question “In the struggle
to cope with the climate problem, can a more communitarian, more
environmentally friendly, energy-saving railway be a solution to today's
problems?” The study aims to understand the railway system in Turkey through historical turning points. At a time when discussions about a sustainable world are being made, thinking about thesocial and environmental impacts created by public transportation requires us to put railway transportation back on the agenda.
vardır. Son dönemde yaygınlığı artan kooperatifler, kadınların hem ekonomik
hem de sosyal alanda güçlenmesinde önemli bir araç haline gelmiştir. Bu
çalışma, İzmir’de yer alan kadın kooperatiflerinin pandemi başladığından bu
güne deneyimlerini, karşılaşılan sorunları ve çözüm yollarını anlamayı
amaçlamıştır. Çalışmanın alan araştırmasında İzmir’de bulunan 8 kadın
kooperatifinden 18 katılımcı ile yüz yüze görüşme yapılmıştır. Elde edilen veriler, kadınların kooperatifleşmeye yönelik algılarının olumlu olduğu şeklindedir. Bu bağlamda kadın kooperatiflerinin ekonomik dayanışmayı artırıcı rolünün olduğu saptanmıştır. Kooperatiflerin, pandemi sürecinde kadınların hem ekonomik hem de sosyal alanlarda daha güçlenmesinde kolaylaştırıcı rolü olduğu tespit edilmiştir.
While the economic growth at the global and local levels increases the income, it also leads to an increase in social and economic inequalities. Cooperatives appear as an alternative to the new production models, marketing
strategies and work patterns of the global economy. Today cooperatives, on the one hand constitute an alternative model to the market system, on the other hand have a complementary feature for businesses in the market.
Cooperatives all over the world are enterprises in every sector of the economy. Tthey are not only profit oriented,
but also within the framework of broader principles and values they operate in a wide range. During the global
economic crises, cooperatives can survive as an alternative model and create employment.
In this study, it will be discussed whether cooperatives, which have become widespread in recent years against the
increasing social and economic inequalities associated with globalization, can constitute an alternative model today. This study constitutes of two parts. In the first part the economic dimensions of globalization, in the second
part thorough is the current situation of cooperatives will be assessed in the world and Turkey.
Key Words: Globalization, Global Economy, Cooperative