Varying Light Intensities Affect Lettuce Growth and Physiology in Controlled Indoor Environments
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Experimental Setup and Treatments
2.2. Plant Material
2.3. Data Collection and Calculations
2.4. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Dry Weight
3.2. Total Incident Light
3.3. Dry Weight in Relation to Total Incident Light
3.4. Light Use Efficiency
3.5. Photochemical Efficiency or Quantum Yield of Photosystem II
3.6. Photosynthesis and Electron Transport Rate
3.7. Transpiration
3.8. Water Use Efficiency
3.9. Plant Growth Rate
3.10. Tipburn
4. Discussion
4.1. Dry Weight, Total Incident Light, and Plant Growth Rate
4.2. Light Use Efficiency
4.3. Efficiency of Photosystem II
4.4. Electron Transport Rate and Photosynthesis
4.5. Transpiration and Water Use Efficiency
4.6. Tipburn
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Horrigan, L.; Lawrence, R.S.; Walker, P. How sustainable agriculture can address the environmental and human health harms of industrial agriculture. Environ. Health Perspect. 2022, 110, 445–456. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Sankhla, M.; Kumari, M.; Sharma, K.; Kushwah, R.; Kumar, R. Water contamination through pesticide & their toxic effect on human health. Int. J. Res. Appl. Sci. Eng. Technol. 2018, 6, 967–970. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lindstrom, M.J.; Lobb, D.; Schumacher, T. Tillage erosion: An overview. Ann. Dryland Res. 2001, 40, 345–358. [Google Scholar]
- Nawaz, M.F.; Bourrié, G.; Trolard, F. Soil compaction impact and modelling. A review. Agron. Sustain. Dev. 2013, 33, 291–309. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Alam, A. Soil degradation: A challenge to sustainable agriculture. Int. J. Sci. Res. Agric. Sci. 2014, 1, 50–55. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wakeland, W.; Cholette, S.; Venkat, K. Food transportation issues and reducing carbon footprint. In Green Technologies in Food Production and Processing; Boye, J., Arcand, Y., Eds.; Springer: Boston, MA, USA, 2012; pp. 211–236. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Onwude, D.I.; Chen, G.; Eke-emezie, N.; Kabutey, A.; Khaled, A.Y.; Sturm, B. Recent Advances in reducing food losses in the supply chain of fresh agricultural produce. Processes 2021, 8, 1431. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ragaveena, S.; Shirly Edward, A.; Surendran, U. Smart controlled environment agriculture methods: A holistic review. Rev. Environ. Sci. Biotechnol. 2021, 20, 887–913. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Benke, K.; Tomkins, B. Future food-production systems: Vertical farming and controlled-environment agriculture. Sustain. Sci. Pract. Policy 2017, 13, 13–26. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zhang, Z.; Rod, M.; Hosseinian, F. A comprehensive review on sustainable industrial vertical farming using film farming technology. Sustain. Agric. Res. 2021, 526, 2021–2496. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kozai, T.; Niu, G.; Takagaki, M. Plant Factory: An Indoor Vertical Farming System for Efficient Quality Food Production, 1st ed.; Academic Press: Cambridge, MA, USA, 2016; ISBN 978-0-12-801775-3. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zeidler, C.; Schubert, D.; Vrakking, V. Feasibility Study: Vertical Farm EDEN; German Aerospace Center, Institute of Space Systems: Bremen, Germany, 2013. [Google Scholar]
- van Iersel, M.W. Optimizing LED lighting in controlled environment agriculture. In Light Emitting Diodes for Agriculture: Smart Lighting; Dutta Gupta, S., Ed.; Springer: Singapore, 2017; pp. 59–80. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pennisi, G.; Pistillo, A.; Orsini, F.; Cellini, A.; Spinelli, F.; Nicola, S.; Fernandez, J.A.; Crepaldi, A.; Gianquinto, G.; Marcelis, L.F. Optimal light intensity for sustainable water and energy use in indoor cultivation of lettuce and basil under red and blue LEDs. Sci. Hortic. 2020, 272, 109508. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zou, J.; Zhang, Y.; Zhang, Y.; Bian, Z.; Fanourakis, D.; Yang, Q.; Li, T. Morphological and physiological properties of indoor cultivated lettuce in response to additional far-red light. Sci. Hortic. 2019, 257, 108725. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Jayalath, T.C.; van Iersel, M.W. Canopy size and light use efficiency explain growth differences between lettuce and mizuna in vertical farms. Plants 2021, 10, 704. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Kudirka, G.; Viršilė, A.; Laužikė, K.; Sutulienė, R.; Samuolienė, G. Photosynthetic photon flux density effects on Portulaca olearacea in controlled-environment agriculture. Plants 2023, 12, 3622. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Kelly, N.; Choe, D.; Meng, Q.; Runkle, E.S. Promotion of lettuce growth under an increasing daily light integral depends on the combination of the photosynthetic photon flux density and photoperiod. Sci. Hortic. 2020, 272, 109565. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tarr, S.T.; Valle de Souza, S.; Lopez, R.G. Influence of day and night temperature and radiation intensity on growth, quality, and economics of indoor Green Butterhead and Red Oakleaf lettuce production. Sustainability 2023, 15, 829. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Klassen, S.P.; Ritchie, G.L.; Frantz, J.M.; Pinnock, D.R.; Bugbee, B. Real-time imaging of ground cover: Relationships with radiation capture, canopy photosynthesis, and daily growth rate. In Digital Imaging and Spectral Techniques: Applications to Precision Agriculture and Crop Physiology; American Society of Agronomy: Minneapolis, MN, USA, 2003; pp. 3–14. [Google Scholar]
- Solbach, J.A.; Fricke, A.; Stützel, H. Seasonal efficiency of supplemental LED lighting on growth and photomorphogenesis of sweet basil. Front. Plant Sci. 2021, 12, 609975. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Jin, W.; Formiga Lopez, D.; Heuvelink, E.; Marcelis, L.F. Light use efficiency of lettuce cultivation in vertical farms compared with greenhouse and field. Food Energy Secur. 2023, 12, e391. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Li, T.; Kromdijk, J.; Heuvelink, E.; Van Noort, F.R.; Kaiser, E.; Marcelis, L.F. Effects of diffuse light on radiation use efficiency of two Anthurium cultivars depend on the response of stomatal conductance to dynamic light intensity. Front. Plant Sci. 2016, 7, 167966. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Weaver, G.; van Iersel, M.W. Longer photoperiods with adaptive lighting control can improve the growth of greenhouse-grown ‘Little Gem’lettuce (Lactuca sativa). HortScience 2020, 55, 573–580. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Medlyn, B.E. Physiological basis of the light use efficiency model. Tree Physiol. 1998, 18, 167–176. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Stewart, J.J.; Adams, W.W., III; Escobar, C.M.; López-Pozo, M.; Demmig-Adams, B. Growth and essential carotenoid micronutrients in Lemna gibba as a function of growth light intensity. Front. Plant Sci. 2020, 11, 480. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Elkins, C.; van Iersel, M.W. Longer photoperiods with the same daily light integral increase daily electron transport through photosystem II in lettuce. Plants 2020, 9, 1172. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ruban, A.V. Quantifying the efficiency of photoprotection. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B Biol. Sci. 2017, 372, 20160393. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Ruban, A.V. Plants in light. Commun. Integr. Biol. 2009, 2, 50–55. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- van Iersel, M.W.; Weaver, G.; Martin, M.T.; Ferrarezi, R.S.; Mattos, E.; Haidekker, M. A Chlorophyll fluorescence-based biofeedback system to control photosynthetic lighting in controlled environment agriculture. J. Am. Soc. Hortic. Sci. 2016, 141, 169–176. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Maxwell, K.; Johnson, G.N. Chlorophyll fluorescence: A practical guide. J. Exp. Bot. 2000, 51, 659–668. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Li, S.H.; Ge, Z.M.; Xie, L.N.; Chen, W.; Yuan, L.; Wang, D.Q.; Li, X.Z.; Zhang, L.Q. Ecophysiological response of native and exotic salt marsh vegetation to waterlogging and salinity: Implications for the effects of sea-level rise. Sci. Rep. 2018, 8, 2441. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Watson, R.T.; Boudreau, M.C.; van Iersel, M.W. Simulation of greenhouse energy use: An application of energy informatics. Energy Inf. 2018, 1, 1. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pannewitz, S.; Green, T.G.A.; Scheidegger, C.; Schlensog, M.; Schroeter, B. Activity pattern of the moss Hennediella heimii (Hedw.) Zand. in the Dry Valleys, Southern Victoria Land, Antarctica during the mid-austral summer. Polar Biol. 2003, 26, 545–551. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Guidi, L.; Degl’Innocenti, E.; Fambrini, M.; Pugliesi, C.; Soldatini, G.F. Gas exchange analysis and chlorophyll fluorescence in cotyledons of the xan1 sunflower mutant with defects in light energy utilization. Environ. Exp. Bot. 2006, 56, 182–189. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zhou, J.; Wang, J.Z.; Hang, T.; Li, P.P. Photosynthetic characteristics and growth performance of lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) under different light/dark cycles in mini plant factories. Photosynthetica 2020, 58, 740–747. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zhou, J.; Li, P.; Wang, J. Effects of Light Intensity and Temperature on the Photosynthesis Characteristics and Yield of Lettuce. Horticulturae 2022, 8, 178. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Jishi, T.; Matsuda, R.; Fujiwara, K. Effects of photosynthetic photon flux density, frequency, duty ratio, and their interactions on net photosynthetic rate of cos lettuce leaves under pulsed light: Explanation based on photosynthetic-intermediate pool dynamics. Photosynth. Res. 2018, 136, 371–378. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Li, Y.; Xin, G.; Liu, C.; Shi, Q.; Yang, F.; Wei, M. Effects of red and blue light on leaf anatomy, CO2 assimilation and the photosynthetic electron transport capacity of sweet pepper (Capsicum annuum L.) seedlings. BMC Plant Biol. 2020, 20, 318. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yan, N.; Xu, X.F.; Wang, Z.D.; Huang, J.Z.; Guo, D.P. Interactive effects of temperature and light intensity on photosynthesis and antioxidant enzyme activity in Zizania latifolia Turcz. plants. Photosynthetica 2013, 51, 127–138. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ke, X.; Yoshida, H.; Hikosaka, S.; Goto, E. Optimization of photosynthetic photon flux density and light quality for increasing radiation-use efficiency in dwarf tomato under LED light at the vegetative growth stage. Plants 2022, 11, 121. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gavhane, K.P.; Hasan, M.; Singh, D.K.; Kumar, S.N.; Sahoo, R.N.; Alam, W. Determination of optimal daily light integral (DLI) for indoor cultivation of iceberg lettuce in an indigenous vertical hydroponic system. Sci. Rep. 2023, 13, 10923. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Albornoz, F.; Lieth, J.H.; González-Fuentes, J.A. Effect of different day and night nutrient solution concentrations on growth, photosynthesis, and leaf NO3-content of aeroponically grown lettuce. Chil. J. Agric. Res. 2014, 74, 240–245. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lanoue, J.; Leonardos, E.D.; Grodzinski, B. Artificial lighting technologies for agricultural production. In Comprehensive Biotechnology, 3rd ed.; Moo-Young, M., Ed.; Pergamon: Oxford, UK, 2019; Volume 4, pp. 818–832. ISBN 9780444640475. [Google Scholar]
- Matsuda, R. Effects of physical environment on photosynthesis, respiration, and transpiration. In LED Lighting for Urban Agriculture; Kozai, T., Fujiwara, K., Runkle, E., Eds.; Springer: Singapore, 2016. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hanba, Y.T.; Kogami, H.; Terashima, I. The effect of growth irradiance on leaf anatomy and photosynthesis in Acer species differing in light demand. Plant Cell Environ. 2020, 25, 1021–1030. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Farquhar, G.D.; Ehleringer, J.R.; Hubick, K.T. Carbon isotope discrimination and photosynthesis. Annu. Rev. Plant Biol. 1989, 40, 503–537. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bruns, A.H. Flag leaf photosynthesis and stomatal function of grain sorghum as influenced by changing photosynthetic photon flux densities. Int. J. Agron. 2016, 2016, 1363740. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Fkiri, S.; Rzigui, T.; Ghazghazi, H.; Khouja, L.M.; Khaldi, A.; Guibal, F.; Nasr, Z. Ecotype effects on photosynthesis performance using A/PFFD among Pinus nigra Arn. Not. Bot. Horti Agrobot. Cluj-Napoca 2023, 51, 12599. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ghorbanzadeh, P.; Aliniaeifard, S.; Esmaeili, M.; Mashal, M.; Azadegan, B.; Seif, M. Dependency of growth, water use efficiency, chlorophyll fluorescence, and stomatal characteristics of lettuce plants to light intensity. J. Plant Growth Regul. 2021, 40, 2191–2207. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lee, J.G.; Choi, C.S.; Jang, Y.A.; Jang, S.W.; Lee, S.G.; Um, Y.C. Effects of air temperature and air flow rate control on the tipburn occurrence of leaf lettuce in a closed-type plant factory system. Hortic. Environ. Biotechnol. 2013, 54, 303–310. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Clarkson, D.T. Calcium transport between tissues and its distribution in the plant. Plant Cell Environ. 1984, 7, 449–456. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sago, Y. Effects of light intensity and growth rate on tipburn development and leaf calcium concentration in butterhead lettuce. HortScience 2016, 51, 1087–1091. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
PPFD (µmol·m−2·s−1) | DLI (mol·m−2·d−1) |
---|---|
123.3 ± 2.516 | 8.88 ± 0.1808 |
174.3 ± 1.527 | 12.55 ± 0.106 |
223.3 ± 2.081 | 16.41 ± 0.431 |
273.6 ± 1.527 | 19.70 ± 0.1123 |
324 ± 2 | 23.32 ± 0.1450 |
372 ± 2.645 | 26.78 ± 0.1908 |
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content. |
© 2024 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Mayorga-Gomez, A.M.; van Iersel, M.W.; Ferrarezi, R.S. Varying Light Intensities Affect Lettuce Growth and Physiology in Controlled Indoor Environments. Horticulturae 2024, 10, 931. https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae10090931
Mayorga-Gomez AM, van Iersel MW, Ferrarezi RS. Varying Light Intensities Affect Lettuce Growth and Physiology in Controlled Indoor Environments. Horticulturae. 2024; 10(9):931. https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae10090931
Chicago/Turabian StyleMayorga-Gomez, Andres M., Marc W. van Iersel, and Rhuanito Soranz Ferrarezi. 2024. "Varying Light Intensities Affect Lettuce Growth and Physiology in Controlled Indoor Environments" Horticulturae 10, no. 9: 931. https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae10090931