Change Detection in Coral Reef Environment Using High-Resolution Images: Comparison of Object-Based and Pixel-Based Paradigms
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Area
2.2. Data Set and Image Preprocessing
2.3. Object-Based Coral Reef Change Detection
2.3.1. Multi-Temporal Segmentation
2.3.2. Object Feature Selection and Calculation
2.3.3. Sampling Changed Objects
2.3.4. Recognizing Changed Objects Using the RF Algorithm
2.4. Pixel-Based Coral Reef Change Detection
2.5. Accuracy Assessment and Statistical Comparisons
2.5.1. Confusion Matrix Based on Pixel Number, Object Number, and Object Area
2.5.2. Statistical Hypothesis Test for PBCD and OBCD Accuracy Assessment
3. Results
3.1. Visual Examination of PBCD and OBCD Maps
3.1.1. An Observation of PBCD Maps
3.1.2. An Observation of OBCD Maps
3.2. Quantitative Evaluations of PBCD and OBCD Performances
3.2.1. PBCD and OBCD Accuracy Assessment
3.2.2. Z-Test Results of the Accuracy Assessment
4. Discussion
4.1. Pros and Cons of the Proposed OBCD Method
4.2. The Superiority of the OBCD Method to the PBCD Method
4.3. Application of PBCD and OBCD Methods in Multiple Coral Reef Study Areas
4.4. Object-Number-Based and Object-Area-Based Accuracy Assessment
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
Zhongye Island | ||||
Types | Area in 2005 (m2) | Proportion in 2005 (%) | Area in 2010 (m2) | Proportion in 2010 (%) |
Buildings and infrastructures | 154,819.86 | 24.85 | 145,485.35 | 23.35 |
Ocean | 237,918.29 | 38.18 | 237,576.74 | 38.13 |
Bare land | 35,529.86 | 5.70 | 35,064.84 | 5.63 |
Beach | 20,092.13 | 3.22 | 26,716.40 | 4.29 |
Vegetation | 174,709.09 | 28.04 | 178,225.91 | 28.60 |
Sum | 623,069.23 | 100.00 | 623,069.23 | 100.00 |
Taiping Island | ||||
Types | Area in 2004 (m2) | Proportion in 2004 (%) | Area in 2010 (m2) | Proportion in 2010 (%) |
Buildings and infrastructures | 67,932.38 | 9.17 | 127,455.08 | 17.20 |
Ocean | 323,486.86 | 43.65 | 313,509.64 | 42.31 |
Bare land | 34,235.36 | 4.62 | 42,485.03 | 5.73 |
Beach | 37,762.43 | 5.10 | 50,523.22 | 6.82 |
Vegetation | 277,608.10 | 37.46 | 207,052.17 | 27.94 |
Sum | 741,025.13 | 100.00 | 741,025.13 | 100.00 |
Barque Canada Reef Site 1 | ||||
Types | Area in 2013 (m2) | Proportion in 2013 (%) | Area in 2015 (m2) | Proportion in 2015 (%) |
Algae-dominated | 117,799.30 | 5.23 | 316,069.08 | 14.04 |
Lagoon | 235,411.50 | 10.46 | 7519.96 | 0.33 |
Ocean | 462,830.44 | 20.56 | 220,900.08 | 9.81 |
Coral-dominated | 270,640.08 | 12.02 | 241,113.99 | 10.71 |
Sand | 400,262.34 | 17.78 | 485,582.71 | 21.57 |
Rubble-dominated | 763,992.35 | 33.94 | 225,862.78 | 10.03 |
Aquatic vegetation | — | — | 753,887.39 | 33.49 |
Sum | 2,250,936.00 | 100.00 | 2,250,936.00 | 100.00 |
Barque Canada Reef Site 2 | ||||
Types | Area in 2013 (m2) | Proportion in 2013 (%) | Area in 2015 (m2) | Proportion in 2015 (%) |
Algae-dominated | 11679.00 | 0.36 | 33,324.13 | 1.03 |
Ocean | 715,696.91 | 22.03 | 720,942.45 | 22.19 |
Coral-dominated | 551,229.00 | 16.97 | 500,371.97 | 15.40 |
Rubble-dominated | 868,028.67 | 26.72 | 892,846.00 | 27.48 |
Sand | 1,102,457.99 | 33.93 | 1,000,743.93 | 30.80 |
Aquatic vegetation | — | — | 100,863.09 | 3.10 |
Sum | 3,249,091.57 | 100.00 | 3,249,091.57 | 100.00 |
Change Categories | Zhongye Island | Taiping Island | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Area (m2) | Proportion (%) | Area (m2) | Proportion (%) | |
Coastal accretion | 13,485.46 | 2.16 | 16,761.46 | 2.26 |
No change | 517,984.69 | 83.13 | 577,412.20 | 77.92 |
Others | 1490.03 | 0.24 | 36,902.00 | 4.98 |
Sea level rise or coastal erosion | 5327.20 | 0.85 | 2813.15 | 0.38 |
Vegetation deterioration | 39,262.32 | 6.30 | 81,149.28 | 10.95 |
Vegetation growth or plantation | 45,519.53 | 7.31 | 25,987.05 | 3.51 |
Sum | 623,069.23 | 100.00 | 741,025.13 | 100.00 |
Change Categories | Barque Canada Reef Site 1 | Barque Canada Reef Site 2 | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Area (m2) | Proportion (%) | Area (m2) | Proportion (%) | |
Algae growth | 73,015.26 | 3.24% | 21,655.81 | 0.67 |
Aquatic vegetation growth | 7475.63 | 0.33% | 100,852.41 | 3.10 |
Reef sediments extension | 20,314.33 | 0.90% | 30,428.52 | 0.94 |
Algae degradation | 8006.50 | 0.36% | — | — |
No change | 2,141,469.54 | 95.16% | 3,096,154.87 | 95.29 |
Sum | 2,250,281.25 | 100.00% | 3,249,091.60 | 100.00 |
Change Categories | Zhongye Island | Taiping Island | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Training | Validation | Training | Validation | |
Coastal accretion | 17 | 39 | 28 | 66 |
No change | 1023 | 2386 | 684 | 1596 |
Others | 2 | 5 | 52 | 121 |
Sea level rise or coastal erosion | 11 | 26 | 5 | 12 |
Vegetation deterioration | 21 | 48 | 100 | 234 |
Vegetation growth or plantation | 28 | 65 | 33 | 76 |
Sum | 1101 | 2569 | 902 | 2105 |
Change Categories | Barque Canada Reef Site 1 | Barque Canada Reef Site 2 | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Training | Validation | Training | Validation | |
Algae growth | 103 | 240 | 40 | 93 |
Aquatic vegetation growth | 7 | 16 | 128 | 299 |
Reef sediments extension | 30 | 71 | 69 | 161 |
Algae degradation | 8 | 18 | — | — |
No change | 2695 | 6290 | 3199 | 7466 |
Sum | 2843 | 6635 | 3436 | 8019 |
Change Categories | Zhongye Island | Taiping Island | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Training | Validation | Training | Validation | |
Coastal accretion | 453 | 1058 | 1241 | 2895 |
No change | 9828 | 22,933 | 13,218 | 30,843 |
Others | 72 | 169 | 357 | 834 |
Sea level rise or coastal erosion | 191 | 446 | 1376 | 3211 |
Vegetation deterioration | 765 | 1784 | 3111 | 7259 |
Vegetation growth or plantation | 1373 | 3203 | 1650 | 3850 |
Sum | 12,683 | 29,593 | 20,954 | 48,892 |
Change Categories | Barque Canada Reef Site 1 | Barque Canada Reef Site 2 | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Training | Validation | Training | Validation | |
Algae growth | 6518 | 15,209 | 1725 | 4025 |
Aquatic vegetation growth | 471 | 1098 | 4404 | 10,277 |
Reef sediments extension | 1814 | 4233 | 2407 | 5616 |
Algae degradation | 645 | 1506 | — | — |
No change | 128,840 | 300,626 | 129,200 | 301,466 |
Sum | 138,288 | 322,672 | 137,736 | 321,384 |
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Parameter | Zhongye Island | Taiping Island | Barque Canada Reef |
---|---|---|---|
Data | 22 April 2005 | 14 April 2004 | 20 May 2013 |
8 June 2010 | 20 February 2010 | 24 July 2015 | |
Sensor | QuickBird | QuickBird | WorldView-2 |
Spatial resolution (m) | MS 1: 2.4 | MS: 2.4 | MS: 2.0 |
PAN 2: 0.6 | PAN: 0.6 | PAN: 0.5 | |
Spectral band (μm) | Blue: 0.45–0.52 Green: 0.52–0.60 Red: 0.63–0.69 Near IR: 0.76–0.90 | Blue: 0.45–0.52 Green: 0.52–0.60 Red: 0.63–0.69 Near IR: 0.76–0.90 | Coastal: 0.400–0.450 |
Blue: 0.450–0.510 | |||
Green: 0.510–0.580 | |||
Yellow: 0.585–0.625 | |||
Red: 0.630–0.690 | |||
Red Edge: 0.705–0.745 | |||
NIR1: 0.770–0.895 | |||
NIR2: 0.860–1.040 |
Surface Type in Time 1 | Surface Type in Time 2 | Change Category |
---|---|---|
Vegetation | Buildings and infrastructures | Vegetation deterioration |
Bare land | ||
Beach | ||
Ocean | Sea level rise or coastal erosion | |
Beach | Buildings and infrastructures | Others |
Ocean | Sea level rise or coastal erosion | |
Vegetation | vegetation growth or plantation | |
Ocean | Buildings and infrastructures | Others |
Beach | Coastal accretion | |
Vegetation | Vegetation growth or plantation | |
Buildings and infrastructures | Vegetation | Vegetation growth or plantation |
Bare land | Others | |
Bare land | Beach | Coastal accretion |
Ocean | Sea level rise or coastal erosion | |
Vegetation | Vegetation growth or plantation | |
Buildings and infrastructures | Others |
Habitat Type in Time 1 | Habitat Type in Time 2 | Change Category |
---|---|---|
Sand | Algae-dominated | Algae growth |
Sand | Aquatic vegetation | Aquatic vegetation growth |
Rubble-dominated | Coral-dominated | Reef sediments extension |
Algae-dominated | Sand | Algae degradation |
Zhongye Island | Reference | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Pixel Number | Coastal Accretion | No Change | Others | Sea Level Rise or Coastal Erosion | Vegetation Deterioration | Vegetation Growth or Plantation | Total |
Coastal accretion | 768 | 423 | 27 | 0 | 119 | 14 | 1351 |
No change | 84 | 17,882 | 42 | 18 | 311 | 821 | 19,158 |
Others | 52 | 1499 | 55 | 3 | 108 | 157 | 1874 |
Sea level rise or coastal erosion | 55 | 272 | 5 | 416 | 62 | 0 | 810 |
Vegetation deterioration | 66 | 1305 | 15 | 3 | 1113 | 46 | 2548 |
Vegetation growth or plantation | 33 | 1552 | 25 | 6 | 71 | 2165 | 3852 |
Total | 1058 | 22,933 | 169 | 446 | 1784 | 3203 | 29,593 |
PA (%) | 72.6 | 78 | 32.5 | 93.3 | 62.4 | 67.6 | |
UA (%) | 56.9 | 93.3 | 2.9 | 51.4 | 43.7 | 56.2 | |
Object Number | Coastal Accretion | No change | Others | Sea level rise or Coastal Erosion | Vegetation Deterioration | Vegetation Growth or Plantation | Total |
Coastal accretion | 28 | 56 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 85 |
No change | 10 | 2193 | 4 | 2 | 11 | 15 | 2235 |
Others | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
Sea level rise or coastal erosion | 0 | 11 | 0 | 24 | 0 | 0 | 35 |
Vegetation deterioration | 1 | 28 | 1 | 0 | 36 | 0 | 66 |
Vegetation growth or plantation | 0 | 98 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 50 | 148 |
Total | 39 | 2386 | 5 | 26 | 48 | 65 | 2569 |
PA (%) | 71.8 | 91.9 | 0 | 92.3 | 75 | 76.9 | |
UA (%) | 32.9 | 98.1 | 0 | 68.6 | 54.6 | 33.8 | |
Object Area (m2) | Coastal Accretion | No Change | Others | Sea level Rise or Coastal Erosion | Vegetation Deterioration | Vegetation Growth or Plantation | Total |
Coastal accretion | 5598.2 | 5030.4 | 40.1 | 1.0 | 339.0 | 171.2 | 11,179.9 |
No change | 1575.5 | 548,933.2 | 474.1 | 465.3 | 6150.1 | 7051.3 | 564,649.3 |
Others | 2.1 | 162.3 | 904.0 | 0.0 | 57.5 | 38.4 | 1164.3 |
Sea level rise or coastal erosion | 107.8 | 1162.9 | 2.4 | 4866.3 | 21.0 | 0.0 | 6160.4 |
Vegetation deterioration | 75.4 | 5054.5 | 29.6 | 0.0 | 9404.8 | 71.9 | 14,636.2 |
Vegetation growth or plantation | 175.9 | 13,293.7 | 129.7 | 0.0 | 180.1 | 12,129.0 | 25,908.3 |
Total | 7534.8 | 573,636.9 | 1580.0 | 5332.5 | 16,152.5 | 19,461.8 | 623,698.4 |
PA (%) | 74.3 | 95.7 | 57.2 | 91.3 | 58.2 | 62.3 | |
UA (%) | 50.1 | 97.2 | 77.6 | 79 | 64.3 | 46.8 |
Taiping Island | Reference | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Pixel Number | Coastal Accretion | No Change | Others | Sea Level Rise or Coastal Erosion | Vegetation Deterioration | Vegetation Growth or Plantation | Total |
Coastal accretion | 2552 | 1159 | 284 | 3 | 410 | 53 | 4461 |
No change | 153 | 21,155 | 453 | 26 | 1092 | 538 | 23,417 |
Others | 76 | 724 | 1188 | 5 | 747 | 27 | 2767 |
Sea level rise or coastal erosion | 24 | 759 | 200 | 708 | 237 | 131 | 2059 |
Vegetation deterioration | 49 | 2423 | 461 | 36 | 4435 | 80 | 7484 |
Vegetation growth or plantation | 41 | 4623 | 625 | 56 | 338 | 3021 | 8704 |
Total | 2895 | 30,843 | 3211 | 834 | 7259 | 3850 | 48,892 |
PA (%) | 88.2 | 68.6 | 37 | 84.9 | 61.1 | 78.5 | |
UA (%) | 57.2 | 90.3 | 42.9 | 34.4 | 59.3 | 34.7 | |
Object Number | Coastal Accretion | No Change | Others | Sea Level Rise or Coastal Erosion | Vegetation Deterioration | Vegetation Growth or Plantation | Total |
Coastal accretion | 60 | 37 | 6 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 103 |
No change | 5 | 1479 | 45 | 4 | 48 | 33 | 1614 |
Others | 0 | 5 | 30 | 2 | 7 | 0 | 44 |
Sea level rise or coastal erosion | 0 | 3 | 0 | 5 | 0 | 0 | 8 |
Vegetation deterioration | 1 | 34 | 39 | 1 | 179 | 1 | 255 |
Vegetation growth or plantation | 0 | 38 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 42 | 81 |
Total | 66 | 1596 | 121 | 12 | 234 | 76 | 2105 |
PA (%) | 90.9 | 92.7 | 24.8 | 41.7 | 76.5 | 55.3 | |
UA (%) | 58.3 | 91.6 | 68.2 | 62.5 | 70.2 | 51.9 | |
Object Area (m2) | Coastal Accretion | No Change | Others | Sea Level Rise or Coastal Erosion | Vegetation Deterioration | Vegetation Growth or Plantation | Total |
Coastal accretion | 14,814.0 | 3941.3 | 480.3 | 4.3 | 0.0 | 14.4 | 19,254.2 |
No change | 1681.9 | 531,685.4 | 8714.4 | 647.4 | 16,714.3 | 11,431.4 | 570,874.9 |
Others | 100.1 | 2496.6 | 17,754.6 | 187.6 | 3472.3 | 476.3 | 24,487.5 |
Sea level rise or coastal erosion | 1.5 | 484.7 | 31.6 | 1791.2 | 0.1 | 0.0 | 2309.1 |
Vegetation deterioration | 103.0 | 14,283.9 | 9323.4 | 182.7 | 60,621.0 | 368.9 | 84,882.8 |
Vegetation growth or plantation | 60.9 | 6555.8 | 597.7 | 0.0 | 341.5 | 13,696.1 | 21,252.1 |
Total | 16,761.5 | 559,447.6 | 36,902.0 | 2813.2 | 81,149.3 | 25,987.1 | 723,060.5 |
PA (%) | 88.4 | 95 | 48.1 | 63.7 | 74.7 | 52.7 | |
UA (%) | 76.9 | 93.1 | 72.5 | 77.6 | 71.4 | 64.5 |
Barque Canada Reef Site 1 | Reference | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Pixel Number | Reef Sediments Extension | Aquatic Vegetation Growth | Algae Degradation | Algae Growth | No Change | Total |
Reef sediments extension | 3289 | 0 | 111 | 31 | 9802 | 13,233 |
Aquatic vegetation growth | 97 | 988 | 169 | 2595 | 58,638 | 62,487 |
Algae degradation | 631 | 35 | 1100 | 354 | 17,922 | 20,042 |
Algae growth | 26 | 68 | 25 | 11,380 | 56,983 | 68,482 |
No change | 190 | 7 | 101 | 849 | 157,281 | 158,428 |
Total | 4233 | 1098 | 1506 | 15,209 | 300,626 | 322,672 |
PA (%) | 77.7 | 90 | 73 | 74.8 | 52.3 | |
UA (%) | 24.9 | 1.6 | 5.5 | 16.6 | 99.3 | |
Object Number | Reef Sediments Extension | Aquatic Vegetation Growth | Algae Degradation | Algae Growth | No Change | Total |
Reef sediments extension | 67 | 0 | 3 | 0 | 55 | 125 |
Aquatic vegetation growth | 0 | 4 | 0 | 0 | 4 | 8 |
Algae degradation | 0 | 0 | 7 | 0 | 10 | 17 |
Algae growth | 0 | 8 | 1 | 189 | 389 | 587 |
No change | 4 | 4 | 7 | 51 | 5832 | 5898 |
Total | 71 | 16 | 18 | 240 | 6290 | 6635 |
PA (%) | 94.4 | 25 | 38.9 | 78.8 | 92.7 | |
UA (%) | 53.6 | 50 | 41.2 | 32.2 | 98.9 | |
Object Area (m2) | Reef Sediments Extension | Aquatic Vegetation Growth | Algae Degradation | Algae Growth | No Change | Total |
Reef sediments extension | 16,801.0 | 0.0 | 385.3 | 8.8 | 10,975.3 | 28,170.3 |
Aquatic vegetation growth | 0.0 | 4283.2 | 0.0 | 446.8 | 1715.5 | 6445.5 |
Algae degradation | 0.0 | 0.0 | 4202.0 | 125.3 | 2392.5 | 6719.8 |
Algae growth | 9.8 | 1538.2 | 378.0 | 56,388.9 | 82,227.6 | 140,542.5 |
No change | 3503.6 | 1654.2 | 3041.3 | 16,045.6 | 2,044,158.7 | 2,068,403.3 |
Total | 20,314.3 | 7475.6 | 8006.5 | 73,015.3 | 2,141,469.5 | 2,250,281.3 |
PA (%) | 82.7 | 57.3 | 52.5 | 77.2 | 95.5 | |
UA (%) | 59.6 | 66.5 | 62.5 | 40.1 | 98.8 |
Barque Canada Reef Site 2 | Reference | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Pixel Number | Reef Sediments Extension | Aquatic Vegetation Growth | Algae Growth | No Change | Total |
Reef sediments extension | 5356 | 36 | 0 | 13,995 | 19,387 |
Aquatic vegetation growth | 8 | 6919 | 648 | 39,685 | 47,260 |
Algae growth | 0 | 1519 | 3240 | 939 | 5698 |
No change | 252 | 1803 | 137 | 246,847 | 249,039 |
Total | 5616 | 10,277 | 4025 | 301,466 | 321,384 |
PA (%) | 95.4 | 67.3 | 80.5 | 81.9 | |
UA (%) | 27.6 | 14.6 | 56.9 | 99.1 | |
Object Number | Reef Sediments Extension | Aquatic Vegetation Growth | Algae Growth | No Change | Total |
Reef sediments extension | 102 | 0 | 0 | 206 | 308 |
Aquatic vegetation growth | 0 | 167 | 17 | 187 | 371 |
Algae growth | 0 | 10 | 42 | 19 | 71 |
No change | 0 | 14 | 2 | 7253 | 7269 |
Total | 102 | 191 | 61 | 7665 | 8019 |
PA (%) | 100 | 87.4 | 68.9 | 94.6 | |
UA (%) | 33.1 | 45 | 59.2 | 99.8 | |
Object Area (m2) | Reef Sediments Extension | Aquatic Vegetation Growth | Algae Growth | No Change | Total |
Reef sediments extension | 27,893.8 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 39,508.3 | 67,402.0 |
Aquatic vegetation growth | 0.0 | 94,803.5 | 2853.3 | 51,576.4 | 149,233.2 |
Algae growth | 0.0 | 2788.3 | 18,071.5 | 3957.3 | 24,817.0 |
No change | 0.0 | 5759.0 | 467.5 | 3,000,580.8 | 3,006,807.2 |
Total | 27,893.8 | 103,350.7 | 21,392.3 | 3,095,622.7 | 3,248,259.5 |
PA (%) | 100 | 91.7 | 84.5 | 96.9 | |
UA (%) | 41.4 | 63.5 | 72.8 | 99.8 |
|Z| 1 | Zhongye Island | Taiping Island | Barque Canada Reef | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Site 1 | Site 2 | |||||
PBCD | Pixel-number-based | individual | 178.36 | 102.84 | 63.41 | 135.87 |
OBCD | Object-number-based | individual | 38.67 | 18.64 | 24.55 | 32.12 |
OBCD vs. PBCD | 7.40 | 0.60 | 17.60 | 14.38 | ||
Object-area-based | individual | 802.98 | 335.37 | 488.63 | 880.72 | |
OBCD vs. PBCD | 60.47 | 19.36 | 175.99 | 165.59 |
© 2018 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Zhou, Z.; Ma, L.; Fu, T.; Zhang, G.; Yao, M.; Li, M. Change Detection in Coral Reef Environment Using High-Resolution Images: Comparison of Object-Based and Pixel-Based Paradigms. ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2018, 7, 441. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijgi7110441
Zhou Z, Ma L, Fu T, Zhang G, Yao M, Li M. Change Detection in Coral Reef Environment Using High-Resolution Images: Comparison of Object-Based and Pixel-Based Paradigms. ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information. 2018; 7(11):441. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijgi7110441
Chicago/Turabian StyleZhou, Zhenjin, Lei Ma, Tengyu Fu, Ge Zhang, Mengru Yao, and Manchun Li. 2018. "Change Detection in Coral Reef Environment Using High-Resolution Images: Comparison of Object-Based and Pixel-Based Paradigms" ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information 7, no. 11: 441. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijgi7110441
APA StyleZhou, Z., Ma, L., Fu, T., Zhang, G., Yao, M., & Li, M. (2018). Change Detection in Coral Reef Environment Using High-Resolution Images: Comparison of Object-Based and Pixel-Based Paradigms. ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information, 7(11), 441. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijgi7110441