From Bibliometric Analysis to Experimental Validation: Bibliometric and Literature Review of Four Cementing Agents in Soil Stabilization with Experimental Focus on Xanthan Gum
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Methodology
3. Bibliometric Analysis
4. Bibliographic Review
4.1. The Process Involves Obtaining Lignosulphonate, Natural Rubber, Xanthan Gum, and Eggshell Lime
4.2. Lignosulphonate Use in Soil Stabilization
4.3. Natural Rubber Latex (NRL) Properties and Its Use in Soil Stabilization
4.4. Xanthan Gum Properties and Its Impact on Soil Stabilization
4.5. The Use of Eggshell Lime in Soil Stabilization
5. Experimental Study of Xanthan Gum Use in Clay Stabilization
5.1. Materials and Methods
5.2. Results and Discussions
6. Future Implications
7. Conclusions
- The bibliometric analysis reveals a clear trend in scientific production, with XG emerging as the most extensively studied binder, followed by eggshell lime. Despite their relatively recent adoption since 2015, these alternatives have garnered substantial attention within the research community. Conversely, although studied since 2013, lignosulphonate has exhibited lower productivity, potentially due to its limited geographical production scope, primarily concentrated in Asia. A notable development is the recent utilization of NBL for soil improvement, with its first documented use in 2020 and a notable increase in research output by 2023, surpassing that of LS despite its more extended application history. This underscores a shifting focus toward novel materials in soil stabilization research, with NRL emerging as a promising candidate warranting further investigation.
- The experimental study presented on the influence of xanthan gum (XG) on the strength and stiffness of biostabilized clay demonstrates that with XG percentages ranging from 1 to 3%, a substantial increase in soil strength can be achieved, up to 44% and 55% for the parameters qu and Go, respectively. Moreover, given the limited global production of XG, small percentages close to or less than 1% are recommended in the literature. In the study, the increases in strength and stiffness can reach up to 20%. This aligns with existing literature where similar strengths to those found with the clay studied here have been reported.
- In the biostabilized soil, the SEM images depict the formation of bonds attributed to the presence of the biopolymer xanthan. These bonds play a crucial role in enhancing the cohesion and stability of the soil matrix. Additionally, the SEM-EDX results indicate a notable increase in the concentration of carbon and oxygen within the biostabilized soil compared with the non-stabilized soil. The elevated carbon and oxygen levels can be attributed to the incorporation of xanthan, which is rich in these elements, during the biostabilization process. This increase in carbon and oxygen content further corroborates the successful integration of xanthan into the soil matrix.
- In concordance with the bibliografic review, the novelty exploration of materials for soil improvement, such as natural latex, lignosulfonate, xanthan gum, and eggshell lime, underscores the ongoing pursuit within civil engineering to enhance the mechanical strength of geomaterials. The comprehensive literature review and analysis conducted in this study shed light on the potential of these materials yet also highlight areas for further exploration, particularly in understanding underlying mechanisms and conducting thorough cost-benefit and environmental impact assessments. By addressing these imperatives, future research endeavors are poised to enhance our understanding and elevate the efficacy and sustainability of soil enhancement methodologies within civil engineering.
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A. Bibliographic Review of the Effects of LS, Xanthan Gum, Natural Rubber Latex, and Eggshell Limes in the Geotechnical Properties of Treated Soils
Material | Addition (%) | OMC (%) | MDD (gm/cc) | CBR (%) | UCS 28 Days MPa | ΔUCS (%) | Shear Tests | ΔTs | Microstructure | Petrography | Observations | Ref. |
Lignosulphonate | 0.0 | 19.0 | 1.7 | 2.3 | 0.3 | – | – | SEM | – | The results showed that the untreated soil had a CBR of 2.27%, while the soil with 45% additives achieved a CBR of 5.05%. Introducing 50% additives resulted in performance levels of 30.21%, 17.42%, and 12.82% for (a) liquid limit, (b) plastic limit, and (c) plasticity index, respectively. Additionally, the inclusion of the stabilizers significantly enhanced the mechanical properties of the soil. | [82] | |
5.0 | 18.0 | 1.7 | 3.7 | 0.3 | 10.7 | – | – | – | ||||
5.0 | 17.7 | 1.8 | 3.9 | 0.4 | 32.1 | – | – | – | ||||
10.0 | 17.0 | 1.8 | 4.4 | 0.4 | 35.7 | – | – | – | ||||
20.0 | 16.4 | 1.8 | 4.9 | 0.4 | 35.7 | – | – | – | ||||
30.0 | 15.3 | 1.9 | 5.2 | 0.4 | 42.9 | – | – | – | ||||
40.0 | 14.2 | 2.0 | 5.1 | 0.4 | 42.9 | – | – | – | ||||
45.0 | 12.5 | 2.0 | 5.1 | 0.4 | 46.4 | – | – | – | ||||
50.0 | 10.8 | 2.1 | 6.7 | 0.4 | 46.4 | – | – | – | ||||
0.0 | 22.2 | 1.6 | – | 0.2 | – | – | SEM + XRD | – | Limitations of lignosulphonate as a stabilizer for expansive soil were identified. An extensive experimental investigation was conducted on a proposed composite binary admixture (CBA) with hydrated lime aimed at improving the geotechnical characteristics of expansive soil. The optimal binary admixture (OBA) was identified based on the plasticity index. | [12] | ||
0.4 | 22.2 | 1.6 | – | 0.2 | 7.8 | – | – | – | ||||
0.9 | 22.2 | 1.6 | – | 0.2 | 10.4 | – | – | – | ||||
2.0 | 22.2 | 1.6 | – | 0.2 | 14.3 | – | – | – | ||||
0.8 | 22.5 | 1.6 | 4.5 | N/A | N/A | – | – | SEM + XRD | – | The CBR values of both untreated and LS-treated soil samples decreased significantly by 86% and 75.6%, respectively, when soaked, compared with their unsoaked states. The LS treatment was determined to be chemically inert, with stabilization primarily reliant on intermolecular interactions. Analysis of pavement thickness revealed that both untreated and LS-treated soils were unsuitable for pavement construction and would necessitate the addition of an extra sand cushion layer. | [83] | |
0.0 | 21.3 | 1.6 | – | 0.3 | – | 0.2 | – | SEM | – | As compaction moisture content increased, strength parameters decreased for both treated and untreated soils. LS stabilization resulted in a decrease in both swell percentage and swell pressure of the expansive clay. Additionally, the stabilization led to a reduction in the soil's plasticity index, thereby changing the soil expansivity category from high to moderate. These enhancements in soil properties can be attributed to the electrostatic reaction between the LS–water mixture and soil particles, promoting soil aggregation. | [84] | |
0.5 | 21.4 | 1.6 | – | 0.4 | 33.9 | 0.3 | 13.2 | – | ||||
0.8 | 21.5 | 1.6 | – | 0.4 | 42.9 | – | – | – | ||||
1.0 | 21.6 | 1.6 | – | 0.4 | 25.0 | – | – | – | ||||
2.0 | 21.9 | 1.6 | – | 0.3 | 21.4 | – | – | – | ||||
3.0 | 22.1 | 1.6 | – | 0.3 | 14.3 | – | – | – | ||||
4.0 | 22.3 | 1.6 | – | 0.3 | 5.4 | – | – | – | ||||
0.0 | 22.9 | 1.6 | – | 0.2 | – | – | – | SEM + XRD | – | The treated soil demonstrates an average strength improvement of approximately two times when an optimal LS content of 1.5% is applied. Moreover, the treated soil exhibits a notable reduction in both swell potential and swell pressure compared with the untreated soil. This manuscript predominantly explores the behavior of expansive soil amended with LS concerning strength and swelling characteristics, as well as the method to enhance the interaction mechanism between LS and soil composites. | [9] | |
0.5 | 22.9 | 1.6 | – | 0.5 | 104.5 | – | – | – | ||||
1.5 | 22.9 | 1.6 | – | 0.5 | 122.7 | – | – | – | ||||
3.0 | 22.9 | 1.6 | – | 0.4 | 86.4 | – | – | – | ||||
6.0 | 22.9 | 1.6 | – | 0.4 | 93.2 | – | – | – | ||||
0.0 | 18.0 | 1.4 | – | 0.2 | – | – | – | SEM | – | The findings suggest that lignosulfonate has a notable impact on the strength characteristics of expansive soils. The optimal percentage of lignosulfonate is determined by the fine content in the soils. Treatment with lignosulfonate led to a decrease in the negative surface charge of the soils and the development of a polymer chain microstructure, along with a microstructure of flocculated or aggregated particles. These changes potentially contribute to the improved strength of the expansive soils. | [49] | |
0.0 | 19.0 | 1.7 | – | 0.2 | – | – | – | – | ||||
0.5 | 18.0 | 1.4 | – | 0.2 | 11.8 | – | – | – | ||||
0.5 | 19.0 | 1.7 | – | 0.3 | 40.9 | – | – | – | ||||
1.0 | 18.0 | 1.4 | – | 0.2 | 14.7 | – | – | – | ||||
1.0 | 19.0 | 1.7 | – | 0.3 | 47.7 | – | – | – | ||||
2.0 | 18.0 | 1.4 | – | 0.2 | 17.6 | – | – | – | ||||
2.0 | 19.0 | 1.7 | – | 0.3 | 40.9 | – | – | – | ||||
4.0 | 18.0 | 1.4 | – | 0.2 | 32.4 | – | – | – | ||||
4.0 | 19.0 | 1.7 | – | 0.3 | 27.3 | – | – | – | ||||
Natural Rubber Latex | 0.0 | 7.8 | 2.8 | – | 4.7 | – | – | – | SEM+XRD | – | This study investigates the influence of Natural rubber latex (NRL) on the strength development of cement-stabilized lateritic soil (LS) blends with steel slag (SS) as a sustainable pavement base. Various SS replacement ratios and dry rubber to cement (r/c) ratios were examined. The r/c ratio significantly affected the compactability and unconfined compressive strength (UCS). Microstructural analysis revealed that increasing NRL content decreased the degree of cement hydration due to NRL film retardation; yet, at optimal r/c ratios, a balance between cement hydration and NRL films enhanced interparticle bond strength, leading to UCS development. Although optimal r/c ratios varied, NRL’s percent improvement remained consistent. The r/c ratio emerged as a crucial factor influencing interparticle bond strength, facilitating the development of a cost-effective and time-saving relationship between UCS and ITS for geotechnical and pavement engineering design, showcasing the effective utilization of NRL and recycled materials in sustainable pavement applications. | [38] |
3.0 | 8.0 | 2.9 | – | 5.2 | 10.6 | – | – | – | ||||
5.0 | 8.1 | 2.8 | – | 5.1 | 8.5 | – | – | – | ||||
10.0 | 8.4 | 2.8 | – | 4.9 | 4.3 | – | – | – | ||||
15.0 | 8.6 | 2.5 | – | 4.8 | 2.1 | – | – | – | ||||
0.0 | 7.8 | 2.5 | – | 4.0 | – | – | – | – | ||||
3.0 | 7.9 | 2.5 | – | 4.5 | 10.6 | – | – | – | ||||
5.0 | 7.9 | 2.4 | – | 4.1 | 2.1 | – | – | – | ||||
10.0 | 8.1 | 2.4 | – | 3.9 | −2.1 | – | – | – | ||||
15.0 | 8.2 | 2.4 | – | 3.8 | -4.3 | – | – | – | ||||
0.0 | 8.1 | 2.1 | 18.2 | 2.9 | – | – | – | – | – | Exploring the integration of natural rubber latex (NRL) as an eco-friendly supplement in cement stabilization of base courses reveals enhanced short- and long-term performance. Cement–NRL combinations exhibit superior unconfined compressive strength (UCS) compared with cement alone across various cement contents and NRL replacement rates, attributed to synergistic effects between cement hydration and latex film formation, with peak UCS achieved at specific NRL replacement ratios. | [39] | |
10.0 | 8.1 | 2.1 | 18.2 | 3.2 | 10.3 | – | – | – | ||||
15.0 | 8.1 | 2.1 | 18.2 | 3.5 | 20.7 | – | – | – | ||||
20.0 | 8.1 | 2.1 | 18.2 | 3.9 | 34.5 | – | – | – | ||||
25.0 | 8.1 | 2.1 | 18.2 | 3.6 | 24.1 | – | – | – | ||||
30.0 | 8.1 | 2.1 | 18.2 | 3.2 | 10.3 | – | – | – | ||||
0.0 | 9.2 | 2.0 | 13.0 | 2.5 | – | – | – | – | ||||
10.0 | 9.2 | 2.0 | 13.0 | 3.0 | 20.0 | – | – | – | ||||
15.0 | 9.2 | 2.0 | 13.0 | 3.1 | 24.0 | – | – | – | ||||
20.0 | 9.2 | 2.0 | 13.0 | 3.2 | 26.0 | – | – | – | ||||
25.0 | 9.2 | 2.0 | 13.0 | 3.0 | 20.0 | – | – | – | ||||
30.0 | 9.2 | 2.0 | 13.0 | 2.9 | 14.0 | – | – | – | ||||
0.0 | 12.0 | 1.9 | – | 3.2 | – | – | – | SEM + XRD | – | This study examines the impact of natural rubber latex (NRL) on the performance of cement-stabilized recycled concrete aggregate (RCA) for pavement bases. Factors such as various cement contents and dry rubber-to-cement (r/c) ratios were analyzed. NRL replacement improved the unconfined compressive strength (UCS) and indirect tensile strength (ITS) of cement-stabilized RCA, with peak values observed at optimal r/c ratios. Microstructural analysis revealed cement hydration products and NRL films, which enhanced adhesion and interparticle bonds. However, excessive NRL hindered cement hydration, resulting in lower UCS and ITS beyond optimal r/c ratios, though still meeting base material requirements. | [85] | |
5.0 | 11.9 | 1.9 | – | 3.3 | 1.6 | – | – | – | ||||
10.0 | 11.5 | 1.8 | – | 3.7 | 15.6 | – | – | – | ||||
15.0 | 10.6 | 1.8 | – | 3.5 | 9.4 | – | – | – | ||||
0.0 | 12.3 | 1.9 | – | 4.8 | – | – | – | – | ||||
5.0 | 12.1 | 1.9 | – | 5.8 | 20.8 | – | – | – | ||||
10.0 | 11.8 | 1.9 | – | 4.9 | 2.1 | – | – | – | ||||
15.0 | 11.4 | 1.9 | – | 4.1 | −15.6 | – | – | – | ||||
0.0 | 12.5 | 1.9 | – | 6.8 | – | – | – | – | ||||
5.0 | 12.4 | 1.9 | – | 6.9 | 1.5 | – | – | – | ||||
10.0 | 11.5 | 1.9 | – | 6.8 | 0.0 | – | – | – | ||||
15.0 | 11.2 | 1.9 | – | 6.2 | −8.8 | – | – | – | ||||
Xanthan Gum | 0.0 | 14.5 | 1.8 | – | 0.2 | – | – | – | – | – | The main objective of this study is to investigate how the addition of minimal amounts of biopolymers, specifically xanthan gum and guar gum, influences the physical characteristics of residual soil (at concentrations of 1%, 2%, 4%, and 5%). Parameters such as Atterberg limits, optimal water content, maximum dry density, pH, and specific gravity are analyzed in this research. Additionally, the study experimentally explores the shear strengths of both treated and untreated soil at different curing durations through unconfined compressive strength testing. | [42] |
1.0 | 14.5 | 1.8 | – | 0.2 | 4.3 | – | – | – | ||||
2.0 | 14.5 | 1.8 | – | 0.3 | 15.2 | – | – | – | ||||
4.0 | 14.5 | 1.8 | – | 0.3 | 41.3 | – | – | – | ||||
5.0 | 14.5 | 1.8 | – | 0.4 | 60.9 | – | – | – | ||||
0.0 | 14.5 | 1.8 | – | 0.2 | – | – | – | – | ||||
1.0 | 14.5 | 1.8 | – | 0.3 | 13.0 | – | – | – | ||||
2.0 | 14.5 | 1.8 | – | 0.4 | 52.2 | – | – | – | ||||
4.0 | 14.5 | 1.8 | – | 0.4 | 56.5 | – | – | – | ||||
5.0 | 14.5 | 1.8 | – | 0.4 | 73.9 | – | – | – | ||||
0.0 | 21.7 | 1.7 | – | 1.2 | – | – | – | SEM + XRD | – | This research investigates how xanthan gum biopolymer enhances soil properties, aiming for sustainable soil improvement. Results indicate that increasing xanthan gum concentration and curing time enhances soil compressive strength and cohesion and reduces internal friction angle. Despite wetting/drying cycles reducing soil strength, biopolymer-treated soil maintains higher strength compared with untreated soil, offering insights for practical engineering applications. | [55] | |
0.5 | 21.7 | 1.7 | – | 1.8 | 45.8 | – | – | – | ||||
1.0 | 21.7 | 1.7 | – | 2.1 | 75.0 | – | – | – | ||||
2.0 | 21.7 | 1.7 | – | 2.9 | 141.7 | – | – | – | ||||
0.0 | – | – | – | 0.02 | – | – | SEM | – | This paper examines how the presence of organic matter (OM) impacts the efficacy of soil stabilization using xanthan gum biopolymer. Five artificial soils with OM content ranging from 1.5% to 7.7% undergo UCS and oedometer tests to assess strength, stiffness, and compressibility. Results, supplemented by SEM analysis, reveal that stabilization enhances strength and stiffness up to 5.5% OM but deteriorates beyond 7.7%, likely due to increased hydrogel hydration and subsequent compressibility. Oedometer tests demonstrate a notable reduction in consolidation coefficient and an elongated primary consolidation time with xanthan gum stabilization. | [74] | ||
1.0 | – | – | – | 0.04 | 131.0 | – | – | – | ||||
0.0 | – | – | – | 0.02 | – | – | – | |||||
1.0 | – | – | – | 0.05 | 137.0 | – | – | – | ||||
0.0 | – | – | – | 0.02 | – | – | – | |||||
1.0 | – | – | – | 0.06 | 239.0 | – | – | – | ||||
0.0 | – | – | – | 0.02 | – | – | – | |||||
1.0 | – | – | – | 0.06 | 270.0 | – | – | – | ||||
0.0 | – | – | – | 0.02 | – | – | – | |||||
1.0 | – | – | – | 0.01 | −54.0 | – | – | – | ||||
0.0 | – | – | – | – | – | 9.0 | SEM | – | Kaolinite clay infused with xanthan gum biopolymer exhibits altered consolidation and swelling tendencies. The formation of xanthan gum hydrogels impedes pore spaces, leading to delayed consolidation, heightened energy dissipation, and increased compressibility. Additionally, the interaction between kaolinite and xanthan gum bolsters the undrained shear strength, thereby shortening the consolidation duration needed for specific bearing capacities. This study showcases potential applications in regulating hydraulic conductivity, seismic stabilization, and swift surface reinforcement, albeit requiring supplementary drainage for in situ implementation. | [30] | ||
0.5 | – | – | – | – | – | 14.0 | 55.6 | – | ||||
1.0 | – | – | – | – | – | 16.0 | 50.0 | – | ||||
2.0 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | ||||
0.0 | 18.9 | 1.7 | – | 0.2 | – | – | – | SEM | – | The study examines the impact of wetting–drying cycles on xanthan gum biopolymer-stabilized soil. Initially, soil mechanical properties decline over the first four cycles, then stabilize. Soil treated with 1.5% xanthan gum exhibits roughly twice the compressive strength compared with untreated soil after 12 cycles, with a wetting–drying-induced strength reduction approximately 20% less than untreated soil. | [29] | |
0.5 | 18.9 | 1.7 | – | 0.3 | 16.7 | – | – | – | ||||
1.5 | 18.9 | 1.7 | – | 0.3 | 33.3 | – | – | – | ||||
Eggshell Lime | 0.0 | – | – | – | 0.3 | – | – | – | SEM | – | This study explores the utilization of eggshell-derived calcium acetate in enhancing biocementation through soybean urease-mediated enzyme-induced carbonate precipitation (EICP). By assessing various EICP solution compositions, the research identifies optimal conditions yielding maximal precipitation efficiency and reinforcing effects on sandy soil. Results indicate that a 1:1 molar ratio of Ca(CH3COO)2 to urea, supplemented with 50 g/L soybean solution, achieves peak precipitation efficiency and yields the highest 7-day unconfined compressive strength (UCS) of 371 kPa, with a calcium carbonate content of 0.40%. Additionally, the eggshell-soybean EICP method exhibits an 8.5% increase in UCS compared with the CaCl2-soybean EICP, despite comparable calcium carbonate content. | [27] |
0.4 | – | – | – | 0.4 | 26.2 | – | – | – | ||||
0.3 | – | – | – | 0.3 | 18.7 | – | – | – | ||||
0.2 | – | – | – | 0.3 | 10.2 | – | – | – | ||||
0.4 | – | – | – | 0.4 | 24.8 | – | – | – | ||||
0.0 | 9.3 | 2.1 | – | 2.9 | – | – | – | – | – | This experimental investigation assesses the characteristics of geopolymer-based stabilization of lateritic soil incorporating eggshell ash (ESA) and rice husk ash (RHA) for road construction. Findings indicate that increasing ESA content reduces soil plasticity index. While maximum dry density decreases slightly with ESA, RHA, and NaOH additions, unconfined compressive strength (UCS) exhibits a marginal decrease compared with cement stabilization. Among various mixes, combinations such as 3E1R1N and 2E2R1N demonstrate the most cost-effective strength outcomes with lower embodied energy and CO2 emissions, suggesting geopolymer stabilization as a competitive alternative to cement for roadbase construction. | [28] | |
1.0 | 9.3 | 2.1 | – | 3.0 | 3.4 | – | – | – | ||||
2.0 | 9.3 | 2.1 | – | 3.8 | 29.3 | – | – | – | ||||
3.0 | 9.3 | 2.1 | – | 4.0 | 37.9 | – | – | – | ||||
4.0 | 9.3 | 2.1 | – | 2.9 | 0.0 | – | – | – | ||||
0.0 | 15.0 | 1.8 | 5.0 | 0.1 | – | – | – | SEM | – | The impact of incorporating crushed granulated blast furnace slag and calcined eggshell waste on the mechanical properties of compacted marl was examined. Results reveal a significant enhancement in marl's mechanical properties. Adding 15% of this composite binder increases the CBR index by 22 times. Moreover, notable improvements in cohesion and internal friction angle are noted, particularly over time. SEM analysis identifies the formation of new hydrates (C-S-H) post-treatment, suggesting the effectiveness of calcined eggshell-activated blast furnace slag as a stabilizer for clay soils. | [86] | |
5.0 | 15.0 | 1.8 | 35.0 | 0.3 | 116.0 | – | – | – | ||||
10.0 | 15.0 | 1.8 | 60.0 | 0.7 | 452.0 | – | – | – | ||||
15.0 | 15.0 | 1.8 | 93.0 | 0.7 | 452.0 | – | – | – | ||||
0.0 | 34.8 | 1.3 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | This study investigates the shear strength characteristics of clay soil treated with a blend of fly ash and eggshell powder geopolymer. The unconsolidated, undrained triaxial test was conducted to assess shear strength. Variations in NaOH molarity, curing time, and eggshell powder to fly ash ratio were examined. Findings suggest that 5% eggshell powder enhances shear strength. Higher NaOH molarity increases shear strength, indicating improved binding effects of the geopolymer. Prolonged curing impacts stabilized soil shear strength. This research underscores the efficacy of eggshell powder geopolymer as a clay soil stabilizer, advocating for its inclusion at a 5% ratio to augment soil shear strength. | [87] | |
5.0 | 34.8 | 1.3 | – | – | – | – | – | – | ||||
0.0 | 34.8 | 1.3 | – | – | – | – | – | – | ||||
5.0 | 34.8 | 1.3 | – | – | – | – | – | – | ||||
0.0 | 34.8 | 1.3 | – | – | – | – | – | – | ||||
5.0 | 34.8 | 1.3 | – | – | – | – | – | – | ||||
0.0 | 34.8 | 1.3 | – | – | – | – | – | – | ||||
5.0 | 34.8 | 1.3 | – | – | – | – | – | – |
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Stabilizer | Scopus String | Results |
---|---|---|
Lignosulphonate | “soil stabilization” AND “Lignosulphonate” | 12 |
Natural rubber latex | “soil stabilization” AND “natural rubber” | 7 |
Eggshell lime | “soil stabilization” AND “eggshell” | 27 |
Xanthan gum | “soil stabilization” AND “xanthan” | 67 |
Stabilizer | Scopus String | Results |
---|---|---|
Lignosulphonate | “soil stabilization” OR “soil improvement” OR “ground improvement” OR “soil” OR “sand” OR “clay” OR “silt” AND “Lignosulphonate” | 51 |
Natural rubber latex | “soil stabilization” OR “soil improvement” OR “ground improvement” OR “soil” OR “sand” OR “clay” OR “silt” AND “natural rubber latex” OR “natural latex” | 100 |
Eggshell lime | “soil stabilization” OR “soil improvement” OR “ground improvement” OR “soil” OR “sand” OR “clay” OR “silt” AND “eggshell” OR “egg lime” | 414 |
Xanthan gum | “soil stabilization” OR “soil improvement” OR “ground improvement” OR “soil” OR “sand” OR “clay” OR “silt” AND “xanthan” | 459 |
Stabilizer | Scopus String | Results |
---|---|---|
Lignosulphonate | (“soil stabilization” OR “soil improvement” OR “ground improvement”) AND (“Lignosulphonate”) | 15 |
Natural rubber latex | (“soil stabilization” OR “soil improvement” OR “ground improvement”) AND (“natural rubber latex” OR “natural latex”) | 15 |
Eggshell lime | (“soil stabilization” OR “soil improvement” OR “ground improvement”) AND (“eggshell” OR “egg lime”) | 37 |
Xanthan gum | (“soil stabilization” OR “soil improvement” OR “ground improvement”) AND “xanthan”) | 105 |
Material | Use | Physicochemical Properties | Influence on Strength of Stabilized Soils | Durability | Microstructure | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Lignosulfonate | Soil stabilization | Residual byproduct of paper industry; hydrophilic and hydrophobic groups; nontoxic and noncorrosive; sulfonation process | Enhanced soil strength; improved shear strength, penetration resistance, and erosion resistance; effective in wet conditions | Not explicitly addressed | Three-dimensional polymer; aliphatic and aromatic portions | [32,33,34,35,36] |
Natural rubber latex | Soil stabilization | Cis-1,4-polyisoprene; biodegradable; adhesive properties; nontoxic | Enhanced soil stability; improved shear strength and compaction characteristics; effective in various soil types | Biodegradable; nontoxic | Polymer chains of cis-1,4-polyisoprene | [1,14,37,38,39] |
Eggshell lime | Soil amendment, stabilization | Calcium carbonate; alkaline pH; source of calcium; potential pozzolanic reactivity | Improved compressibility and strength; reduced plasticity; enhanced durability; pH modification | Enhances durability; pH modification | Calcium carbonate particles | [4,23,40,41] |
Xanthan gum | Soil stabilization, erosion control | Polysaccharide; hydrocolloid; biodegradable; high viscosity; water retention | Improved shear strength and erosion resistance; effective in sandy soils; enhanced water retention | Biodegradable; high viscosity | Extended, helical structure of polysaccharide chains | [42,43,44,45,46] |
Properties | Soil | Standard |
---|---|---|
LL Limit liquid of soil, % | 42.00 | [61] |
PL Plastic limit of soil, % | 26.05 | [61] |
PI Plastic index of soil, %, (i.e., LL-PL) | 15.95 | [61] |
Gravel particles (diameter—2 mm), % | 0 | [62] |
Coarse sand particles size (0.6 mm—diameter—2 mm), % | 0 | [62] |
Medium sand particles size (0.2 mm—diameter—0.6 mm), % | 0 | [62] |
Fine sand particles size (0.06 mm—diameter–0.2 mm), % | 12 | [62] |
Silt particles size (0.002 mm—diameter—0.06 mm), % | 78 | [62] |
Clay particles size (diameter < 0.002 mm), % | 10 | [62] |
Effective size of soil (D10), mm | 0.0021 | [62] |
Mean particle diameter of soil (D50), mm | 0.011 | [62] |
Uniformity coefficient of soil (Cu) | 7.14 | [62] |
Coefficient of curvature of soil (Cc) | 0.96 | [62] |
The specific gravity of the soil sample | 2.80 | [60] |
Activity of clay, A [A = PI/(% < 0.002 mm)] | 1.60 | [63] |
Color | Black | - |
Classification of soil sample (USCS) | CL | [62] |
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Baldovino, J.d.J.A.; Palma Calabokis, O.; Saba, M. From Bibliometric Analysis to Experimental Validation: Bibliometric and Literature Review of Four Cementing Agents in Soil Stabilization with Experimental Focus on Xanthan Gum. Sustainability 2024, 16, 5363. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16135363
Baldovino JdJA, Palma Calabokis O, Saba M. From Bibliometric Analysis to Experimental Validation: Bibliometric and Literature Review of Four Cementing Agents in Soil Stabilization with Experimental Focus on Xanthan Gum. Sustainability. 2024; 16(13):5363. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16135363
Chicago/Turabian StyleBaldovino, Jair de Jesús Arrieta, Oriana Palma Calabokis, and Manuel Saba. 2024. "From Bibliometric Analysis to Experimental Validation: Bibliometric and Literature Review of Four Cementing Agents in Soil Stabilization with Experimental Focus on Xanthan Gum" Sustainability 16, no. 13: 5363. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16135363