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Demographics of Taiwan

The population of Taiwan is approximately 23.35 million as of April 2023.[1]

Demographics of Taiwan
Population pyramid of Taiwan at the end of 2021
Population23,347,374 (April 2023)
Growth rate0.04% (2022 est.)
Birth rate5.8 births/1,000 population (2023 est.)
Death rate8.8 deaths/1,000 population (2023 est.)
Life expectancy81.16 years
 • male78.17 years
 • female84.34 years
Fertility rate0.85 children born/woman (2023 est.)
Infant mortality rate3.97 deaths/1,000 live births
Net migration rate0.85 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2022 est.)
Age structure
0–14 years12.22%
15–64 years69.72%
65 and over18.07%
Sex ratio
Total0.97 male(s)/female (2022 est.)
At birth1.06 male(s)/female
Under 151.06 male(s)/female
65 and over0.73 male(s)/female
Nationality
NationalityTaiwanese
Major ethnicHan Chinese
Language
OfficialMandarin
Residents per square kilometre by village

Immigration of Han Chinese to the Penghu Islands started as early as the 13th century. The main island was inhabited by a diversity of Taiwanese indigenous peoples speaking Austronesian languages until Han settlement began in the early 17th century, around the time of the Ming–Qing transition, when workers were imported from Fujian to the colony of Dutch Formosa in the southwest of Taiwan. According to governmental statistics, in the early 21st century, 95% to 97% of Taiwan's population are Han Chinese, while about 2.3% are Taiwanese of Austronesian ethnicity.[2][3] Half the population are followers of one or a mixture of 25 recognized religions.

During the 20th century, the population of Taiwan rose more than sevenfold, from about 3 million in 1905 to more than 22 million by 2001. This high growth was caused by a combination of factors, such as very high fertility rates up to the 1960s, and low mortality rates.[4] In addition, there was a surge in population as the Chinese Civil War ended and the Kuomintang (KMT) forces retreated, bringing an influx of 1.2 million soldiers and civilians to Taiwan in 1948–1949, representing less than 15% of the population at the time (who constitute approximately 10% of the population in 2004[5]).[6][3][7] Consequently, the population growth rate after that was very rapid, especially in the late 1940s and 1950s, with an effective annual growth rate as high as 3.68% during 1951–1956.

Fertility rates decreased gradually thereafter; in 1984 the rate reached the replacement level (2.1 children per woman, which is needed to replace the existing population). Fertility rates have continued to decline. In 2010, Taiwan had a population growth of less than 0.2% and a fertility rate of only 0.9, the lowest rate ever recorded in that country. The population of Taiwan peaked at 23.6 million in 2019 and has been continuously decreasing ever since, raising fears of an aging population.

Most Taiwanese speak Mandarin. Around 70% of the people also speak Taiwanese Hokkien and 10% speak Hakka. Japanese speakers are becoming rare as the elderly generation who lived under Japanese colonization are dying out. The Formosan languages are endangered as the indigenous peoples have become acculturated under Chinese culture.

Population

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See also: List of administrative divisions of Taiwan

According to February 2022 statistics from the Ministry of the Interior, the population of Taiwan was 23,319,776, 99.6% of whom live on the island of Taiwan. The remaining 0.4% live on offshore islands (Penghu, Lanyu, Green, Kinmen, and Matsu).

Taiwan is ranked the 58th most populous country in the world.

Historical

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See also: North–South divide in Taiwan § Population

The number of Chinese people living on the island in 1624, prior to Dutch colonial rule, was about 25,000.[8] During Dutch Formosa rule, between 1624 and 1662, the Dutch began to encourage large-scale Han immigration to the island for labour, mainly from the south of Fujian.

It is estimated that prior to the Kingdom of Tungning (1661), the population of Taiwan was no greater than 100,000 people, and the initial Zheng army with families and retainers that settled in Taiwan is estimated to be 30,000 at minimum.[9] During Qing rule (1683–1895), the population of Han Chinese in Taiwan grew rapidly from 100,000 to ≈2.5 million, while the aboriginal population was estimated to be at least 200,000 by 1895.[10] (The plains aboriginal population is estimated to have decreased by 90% over the hundred years from 1800 to 1900.)[11]

The Japanese Colonial Government performed detailed censuses every five years starting in 1905. Statistics showed a population growth rate of about 1% to 3% per year throughout Japanese rule. In 1905, the population of Taiwan was roughly 3 million; by 1940, the population had grown to 5.87 million, and after the Second World War in 1946 it numbered 6.09 million.[12]

Population census

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Historical Populations
YearPop.±%
1905 3,123,302—    
1910 3,299,493+5.6%
1920 3,757,838+13.9%
1930 4,679,066+24.5%
1940 6,077,478+29.9%
1950 7,554,399+24.3%
1960 10,792,202+42.9%
1970 14,753,911+36.7%
1980 17,866,008+21.1%
1990 20,401,305+14.2%
2000 22,276,672+9.2%
2010 23,162,123+4.0%
2020 23,561,236+1.7%
Source: https://www.census.gov/popclock/world/tw
Year Males (thousands) Females (thousands) Total population (thousands) Average annual growth rate (%)
1905 1,611 1,429 3,040
1915 1,813 1,669 3,480 1.4
1920 1,894 1,762 3,655 1.0
1925 2,053 1,941 3,993 1.8
1930 2,459 2,239 4,593 2.8
1935 2,660 2,553 5,212 2.6
1940 2,971 2,901 5,872 2.4
1956 4,772 4,596 9,368 3.0
1966 7,153 6,352 13,505 3.7
1970 (sampling) 7,723 7,047 14,770 2.3
1975 (sampling) 8,439 7,840 16,279 2.0
1980 9,405 8,624 18,030 2.1
1990 10,618 9,775 20,394 1.2
2000 11,386 10,915 22,301 0.9
2010 23,052 0.4
Population of Taiwan (1981–2018)[13][14]
Year 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990
Population 18,193,955 18,515,754 18,790,538 19,069,194 19,313,825 19,509,082 19,725,010 19,954,397 20,156,587 20,401,305
±% — + 1.768% + 1.484% + 1.483% + 1.283% + 1.011% + 1.107% + 1.163% + 1.013% + 1.214%
Year 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000
Population 20,605,831 20,802,622 20,995,416 21,177,874 21,357,431 21,525,433 21,742,815 21,928,591 22,092,387 22,276,672
±% + 1.003% + 0.955% + 0.927% + 0.869% + 0.848% + 0.787% + 1.010% + 0.854% + 0.747% + 0.834%
Year 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010
Population 22,405,568 22,520,776 22,604,550 22,689,122 22,770,383 22,876,527 22,958,360 23,037,031 23,119,772 23,162,123
±% + 0.579% + 0.514% + 0.372% + 0.374% + 0.358% + 0.466% + 0.358% + 0.343% + 0.359% + 0.183%
Year 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020
Population 23,224,912 23,315,822 23,373,517 23,433,753 23,492,074 23,539,816 23,571,227 23,588,932 23,600,903 23,539,588
±% + 0.271% + 0.391% + 0.247% + 0.258% + 0.249% + 0.203% + 0.133% + 0.075% + 0.051% – 0.260%[14]

Details

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  • Date:2019/07-08
County
City		 Area
(km2)		 Population Margin Density
(people/km2)		 Sort
New Taipei 2052.5667 4,010,657 +2843 1,954 1(8)
Taichung 2214.8968 2,811,729 +581 1,270 2(8)
Kaohsiung 2951.8524 2,773,786 +195 939 3(8)
Taipei 271.7997 2,650,154 −3854 9,765 4(8)
Taoyuan 1220.9540 2,240,328 +2385 1,833 5(8)
Tainan 2191.6531 1,881,730 −66 859 6(8)
Changhua County 1074.3960 1,273,613 −661 1,186 7(8)
Pingtung 2775.6003 820,798 −398 296 8(8)
Yunlin 1290.8326 682,577 −335 529 9(8)
Hsinchu County 1427.5369 561,766 +1047 393 10(8)
Miaoli 1820.3149 546,461 −37 300 11
Chiayi 1903.6367 504,750 −347 265 12(8)
Nantou 4106.4360 495,084 −22 121 13
Yilan 2143.6251 454,636 −57 212 14
Hsinchu City 104.1526 447,781 +297 4296 15(8)
Keelung 132.7589 369,305 −55 2782 16
Hualien 4628.5714 326,780 −33 69 17(8)
Chiayi City 60.0256 268,068 −163 4469 18
Taitung County 3515.2526 217,540 −296 62 19
Kinmen County 151.6560 139,319 −46 918 20
Penghu County 126.8641 104,711 +3 825 21
Lienchiang County 28.8000 13,073 +11 455 22(8)
Free area of the Republic of China 36,197.0669 23,593,794 +1196 651 −(8)

Net migration rate

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During 2004 – 2010, Taiwan's migration rate was positive. On average, the annual net migration amounted to 22,000 people during that period, which is equivalent to a rate of 1.0 per 1,000 inhabitants per year.

Age structure

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Year 0–14 years 15–64 years 65 years and over
1980
32.1%
63.6%
4.3%
1990
26.9%
67.0%
6.1%
2000
21.2%
70.2%
8.6%
2010
15.65%
73.61%
10.74%
2015
13.6%
73.9%
12.5%
2020
12.6%
71.4%
16.0%

Sex ratio

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under 15 years: 1.06 male(s)/female
15–24 years: 1.05 male(s)/female
25–54 years: 1.00 male(s)/female
55–64 years: 0.96 male(s)/female
65 years and over: 0.84 male(s)/female
total population: 0.98 male(s)/female (2018 est)

Population growth and age structure

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Demographic transition models (DTM) show how population pyramids change and go through specific stages. By looking at Taiwan's population pyramid, the country is in stage 4 of the DTM and its shape contracts but it will soon enter stage 5.[15] In stage 5 of the DTM, death rate gradually exceeds fertility rate and a country starts to experience overall population loss.[16] Access to good medical care increases the lifespan of a population. Knowledge of and access to contraception, along with an increase in women's participation in the workforce, cause a sharp decline in the fertility rate.[16]

National statistics of Taiwan in 2018 indicate that there are approximately 140,000 more females than males. The birth rate (8.3 births/1,000 population) is slightly higher than the death rate (7.4 deaths/1,000 population).[17] The total dependency ratio in Taiwan is 35.2%, which is relatively low.[18] The low dependency ratio indicates that the dependent part of the population is less than half of the working part. Experts estimate the dependency ratio will rise to 92.9% by 2060.[19] A rising dependency ratio and longer life expectancy will most likely require the government to support part of the elderly population as the working-age population is shrinking and thus less able to support the elderly directly.

Demographic transition and population aging

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The process of population aging is primarily determined by fertility and mortality rate.[20] The proportions of elderly people are different across countries. For example, developing countries with limited access to healthcare and contraceptives, where populations have a high fertility rate, tend to have a lower proportion of older people.[21] Medical advancements, industrial developments, and better knowledge of sanitation, which started in the 18th century in many developed countries, have caused a decline in mortality rates and an increase in fertility rates, factors which raise the number of older people worldwide.[22] According to the United Nations, many developed countries are in more advanced stages (4 or 5) of the demographic transition model and their number of elderly will remain high compared to less developed countries.[23] This phenomenon is known as population aging.

According to the World Health Organization (WHO), since 1993, Taiwan has reached the threshold of an aging society. It was estimated the percentage of people over 65 was 8%.[24] The CEPD estimated that the percentage of people 65 years or older will be over 20% in 2025, which means Taiwan will soon become a "super aged society".[25] The critical factors that accelerate the speed of aging in Taiwan are high life expectancy and low fertility rate. The average life expectancy in 2014 was 80 years. The total fertility rate in 2014 was 1.1 (per 1,000 women) and dropped to 0.87 in 2022.[26]

According to a 2015 study by the Ministry of Health and Welfare, approximately 40% of Taiwan elders see themselves as a burden on family or society.[27]

Ethnicity

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See also: Taiwanese people, Taiwanese indigenous peoples, and Han Taiwanese

The ROC government reports that 95 to 97 percent of Taiwan's population is of the Han Chinese ethnicity, which includes Hoklo, Hakka, and other ethnic groups originating from mainland China.[28][29] Over 2% of the population consists of indigenous Taiwanese.[3] 21,000 Westerners live in Taiwan, accounting for 0.1% of its total population.[30]

Indigenous Taiwanese

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Original geographic distributions of Taiwanese aboriginal peoples
Main articles: Taiwanese indigenous peoples, List of indigenous peoples of Taiwan, Plains indigenous peoples, and Indigenous Area (Taiwan)

The total population of recognized indigenous people in Taiwan is approximately 569,000, or approximately 2.38% of Taiwan's population.[31] These groups primarily inhabit the eastern half of Taiwan, which consists mostly of mountainous terrain. Their population growth rate (1.2%) and population pyramid are considerably more youthful than the overall population.[32] Including migrant workers, the Austronesian population of Taiwan is approaching 1 million.[33]

Place Population Pct
Male Female Total
Living in the Eastern plains 111,372 109,141 220,513 47.1%
Living in the mountains 122,016 126,073 248,089 52.9%
Total 233,388 235,214 468,602 100%
Note: Source data obtained from the Ministry of the Interior website (Spreadsheet data: m1-04.xls Archived 2017-06-20 at the Wayback Machine)

The Taiwanese government officially recognizes sixteen ethnic groups of Taiwanese indigenous peoples (Chinese: 原住民; pinyin: yuánzhùmín; Pe̍h-ōe-jī: Gôan-chū-bîn).[34] In the early 1910s, research in the Japanese era recognized nine ethnic groups: Amis, Atayal, Bunun, Paiwan, Puyuma, Rukai, Saisiyat, Tsou, and Yami. After the 2000s, indigenous cultural revitalization movements forced the government to change its attitude towards the indigenous people of Taiwan. The Yami people were renamed to Tao. New ethnic groups were also recognized by the government, including Thao in 2001, Kavalan in 2002, Truku (Taroko) in 2004, Sakizaya in 2007, Seediq in 2008, Kanakanavu in 2014, and Saaroa in 2014. There are at least another dozen groups that are not officially recognized by the government.

Officially Recognized Taiwanese Indigenous Peoples
Name Formosan
native name		 Chinese Population
at census 2000[35]		 Population
(02/2016)[36]		 Notes
Amis Pangcah, 'Amis 阿美族 148,992 203,740 Recognized since Japanese era. Amis name means "north"
Atayal Tayal, Tayan 泰雅族 91,883 87,156 Recognized since Japanese era. Atayal name means "brave person"
Bunun Bunun 布農族 41,038 56,844 Recognized since Japanese era.
Kanakanavu Kanakanavu 卡那卡那富族 — 267 Classified as Tsou, recognized since 2014
Kavalan Kebalan, Kbaran 噶瑪蘭族 — 1,416 Some Kavalan were classified as Amis, recognized since 2002
Paiwan Payuan 排灣族 70,331 97,788 Recognized since Japanese era.
Puyuma Pinuyumayan 卑南族 9,606 13,651 Recognized since Japanese era.
Rukai Drekay 魯凱族 12,084 12,996 Recognized since Japanese era.
Saaroa Hla'alua 拉阿魯哇族 — 294 Classified as Tsou, recognized since 2014
Saisiyat Say-Siyat 賽夏族 5,311 6,495 Recognized since Japanese era.
Sakizaya Sakizaya 撒奇萊雅族 — 863 Classified as Amis, recognized since 2007
Seediq Seediq 賽德克族 — 9,451 Classified as Atayal, recognized since 2008
Taroko Truku 太魯閣族 — 30,382 Classified as Atayal, recognized since 2004
Thao Thao, Ngan 邵族 — 768 Classified as Tsou, recognized since 2001
Tsou Cou 鄒族 6,169 6,647 Recognized since Japanese era.
Yami Tao 達悟族、雅美族 3,872 4,494 Recognized since Japanese era. Yami name means "person"
Unspecified 尚未申報 8,249 14,206
Total 397,535 547,465

Unrecognized indigenous groups may include extinct tribes (mostly Plains indigenous peoples) or communities currently classified with other groups. There are also 25,943 indigenous people who are currently not classified in any group.

Unrecognized Taiwanese indigenous Peoples
Name Formosan
native name 		Chinese Notes
Arikun Arikun 阿立昆族 Sometimes classified as Hoanya
Babuza Babuza, Poavasa 貓霧拺族
Basay Basay, Basai 巴賽族、馬塞族 Sometimes classified as Ketagalan
Hoanya Hoanya 洪雅族、和安雅族 Sometimes split into Lloa and Arikun
Kaxabu Kaxabu, Kahapu 噶哈巫族 Sometimes classified as Pazeh. In revitalization.
Ketagalan Ketagalan 凱達格蘭族
Kulon Kulon 龜崙族
Lloa Lloa 羅亞族 Sometimes classified Hoanya
Luilang Luilang 雷朗族 Sometimes classified as Ketagalan
Makatao Makatao, Tao 馬卡道族 Sometimes classified as Siraya. Recognized in Pingtung. In revitalization.
Papora Papora, Vupuran 拍瀑拉族、巴布拉族
Pazeh Pazéh, Pazih 巴宰族、巴則海族 In revitalization.
Qauqaut Qauqaut 猴猴族
Siraya Siraya 西拉雅族、希萊耶族 Recognized in Tainan and Fuli. In revitalization.
Taivoan Taivoan, Taivuan 大武壠族 Sometimes classified as Siraya. Recognized in Fuli. In revitalization.
Taokas Taokas 道卡斯族 In revitalization.

Han Chinese

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Main articles: Han Chinese, Han Taiwanese, Hoklo Taiwanese, and Hakka people

The majority of Han Chinese descend from immigrants who arrived to the island prior to Japanese rule (1895–1945) and can be classified as the Hoklo and Hakka, on the basis of language and customs.[37] As the majority of early immigrants were Hokkien speakers from Fujian[38] who arrived starting in the 17th century, the Hoklos account for about 70% of the total population today. During Qing rule, a large number of Hoklo men took indigenous brides.[39] Some of the plains aboriginals also adopted Chinese customs and language so as to be indistinguishable from the Han.[40] Thus, many who categorize themselves as Han have some degree of indigenous ancestry.

A significant minority of Han Chinese are Hakka, and they constitute about 15% of the total population. The Hakkas emigrated chiefly from eastern Guangdong, speak Hakka Chinese, and originally took up residence in the hills of the indigenous border districts.[41][39]

Waishengren form another significant mixed ethnic group in Taiwan. The term refers to migrants who moved from China to Taiwan between 1945, when the ROC took control of Taiwan from the Japanese empire, and 1949 during the relocation of the ROC from mainland China to Taiwan. Estimates vary regarding how many waishengren migrated, with most estimates ranging between 950,000 and 2 million,[42] with 1.2 million being the most commonly cited figure in Taiwan,[43] which would have constituted less than 15% of the population at the time (who constitute approximately 10% of the population in 2004[5]).[7]

Foreign residents

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Number of foreign residents in Taiwan by nationality as of 2016

There are 812,603 foreign residents in Taiwan as of April 2023, representing 3.48% of the country's population.[44][45][1]

Nationality 2023 (Dec.)[46] 2022 (Sep.)[47] 2021 (Sep.)[48] 2019 % in 2023
  Indonesia 278,991 234,329 254,403 255,770 33.15%
  Vietnam 255,627 234,100 247,817 224,108 30.37%
  Philippines 151,198 154,075 156,996 152,179 17.96%
  Thailand 77,114 72,061 67,308 64,381 9.16%
  Malaysia 24,323 23,749 22,819 20,549 2.89%
  Japan 14,136 15,956 16,160 13,768 1.68%
  United States 11,288 11,462 12,847 9,979
  India 5,320 4,671 4,695 3,748 0.63%
  South Korea 4,820 4,843 5,132 4,481 0.57%
  Myanmar 4,217 2,611 1,852 1,671 0.50%
  United Kingdom 2,559 2,989 2,961 2,097 0.30%
  Canada 2,528 2,579 2,737 2,167 0.30%
  Singapore 1,863 1,766 1,726 1,456 0.22%
  France 1,673 1,841 1,790 1,553 0.20%
  South Africa 1,545 1,539 1,416 1,207 0.18%
  Germany 1,135 1,271 1,224 965 0.13%
  Australia 937 985 1,051 838 0.11%
  Russia 787 680 663 578 0.09%
  Eswatini 642 412 363 0.08%
  Mongolia 560 500 684 1,126 0.07%
  Cambodia 543 359 164 0.06%
  Italy 522 523 579 489 0.06%
  Pakistan 498 297 186 0.06%
  Paraguay 419 328 176 0.05%
  Spain 411 492 473 390 0.05%
  Belize 384 334 181 0.05%
  Netherlands 383 531 512 346 0.05%
  Turkey 328 284 311 279 0.04%
  New Zealand 296 328 352 313 0.04%
  Portugal 296 300 312 217 0.04%
  Brazil 292 259 261 307 0.03%
  Poland 291 311 285 217 0.03%
  Honduras 269 374 288 0.03%
  Ukraine 263 214 230 245 0.03%
  Mexico 259 229 226 196 0.03%
  Ethiopia 215 164 181 0.03%
  Guatemala 213 199 138 0.03%
  Belgium 205 254 302 198 0.02%
  Saint Lucia 204 170 102 0.02%
  Iran 189 163 118 0.02%
  Haiti 185 158 148 0.02%
  Ireland 178 216 165 0.02%
    Nepal 167 164 159 0.02%
  Saint Vincent and the Grenadines 167 140 104 0.02%
   Switzerland 167 181 219 168 0.02%
  Egypt 158 157 87 0.02%
  Sweden 158 152 125 0.02%
  Israel 155 151 105 0.02%
stateless 143 0.02%
  Nigeria 139 116 81 0.02%
  Colombia 135 128 106 0.02%
  Austria 128 126 117 0.02%
  Nicaragua 127 141 183 0.02%
  Bangladesh 110 94 62
  Kyrgyzstan 106 61 45
  Sri Lanka 106 109 95
  Denmark 104 284 147
  Czech Republic 103 92 101
  Gambia 101 100 122
  Saint Kitts and Nevis 96 96 73
  Jordan 95 95 80
  Peru 92 104 85
  Tanzania 84 64
  Hungary 83 86 79
  Malawi 80 54 60
  Belarus 77 78 65
  El Salvador 74 90 125
  Venezuela 72 81 88
  Argentina 63 61 57
  Uganda 62 43 19
  Laos 60 54 41
  Chile 59 65 48
  Palau 55 66 48
  Romania 54 63
  Burkina Faso 53 55 65
  Kenya 52 41 32
  Uzbekistan 50 46 38
  Ecuador 45 42 42
  Morocco 45 33 30
  Marshall Islands 44 52 43
  Tuvalu 42 34 30
  Slovakia 41 48 41
  Panama 40 52 83
  Burundi 39 29 15
  Kazakhstan 38 25 22
  Finland 34 43 37
  Norway 34 28 28
  Lithuania 33 41
  Nauru 33 31 24
  Greece 32 29 25
  Croatia 31 39 31
  Serbia 31 28 21
  Ghana 30 30 28
  Yemen 29 16 11
  Costa Rica 26 18 17
  Bulgaria 25 24 18
  Papua New Guinea 25 32 27
  Zimbabwe 25 16 17
  Dominican Republic 23 27 43
  Latvia 23 35 17
  Mauritius 22 27 23
  Bolivia 20 22 15
  North Macedonia 18 17 14
  Slovenia 17 16 23
  Armenia 16 13 21
  Fiji 16 13 8
  Solomon Islands 16 15 88
  Brunei 15 14 21
  Lesotho 15 7 4
  Mozambique 15 4 6
  Palestine 15 11 6
  Lebanon 14 17 9
  Zambia 14 8 6
  Democratic Republic of the Congo 13 6 6
  Senegal 13 6 4
  Bhutan 12 10 7
  Tunisia 12 11 11
  Turkmenistan 12 13 13
  Estonia 10 8 11
  Jamaica 10 8 5
  Syria 10 10 9
  Uruguay 10 12 13
  Algeria 9 8 9
  Republic of the Congo 8 13 10
  Tajikistan 8 5 6
  Botswana 7 5 5
  Cameroon 7 7 8
  Chad 7 6 6
  Kiribati 7 4 85
  Iceland 6 8 3
  Albania 5 5 2
  Moldova 5 4 9
  Namibia 5 6 7
  Sierra Leone 5 3 6
  Timor-Leste 5 4 4
  Togo 5 3 2
  Tonga 5 4 6
  Azerbaijan 4 3 3
  Benin 4 5 2
  Cuba 4 2 5
  Georgia 4 6 9
  Guinea 4 1 3
  Rwanda 4 2 3
  Sudan 4 4 7
  Trinidad and Tobago 4 6 4
  Bahamas 3 1
  Bahrain 3 2 2
  Cyprus 3 5 2
  Guyana 3 3
  Ivory Coast 3 4 4
  Libya 3 2 4
  Luxembourg 3 8
  Madagascar 3 1 2
  Maldives 3 3 2
  Malta 3 2 2
  Niger 3 3 4
  Samoa 3 2
  Saudi Arabia 3 2 3
  Gabon 2 1 1
  Grenada 2 1
  Guinea-Bissau 2 2 1
  Mali 2 2 3
  Oman 2 3 4
  São Tomé and Príncipe 2 3
  Suriname 2 2 1
  Vanuatu 2 2 1
  Afghanistan 1 2 1
  Barbados 1 1 1
  Bosnia and Herzegovina 1 1
  Dominica 1 3 1
  Federated States of Micronesia 1 1 1
  Liberia 1
  Liechtenstein 1
  Mauritania 1
  Seychelles 1 1 1
  United Arab Emirates 1 1
  Angola 0 1
  Bermuda 0 1
  Cape Verde 0 1
  Djibouti 0 1
  Iraq 0 19 17
  Kuwait 0 1
  Somalia 0 2
Total 841,627 783,662 772,281 100.0%

Languages

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Main articles: Languages of Taiwan, Formosan languages, Taiwanese Hokkien, Taiwanese Hakka, Taiwanese Mandarin, and Matsu dialect

During Japanese rule (between 1895 and 1945), Japanese was the medium of instruction and could be fluently spoken by many of those educated during that period. Almost everyone in Taiwan born after the early 1950s can speak Mandarin,[50] which was the official language and has been the medium of instruction in schools ever since.

Hanyu Pinyin, the official romanization system in mainland China, has also been the standard of Taiwan since 2009. A number of romanization systems are still seen in Taiwan, including Tongyong, the official romanization in Taiwan between 2002 and 2008, Wade–Giles, often found on passports, and Postal.

Other Sinitic languages can also be seen in Taiwan. The majority speak Taiwanese Hokkien, a branch of Southern Min, which had formerly been the most commonly spoken language. On Matsu Islands, the Eastern Min Fuzhou dialect is prevalent. Although people on Kinmen (Quemoy) also speak Southern Min, it is not the case in the Wuqiu Islands, for they speak a dialect of the Pu-Xian Min. The ethnic Hakka speak various Taiwanese Hakka dialects including Sixian, Hailu, Dabu, Raoping, and Zhao'an.

The most widely spoken Formosan languages today are Amis, Atayal, Bunun, and Paiwan. The other aboriginal languages that have gained official recognition are Kanakanavu, Kavalan, Puyuma, Rukai, Hla’alua, Saisiyat, Sakizaya, Seediq (closely related to Truku), Thao, Tsou, and Yami (also known as Tao).

Languages used at home for the resident nationals aged 6 years and over (2010, per 100 resident nationals)[a][51]
Division Population Mandarin Hokkien Hakka Indigenous Others
Total 21,407,235 83.5 81.9 6.6 1.4 2
New Taipei City 3,779,575 92 82.9 2.4 0.9 2.4
Taipei 2,475,422 93.2 73.5 3.5 0.5 3.2
Keelung 358,927 87.2 91.1 0.9 1.8 1.8
Hsinchu 427,792 92 70.7 11.1 0.8 1.6
Yilan 393,109 78.2 94.9 0.6 1.8 1
Taoyuan 1,982,734 93.4 58.2 17.1 1.3 1.3
Hsinchu County 464,165 90.6 27.7 56 2 1.1
Taichung 2,521,926 87.1 89.9 3.5 0.6 1.4
Miaoli 482,329 79.4 45.8 52.4 1 0.5
Changhua 1,123,439 69.5 98.1 0.3 0.2 0.9
Nantou 426,631 75.3 92 3.2 4.3 1.2
Yunlin 573,064 60 98.2 1.6 0.1 1.4
Tainan 1,719,853 71.7 95.8 0.5 0.3 2.7
Kaohsiung 2,596,510 78.6 90.9 3 0.7 2.4
Chiayi 250,900 76.5 94.7 0.4 0.3 1
Chiayi County 458,244 61 97.5 0.8 0.8 3.6
Pingtung 750,122 66.2 82.3 12 4.7 0.5
Penghu 80,203 75 93.6 0.5 0.3 2.4
Taitung 187,763 89.9 65.9 5.4 21.3 5.5
Hualien 287,858 90.8 60.9 10.8 16.9 1.6
Kinmen 52,603 85.4 92.8 1.1 0.5 0.8
Lienchiang 14,066 96.6 44.7 3.9 1.6 24.1

Religion

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Main article: Religion in Taiwan
 
Lungshan Temple of Manka, Taipei
 
Still Thoughts Hall, Hualien City
 
Holy Rosary Cathedral, Kaohsiung
 
Taipei Grand Mosque, Taipei

Article 13 of the Constitution of the Republic of China guarantees freedom of religion as a right of all its citizens. As of 2013, the Republic of China government recognizes 27 religions which are registered with the Civil Affairs Department of the Ministry of the Interior (MOI).[52]

Statistics on registered religions (2005)

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About 81.3% of the population can be considered religious believers, most of whom identify as Buddhists (35%) or Taoists (33%). Chinese folk religion is generally practised under the aegis of Taoism, while more than 10% of the population adheres to popular movements of salvation. Confucianism also is an honored school of thought and ethical codes. Christian churches have been active in Taiwan for centuries; a majority of them are Protestant, with Presbyterians playing a particularly significant role. The Republic of China's government has diplomatic relations with the Holy See, which is the only European nation to formally recognize the Republic of China and is its longest-lasting diplomatic ally, having established relations in 1942. Islam has seen a surge in recent years as a result of foreign Muslims seeking work in Taiwan, most notably from Indonesia. There is also a small group of Shinto followers under the Tenriist sect, which was introduced in the 1970s.

The table below shows official statistics on religion issued by the Department of Civil Affairs, Ministry of the Interior ("MOI"), in 2005. The Taiwanese government recognises 26 religions in Taiwan.[53] The statistics are reported by the various religious organisations to the MOI:[53][54]

Religion Members % of total population Temples & churches
Buddhism (佛教) (including Tantric Buddhism) 8,086,000
35.1%
 4,006
Taoism (道教) 7,600,000
33.0%
 18,274
Yiguandao (一貫道) 810,000
3.5%
 3,260
Protestantism (基督新教) 605,000
2.6%
 3,609
Roman Catholic Church (羅馬天主教) 298,000
1.3%
 1,151
Lord of Universe Church—Tiandiism (天帝教) 298,000
1.3%
 50
Miledadao (彌勒大道) 250,000
1.1%
 2,200
Holy Church of the Heavenly Virtue—Tiandiism (天德教) 200,000
0.9%
 14
Zailiism/Liism (理教) 186,000
0.8%
 138
Xuanyuanism (軒轅教) 152,700
0.7%
 22
Islam (伊斯蘭教) 58,000
0.3%
 7
Mormonism (耶穌基督後期聖徒教會) 51,090
0.2%
 54
Tenriism (天理教) 35,000
0.2%
 153
Church of Maitreya the King of the Universe (宇宙彌勒皇教) 35,000
0.2%
 12
Haizidao (亥子道) 30,000
0.1%
 55
Church of Scientology (山達基教會) 20,000
< 0.1%
 7
Bahá'í Faith (巴哈伊教) 16,000
< 0.1%
 13
Jehovah's Witnesses (耶和華見證人) 9,256
< 0.1%
 85
True School of the Mysterious Gate (玄門真宗) 5,000
< 0.1%
 5
Holy Church of the Middle Flower (中華聖教) 3,200
< 0.1%
 7
Mahikari (真光教團) 1,000
< 0.1%
 9
Precosmic Salvationism (先天救教) 1,000
< 0.1%
 6
Yellow Middle (黃中) 1,000
< 0.1%
 1
Dayiism (大易教) 1,000
< 0.1%
 1
Total religious population 18,724,823
81.3%
 33,223
Total population 23,036,087
100%

The figures for The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints are not from the MOI, rather they are based on self-reported data from LDS Newsroom.[55] The figures for Jehovah's Witnesses are not from the MOI either, they are based on the Witnesses' own 2007 Service Year Report.[56] In the original report, both of them were counted as part of Protestantism.[53]

Vital statistics

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Births and deaths

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[57][58]

Average population (x 1000) Live births Deaths Natural change CBR* CDR* NC* Crude migration TFR*
1906 3,060 119,107 102,000 16,000 38.6 33.4 5.2 6.13
1907 3,090 121,756 100,000 21,000 39.1 32.4 6.7 3.1 6.16
1908 3,120 119,800 100,000 19,000 38.2 31.9 6.3 3,4 6.14
1909 3,160 127,286 98,000 29,000 40.2 31.1 9.1 3.7 6.29
1910 3,210 132,141 88,000 45,000 41.3 27.5 13.8 2.0 6.37
1911 3,270 135,658 86,000 51,000 41.8 26.2 15.6 3.1 6.42
1912 3,330 136,622 83,000 55,000 41.3 25.0 16.3 2.0 6.46
1913 3,390 136,967 85,000 53,000 40.8 25.0 15.8 2.2 6.45
1914 3,440 141,450 95,000 47,000 41.4 27.6 13.8 0.9 6.62
1915 3,480 137,669 110,000 29,000 40.0 31.5 8.5 3.1 6.45
1916 3,510 128,605 100,000 31,000 37.3 28.6 8.7 −0.1
1917 3,560 142,414 96,000 50,000 40.9 27.0 13.9 0.3
1918 3,590 139,465 122,000 21,000 39.7 34.1 2.8 5.6
1919 3,630 136,707 97,000 43,000 38.5 26.8 11.7 −0.6
1920 3,655 141,313 117,000 27,000 39.5 32.1 7.4 −0.5 6.48
1921 3,720 155,159 90,000 69,000 42.8 24.2 18.6 −0.8
1922 3,790 154,531 93,000 65,000 41.8 24.6 17.2 1.6
1923 3,860 146,984 82,000 69,000 39.1 21.3 17.8 0.7
1924 3,930 158,688 96,000 67,000 41.4 24.5 16.9 1.2
1925 3,993 159,423 95,000 68,000 40.8 23.9 16.9 −0.9
1926 4,100 175,802 92,000 87,000 43.7 22.4 21.3 5.5
1927 4,210 177,422 93,000 89,000 43.2 22.1 21.1 5.7
1928 4,330 183,699 95,000 94,000 43.7 22.0 21.7 6.8
1929 4,460 190,031 96,000 100,000 44.0 21.6 22.4 7.6
1930 4,593 198,186 89,000 117,000 44.8 19.4 25.4 4.4 7.02
1931 4,710 208,137 100,000 116,000 45.8 21.3 24.5 1.0
1932 4,867 204,913 99,000 115,000 44.0 20.4 23.6 9.7
1933 4,995 211,737 98,000 123,000 44.3 19.7 24.6 1.7
1934 5,128 219,189 105,166 123,510 44.6 20.5 24.1 2.5
1935 5,255 225,980 106,905 129,040 44.9 20.3 24.6 0.2
1936 5,384 223,961 106,332 127,725 43.5 19.8 23.7 0.8
1937 5,530 237,090 109,096 138,570 44.8 19.7 25.1 2.0
1938 5,678 235,821 111,723 133,117 43.1 19.7 23.4 3.4
1939 5,821 244,707 115,044 139,119 43.7 19.8 23.9 1.3
1940 5,987 246,691 116,239 141,232 43.0 19.4 23.6 4.9 6.11
1941 6,163 241,894 99,858 153,447 41.1 16.2 24.9 4.5 5.98
1942 6,339 242,796 112,161 143,243 40.3 17.7 22.6 6.0 5.93
1943 6,507 247,427 122,001 138,662 40.0 18.8 21.2 5.3
1944
1945
1946
1947 6,294 241,071 114,000 127,000 38.3 18.1 20.2
1948 6,648 264,000 95,000 169,000 39.7 14.3 25.4 30.8 5.98
1949 7,099 300,843 93,000 208,000 42.4 13.1 29.3 38.5 6.49
1950 7,468 323,643 86,000 238,000 43.4 11.5 31.9 20.1 7.14
1951 7,695 385,383 89,000 296,000 50.0 11.6 38.5 −8.1 7.59
1952 8,000 372,905 79,000 294,000 46.6 9.9 36.8 2.8 7.56
1953 8,297 374,536 78,000 297,000 45.2 9.4 35.8 1.3 7.54
1954 8,617 383,574 71,000 313,000 44.6 8.2 36.3 2.3 7.25
1955 8,924 403,683 77,000 327,000 45.3 8.6 36.6 −1.0 7.32
1956 9,242 414,036 74,000 340,000 44.8 8.0 36.8 −1.2 7.27
1957 9,539 394,870 81,000 314,000 41.4 8.5 32.9 −0.8 6.83
1958 9,858 410,885 75,000 336,000 41.7 7.6 34.1 −0.7 6.48
1959 10,227 421,458 74,000 347,000 41.2 7.2 33.9 3.5 5.98
1960 10,602 419,442 74,000 345,000 39.5 7.0 32.5 4.2 5.75
1961 10,983 420,254 74,000 346,254 38.3 6.7 31.5 4.4 5.58
1962 11,312 423,469 72,000 351,469 37.4 6.4 31.1 −1.1 5.46
1963 11,680 424,250 71,000 353,250 36.3 6.1 30.2 2.3 5.35
1964 12,088 416,926 69,000 347,926 34.5 5.7 28.8 6.1 5.10
1965 12,442 406,604 67,887 338,717 32.7 5.5 27.2 2.1 4.82
1966 12,812 415,108 69,778 345,330 32.4 5.4 27.0 2.7 4.95
1967 13,147 374,282 71,861 302,421 28.5 5.5 23.0 3.1 4.22
1968 13,474 394,260 73,650 320,610 29.3 5.5 23.8 1.1 4.36
1969 13,995 390,728 70,549 320,179 27.9 5.0 22.9 15.8 4.14
1970 14,507 394,015 71,135 322,883 27.2 4.9 22.3 14.3 4.00
1971 14,837 380,424 70,954 309,470 25.6 4.8 20.9 1.8 3.70
1972 15,145 365,749 71,486 294,263 24.1 4.7 19.4 1.4 3.36
1973 15,424 366,942 73,477 293,465 23.8 4.8 19.0 −0.6 3.21
1974 15,699 355,933 74,760 293,063 23.4 4.8 18.7 −0.9 2.94
1975 15,999 357,653 75,061 292,586 23.0 4.7 18.3 0.8 2.76
1976 16,298 424,075 77,000 347,075 26.0 4.7 21.3 −2.6 3.08
1977 16,601 393,633 79,000 316,796 23.7 4.8 19.1 −0.5 2.64
1978 16,951 411,637 79,000 330,203 24.3 4.7 19.5 1.6 2.71
1979 17,337 421,720 82,000 340,518 24.3 4.7 19.6 3.2 2.67
1980 17,608 413,881 84,333 329,548 23.5 4.8 18.7 −3.1 2.51
1981 17,972 414,069 87,192 326,877 23.0 4.9 18.2 2.5 2.45
1982 18,261 405,263 87,578 317,685 22.2 4.8 17.4 −1.3 2.32
1983 18,538 383,439 90,951 292,488 20.7 4.9 15.8 −0.6 2.17
1984 18,873 371,008 89,915 281,093 19.7 4.8 14.9 3.2 2.05
1985 19,135 346,208 92,348 253,860 18.1 4.8 13.3 0.6 1.88
1986 19,356 309,230 95,057 214,173 16.0 4.9 11.1 0.4 1.68
1987 19,564 314,024 96,319 217,705 16.1 4.9 11.1 −0.4 1.70
1988 19,788 342,031 102,113 239,918 17.3 5.2 12.1 −0.7 1.86
1989 20,004 315,299 103,288 212,011 15.8 5.2 10.6 0.3 1.68
1990 20,230 335,618 105,669 229,949 16.6 5.2 11.4 −0.1 1.81
1991 20,455 321,932 106,284 215,648 15.7 5.2 10.5 0.6 1.72
1992 20,655 321,632 110,516 211,116 15.6 5.4 10.2 −0.4 1.73
1993 20,848 325,613 110,901 214,712 15.6 5.3 10.3 −1.0 1.76
1994 21,087 322,938 113,866 209,072 15.3 5.4 9.9 1.6 1.76
1995 21,268 329,581 119,112 210,469 15.5 5.6 9.9 −1.3 1.78
1996 21,441 325,545 122,489 203,056 15.2 5.7 9.5 −1.4 1.76
1997 21,634 326,002 121,000 205,002 15.1 5.6 9.5 −0.5 1.77
1998 21,836 271,450 123,180 148,270 12.4 5.6 6.8 2.5 1.47
1999 22,011 283,661 126,113 157,548 12.9 5.7 7.2 0.8 1.56
2000 22,185 305,312 125,957 179,355 13.8 5.7 8.1 −0.2 1.68
2001 22,342 260,354 127,647 132,707 11.7 5.7 5.9 1.2 1.40
2002 22,464 247,530 128,636 118,894 11.0 5.7 5.3 0.2 1.34
2003 22,554 227,070 130,801 96,269 10.1 5.8 4.3 −0.3 1.24
2004 22,647 216,419 135,092 81,327 9.6 6.0 3.6 0.5 1.18
2005 22,730 205,854 139,398 66,456 9.1 6.1 2.9 0.8 1.12
2006 22,824 204,459 135,839 68,620 9.0 6.0 3.0 1.1 1.12
2007 22,918 204,414 141,111 63 303 8.9 6.2 2.8 1.3 1.10
2008 22,998 198,733 143,624 55,109 8.6 6.2 2.4 1.1 1.05
2009 23,079 191,310 143,582 47,728 8.3 6.2 2.1 1.4 1.03
2010 23,141 166,886 145,772 21,114 7.2 6.3 0.9 1.8 0.90
2011 23,194 196,627 152,915 43,712 8.5 6.6 1.9 0.4 1.07
2012 23,271 229,481 154,251 75,230 9.9 6.6 3.2 0.1 1.27
2013 23,345 199,113 155,908 43,205 8.5 6.7 1.8 1.4 1.07
2014 23,434 210,383 163,929 46,454 9.0 7.0 2.0 1.8 1.17
2015 23,472 213,598 163,858 49,740 9.1 7.0 2.1 −0.5 1.18
2016 23,540 208,440 172,405 36,035 8.8 7.3 1.5 1.4 1.17
2017 23,571 193,844 171,242 22,602 8.2 7.3 0.9 0.4 1.13
2018 23,589 181,601 172,784 8,817 7.7 7.3 0.4 0.4 1.06
2019 23,603 177,767 176,296 1,471 7.5 7.5 0.0 0.6 1.05
2020[59] 23,561 165,249 173,156 −7,907 7.0 7.4 −0.4 −1.4 0.99
2021 23,359 153,820 183,732 −29,912 6.6 7.9 −1.3 −7.3 0.98
2022 23,264 138,986 207,230 −68,244 6.0 8.9 −2.9 −1.2 0.87
2023 23,420 135,571 205,368 −69,797 5.8 8.8 −3.0 9.7 0.86
* CBR=crude birth rate (per 1000); CDR=crude deathrate (per 1000); NC=natural change (per 1000); TFR=total fertility rate

Current vital statistics

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[60]

Period Live births Deaths Natural increase
January–October 2023 112,720 173,700 −60,980
January–October 2024 109,803 169,030 −59,227
Difference   −2,917 (−2.59%)   −4,670 (−2.69%)   +1,753

Fertility rate

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The fertility rate[61][62] in Taiwan is one of the lowest ever recorded in the world in historical times. It reached its lowest level in 2023: 0.85 children per female. In 1980, the rate was still well above replacement level (2.515), but it dropped to 1.88 in 1985, 1.81 in 1990, 1.78 in 1995, 1.68 in 2000, 1.12 in 2005, 0.90 in 2010.

Infant mortality rate

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total: 6.29 deaths/1,000 live births
male: 6.97 deaths/1,000 live births
female: 5.55 deaths/1,000 live births (2006 est.)

Life expectancy at birth

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Historical development of life expectancy in Taiwan

In 2022, Taiwan is ranked 42nd in the world for highest life expectancy at birth.

Gender Life expectancy in 2022[63][64]
Male 76.63 years
Female 83.28 years
Total 79.8 years

Fertility trend

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In developed countries, trends like late marriage, no marriage, and having fewer children are growing. Developed countries tend to have lower fertility rates because access to birth control and contraceptives are easier and having children could become an economic burden caused by housing, education cost, and other costs for childcare.[65] Most women in developed countries are in the workforce and tend to have higher educations and professional careers. As a result, many women tend to have children late in life or no children at all.[66]

According to the BBC, the total fertility rate in Taiwan had decreased to 0.9 children per woman in 2010.[67] This figure is much lower than the replacement level and one of the lowest in the world. This indicates the population is experiencing negative growth and population aging is happening fast.[25] According to a Central News Agency Report, total births in 2017 were below 200,000. Compared to previous decades, the total number of births since 2000 has been between 197,000 and 230,000.[68] If this trend continues, the senior population in Taiwan will be almost 5 times higher than the youth population by 2060.[69]

HIV/AIDS

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Main article: HIV/AIDS in Taiwan

The first reported case of HIV/AIDS occurred in December 1984 and the first local infection was recorded in February 1986. As of May 2006, there were 11,486 recorded cases of HIV, of which 2,631 were confirmed with AIDS. There were 1,425 deaths, leaving 10,029 people living with HIV/AIDS. This is less than 0.05% of the total population of Taiwan. Statistics by the Center for Disease Control show that the gender distribution of infected persons was 90% male and 10% female.

Data Population
Adult prevalence 11,486
People living with HIV/AIDS 10,029
Deaths 1,425
Source: Center for Disease Control (CDC), Republic of China – May 2006 est.(PDF file) (in Chinese)

Military personnel

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Main articles: Conscription in Taiwan and Republic of China Armed Forces

The Republic of China has a compulsory military draft for males aged 19–35 years of age with a service obligation of 4 months (2018).

Population available for draft

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Defined as 19–49 years of age.

Gender Population
Male 5,883,828
Female 5,680,773
Total 11,564,601

Fit for military service

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Of the available population, the following are fit for military service. Defined as 19–49 years of age.

Gender Population
Male 4,749,537
Female 4,644,607
Total 9,394,144

Education

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Main article: Education in Taiwan

Taiwan has a nine-year compulsory education program initiated by the Ministry of Education in 1968. This consists of six years in elementary education and three years in junior high education. The enrollment rate was 96.77% for the 2004–2005 school year.[70] For the 2005–2006 school year, there were 5,283,855 students in both public and private schools, about a quarter of the entire population. The literacy rate is above 95%.

Since the mid-1990s, the government has introduced several education reforms in a bid to further improve education standards such as the replacement in 2002 of the 48-year-long Joint University Entrance Examination (JUEE; 大學聯考; Dàxué liánkǎo), which had been set up in 1954.

See also: List of universities in Taiwan

Distribution of students

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Sector Education Years of study Typical Age range Students Distribution
Pre-school Kindergarten (2 years) 4–6 years old 224,220 4.2%
Compulsory Elementary 6 years 6–12 years old 1,831,913 34.7%
Junior High 3 years 12–15 years old 951,236 18%
Senior Secondary Senior High 3 years 15–18 years old 420,608 8%
Senior Vocation 3 years 15–18 years old 331,604 6.3%
Higher Education Junior College 2–5 years 15–20 years old 37,068 0.7%
University & College 4–7 years
(up to 13 years) 		18–25 years old
(up to 31 years old) 		1,259,490 23.8%
Other Special School up to 14 years 4–18 years old 6,361 0.1%
Supplementary School n/a n/a 200,573 3.8%
Open University n/a n/a 20,782 0.4%
Total 5,283,855 100%
Source: Number of students at each level (SY 2005–2006), Ministry of Education, Republic of China.

Literacy

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The definition of literacy is those aged 15 and over who can read and write.

Gender Population
Male 99.6%
Female 96.8%
Total 98.2%

"International Comparison of Education Statistical Indicators – 2012 Edition", Ministry of Education, 2012. pp. 17. Retrieved on 2012-10-05. (Table 1-2-5. Literacy Rate for Age 15 Plus by Gender).

2.02 Population of 15 Years and Over by Educational Attainment Archived 2013-02-17 at the Wayback Machine, Statistical Yearbook of Interior, Ministry of the Interior, Republic of China (Taiwan). 2012. Retrieved on 10-05-2012.

Data source limitations

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The World Bank does not publish data on Taiwan in most of its online databases.[71][72]

Notes

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  1. ^ One may use more than one language at home. This table refers to the relative frequency of languages used at home to the total of resident nationals.

References

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  1. ^ a b "Total Population". 19 April 2022.
  2. ^ Exec. Yuan (2014), p. 36,48.
  3. ^ a b c Taiwan. The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency., United States Central Intelligence Agency
  4. ^ Freedman, Ronald; Chang, Ming-Cheng; Sun, Te-Hsiung (1994). "Taiwan's Transition from High Fertility to Below-Replacement Levels". Studies in Family Planning. 25 (6): 317–331. doi:10.2307/2137876. ISSN 0039-3665. JSTOR 2137876.
  5. ^ a b "蕃薯＋芋頭＝臺灣土豆？——臺灣當前族群認同狀況比較分析" [Sweet potato + taro = Taiwanese potato? —Comparative Analysis of Taiwan's Current Ethnic Identity Status] (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2021-01-20.
  6. ^ Exec. Yuan (2014), p. 48: "1.2 million"
  7. ^ a b Wu, Nai-teh (July 2005). "Transition without Justice, or Justice without History: Transitional Justice in Taiwan". Taiwan Journal of Democracy. 1 (1): 20.
  8. ^ Davidson (1903), p. 13.
  9. ^ Lin, A.; Keating, J. (2008). Island in the Stream : a quick case study of Taiwan's complex history (4th ed.). Taipei: SMC Pub. ISBN 9789576387050.
  10. ^ Davidson (1903), p. 561.
  11. ^ Davidson (1903), p. 563.
  12. ^ 北市府網站管理員 (2009-07-28). "Taipei City Government". Taipei City Government. Retrieved 2023-04-05.
  13. ^ "人口數三段齡組". 內政部統計處. Retrieved 2017-07-18.[permanent dead link‍]
  14. ^ a b "內政部全球資訊網-中文網".
  15. ^ "Taiwan Age structure – Demographics". www.indexmundi.com.
  16. ^ a b "Stage 5 of the Demographic Transition Model – Population Education". populationeducation.org. 18 October 2014.
  17. ^ "National Statistics, Republic of China (Taiwan)". eng.stat.gov.tw.
  18. ^ "Age dependency ratio (% of working-age population) – Data". data.worldbank.org.
  19. ^ "Taiwan's demographic crunch and its military implications – AEI". aei.org. Archived from the original on 2018-01-24. Retrieved 2018-04-13.
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