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Islam during the Ming dynasty

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As the Yuan dynasty ended, many Mongols as well as the Muslims who came with them remained in China. Most of their descendants took Chinese names and became part of the diverse cultural world of China.[1] During the following Ming rule (1368–1644), Muslims truly adopted Chinese culture. Most became fluent in Chinese and adopted Chinese names and the capital, Nanjing, became a center of Islamic learning. As a result, the Muslims became "outwardly indistinguishable" from the Chinese.[2]

The Ming dynasty saw the rapid decline in the Muslim population in the sea ports.[citation needed] This was due to the closing of all seaport trade with the outside world except for rigid government-sanctioned trade.

History

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Integration

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See also: Chinese Islamic cuisine, Sini (script), and List of mosques in China
Hu Dahai was a Chinese Muslim general of the Hongwu Emperor.

As a result of increasing isolationism by the Ming dynasty, immigration from Muslim countries slowed down drastically, and the Muslims in China became increasingly isolated from the rest of the Islamic world, gradually becoming more sinicized and adopting the Chinese language and Chinese dress. Muslims became fully integrated into Chinese society. One interesting example of this synthesis was the process by which Muslims changed their names.

Foreign origin Muslims adopted the Chinese character which sounded the most phonetically similar to the beginning syllables of their Muslim names – Ha for Hasan, Hu for Hussain, Sa'I for Said and so on. Han who converted to Islam kept their own surnames like Kong, Zhang. Chinese surnames that are very common among Muslim families are Mo, Mai, and Mu – names adopted by the Muslims who had the surnames Muhammad, Mustafa and Masoud. [citation needed]

Muslims also sought to integrate themselves with the majority of the Chinese people during this time, making themselves as undistinguished as possible to assimilate.[3]

Muslim customs of dress and food also underwent a synthesis with Chinese culture. The Islamic modes of dress and dietary rules were maintained within a Chinese cultural framework. Chinese Islamic cuisine is heavily influenced by Beijing cuisine, with nearly all cooking methods identical, and differing only in material due to religious restrictions. As a result, northern Islamic cuisine is often included as part of Beijing cuisine.

During the Ming dynasty, Chinese Islamic traditions of writing began to develop, including the practice of writing Chinese using the Arabic script (xiaojing) and distinctly Chinese forms of decorative calligraphy.[4] The script is used extensively in mosques in eastern China, and to a lesser extent in Gansu, Ningxia, and Shaanxi. A famous Sini calligrapher is Hajji Noor Deen Mi Guangjiang.

Mosque Architecture began to follow traditional Chinese architecture.[5][6] A good example is the Great Mosque of Xi'an, whose current buildings date from the Ming dynasty. Western Chinese mosques were more likely to incorporate minarets and domes while eastern Chinese mosques were more likely to look like pagodas.[7]

In time, the Muslims who were descendants of immigrants from Muslim countries began to speak local dialects and to read in Chinese Language. The Ming policy towards the Islamic religion was tolerant. The Hongwu Emperor decreed the building of multiple mosques throughout China in many locations. A Nanjing mosque was built by the Xuanzong Emperor.[8] Muslims in Ming dynasty Beijing were given relative freedom by the Chinese, with no restrictions placed on their religious practices or freedom of worship, were considered normal citizens in Beijing. In contrast to the freedom granted to Muslims, followers of Tibetan Buddhism and Catholicism suffered from restrictions and censure in Beijing.[9]

Jinjue Mosque (literally meaning: Pure Enlightenment Mosque) in Nanjing was constructed by the decree of the Hongwu Emperor.

The Hongwu Emperor ordered the building of several mosques in southern China, and wrote a 100 character praise on Islam, Allah and the prophet Muhammad.[8] He had over 10 Muslim Generals in his military.[10] The Emperor built mosques in Nanjing, Yunnan, Guangdong and Fujian.[11] Zhu rebuilt Jin Jue mosque in Nanjing and large numbers of Hui Muslims moved to Nanjing during his rule.[12] He ordered that inscriptions praising Muhammd be put into Mosques.

An incense burner with Sini-Arabic inscription "Muhammad is the Servant of Allah", made during the reign of Zhengde. Adilnor Collection, Sweden

During the war against the Mongols, among the Ming Emperor Zhu Yuanzhang's armies was the Hui Muslim Feng Sheng.[13]

'Ali Akbar Khata'i wrote in his book Khataynameh: “the Emperor [Xiaozong- Hongzhi Emperor (1487-1505)] not only employed many Muslim officials but also had a marked personal inclination toward Islam…., The Kin Tay (Zhengde, r. 1505-1521) had been very friendly with the Muslims and had Muslim warlords under his service....., the eunuchs of the Chinese palace are all Muslims who can practice their faith without any limitations." He also called the Zhengde Emperor as "Khan". [8]

1,200 Muslims who settled in China during the Yuan dynasty were sent "back" from Gansu to Sa-ma-rh-han (Samarkhand), due to a command from the Emperor to the Governor of Gansu to do so.[14]

The Yongle Emperor called for the establishment and repair of Islamic mosques during his reign. Two mosques were built by him, one in Nanjing and the other in Xi'an and they still stand today.[8] Repairs were encouraged and the mosques were not allowed to be converted to any other use.[15][16]

Pro Muslim inscriptions were found on stelae erected by the Ming Emperors. The Fuzhou and Quanzhou mosques contain the following edict by the Emperor:

"I hereby give you my imperial decree in order to guard your residence. Officials, civil or military, or anyone, are not to offend or insult you. Anyone who offends or insults you against my imperial order will be punished as a criminal".[17]

The Ming dynasty decreed that Manichaeism and Nestorian Christianity were illegal and heterodox, to be wiped out from China, while Islam and Judaism were legal and fit Confucian ideology.[18]

Ming Taizu's tolerant disposition for Muslims and allowing them to practice their religion led to Arab missionaries continually coming to China during the Ming dynasty, prominent ones included Mahamode and Zhanmaluding (Muhammad and Jamal Ul-din respectively).[19]

The Zhengde Emperor was fascinated by foreigners and invited many Muslims to serve as advisors, eunuchs,[8] and envoys at his court.[20] His court was reportedly full of Muslims, and artwork such as porcelain from his court contained Islamic inscriptions in Arabic or Persian. He was also said to wear Muslim clothing and alleged to have converted to Islam. Muslim eunuchs ran many of his state affairs.[21][22][23]

When the Qing dynasty invaded the Ming dynasty in 1644, Muslim Ming loyalists led by Muslim leaders Milayin, Ding Guodong, and Ma Shouying led a revolt in 1646 against the Qing during the Milayin rebellion in order to drive the Qing out and restore the Ming Prince of Yanchang Zhu Shichuan to the throne as the emperor. The Muslim Ming loyalists were crushed by the Qing with 100,000 of them, including Milayin and Ding Guodong, killed.

Muslim scholarship

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The era saw Nanjing become an important center of Islamic study. From there Wang Daiyu wrote Zhengjiao zhenquan (A Commentary on the Orthodox Faith), while his successor, Liu Zhi, translated Tianfang xingli (Islamic Philosophy) Tianfang dianli (Islamic Ritual) and Tianfang zhisheng shilu (The Last Prophet of Islam). Another scholar, Hu Dengzhou started a rigorous Islamic school in Nanjing, which taught hadith, the Qur'an, and Islamic law. The school grew into a fourteen-course system, with classes in Arabic and Persian. Jingtang Jiaoyu was founded during the era of Hu Dengzhou 1522–1597.[24] Other provinces had different systems and different specializations; Lintao and Hezhou provinces had a three-tier educational system in which the youngest children learned the Arabic required for namaz and wudu, and then graduated to more advanced studies. Shandong province became a center specialized in Persian texts. As the Hui Muslim community became more diluted, Chinese scholars worked harder to translate texts into Chinese to both provide more texts for Muslims to convince the ruling Han elite that Islam was not inferior to Confucianism.[25]

The work of Islamic geographers which had reached China during the Yuan dynasty was used in the Ming dynasty to draw the Western Regions in the Da Ming Hun Yi Tu, the oldest surviving world map from East Asia.

Prominent Muslims

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Although the Yuan dynasty, unlike the western khanates, never converted to Islam, the Mongol rulers of the dynasty elevated the status of foreigners of all religions from Mongolia, Central, west Asia like Muslims, Jews, and Christians versus the Han, Khitan, and Jurchen, and placed many foreigners such as Central Asians, Jews, Nestorian Christian Naiman, Kerait, Ongud, Tibetan Buddhist Tangut Lamas, and Buddhist Turpan Uyghurs from Central and West Asia in high-ranking post. The state moved people from different parts of the empire including moving Chinese to Central Asia while moving Central Asians to China. The Mongol emperors moved many different peoples including Muslims to China while moved Chinese west to Muslim lands. Many worked in the elite circles arriving as provincial governors. They were referred to as Semu.

At the same time the Mongols imported Central Asian Muslims to serve as administrators in China, the Mongols also sent Han Chinese and Khitans from China to serve as administrators over the Muslim population in Bukhara in Central Asia, using foreigners to curtail the power of the local peoples of both lands.[26]

Philosophy

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Li Nu was a Han Chinese merchant and scholar, and the son of Li Lu in 1376 Li Nu visited Ormuz in Persia, converted to Islam, married a Persian or an Arab girl and brought her back to Quanzhou in Fujian. One of his descendants was the Neo Confucian philosopher Li Zhi who was not a Muslim, their clan stopped practising the religion during his grandfather's generation.[27][28][29]

There was a significant amount of influence from Neo-Confucianism in Chinese Islamic thought around this time,[30][31] to the point where many Muslims thought that they practiced Confucianism in a superior way to Confucianists who did not worship Allah. Buddhist and Taoist esotericism also influenced Muslim intellectuals.[31]

Military generals

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Disputed identities

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Hu Dahai was a general of the Hongwu Emperor.
Chang Yuchun is said to be the father of the famous "Kaiping spear method".[32][33]

Some Hui people claim that according to their oral legends that several of the commanders of Zhu Yuanzhang, the founder of the Ming dynasty, were Muslim like Lan Yu, Mu Ying, Feng Sheng, Ding Dexing and Hu Dahai. These are disputed by historians who say there is no evidence for them being Hui.

Lan Yu, in 1388, led a strong imperial Ming army out of the Great Wall and won a decisive victory over the Mongols in Mongolia, effectively ending the Mongol dream to re-conquer China. Lan Yu was later killed by the Emperor, along with several others, in a purge of those deemed to be a potential threat to his heir apparent.[34]

Mu Ying was one of the few capable generals who survived the massacre of Emperor Zhu Yuanzhang. He and his descendants guarded Yunnan, a province near Vietnam, until the end of the Ming dynasty. He and other Muslim Generals loyal to the Ming dynasty led Muslim troops to defeat Mongol and Muslims loyal to the Yuan dynasty during the Ming conquest of Yunnan.

Other generals of the Ming dynasty include Feng Sheng, Ding Dexing and Hu Dahai.

undisputed Hui officers

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In the year 1447, a Muslim Hui general Chen You, financed the restoration of the Dong Si Mosque (literally meaning: Propagation of Brightness Mosque).[32]

Zheng He

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The Ming dynasty also gave rise to who is perhaps the most famous Chinese Muslim, Zheng He,[citation needed] a mariner, explorer, diplomat, and admiral. He was born in 1371 in Yunnan province. He served as a close confidant of the Yongle Emperor (r. 1403–1424), the third emperor of the Ming dynasty. Between 1405 and 1433, the Ming government sponsored a series of seven naval expeditions led by Zheng He into the Indian Ocean, reaching as far away as east Africa. On his voyages, he is known to have heavily subsidized Buddhist temples; upon his returns to China, he restored or constructed temples to Mazu, the Taoist sea goddess, in Nanjing, Taicang, and Nanshan, erecting steles praising her protection.[35] Amateur historian Gavin Menzies claims that Zheng He traveled to West Africa, North America and South America, Greenland, Antarctica and Australia and most of the rest of the world, although this idea is not taken seriously by professional historians.

Foreign policy

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The Ming dynasty supported Muslim Sultanates in South East Asia like the Malacca Sultanate, protecting them from Thailand and the Portuguese, allowing them to prosper. It also supported the Muslim Champa state against Vietnam.

Ming dynasty China warned Thailand and the Majapahit against trying to conquer and attack the Malacca sultanate, placing the Malacca Sultanate under Chinese protection as a protectorate, and giving the ruler of Malacca the title of King. The Chinese strengthened several warehouses in Malacca. The Muslim Sultanate flourished due to the Chinese protection against the Thai and other powers who wanted to attack Malacca. Thailand was also a tributary to China and had to obey China's orders not to attack[36][37][38][39]

In response to the Portuguese Capture of Malacca (1511), the Chinese Imperial Government imprisoned and executed multiple Portuguese envoys after torturing them in Guangzhou. Since Malacca was a tributary state to China, the Chinese responded with violent force against the Portuguese. The Malaccans had informed the Chinese of the Portuguese seizure of Malacca, to which the Chinese responded with hostility toward the Portuguese. The Malaccans told the Chinese of the deception the Portuguese used, disguising plans for conquering territory as mere trading activities, and told of all the atrocities committed by the Portuguese.[40] Malacca was under Chinese protection and the Portuguese invasion angered the Chinese.[41]

Due to the Malaccan Sultan lodging a complaint against the Portuguese invasion to the Chinese Emperor, the Portuguese were greeted with hostility from the Chinese when they arrived in China.[42][43][44][45][46] The Sultan's complaint caused "a great deal of trouble" to Portuguese in China.[47] The Chinese were very "unwelcoming" to the Portuguese.[48] The Malaccan Sultan, based in Bintan after fleeing Malacca, sent a message to the Chinese, which combined with Portuguese banditry and violent activity in China, led the Chinese authorities to execute 23 Portuguese and torture the rest of them in jails. Tomé Pires, a Portuguese trade envoy, was among those who died in the Chinese dungeons.[49][50][51] Much of the Portuguese embassy stayed imprisoned for life.[52]

Ming loyalist Muslims

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When the Qing dynasty invaded the Ming dynasty in 1644, Muslim Ming loyalists in Gansu led by Muslim leaders Milayin[53] and Ding Guodong led a revolt in 1646 against the Qing during the Milayin rebellion in order to drive the Qing out and restore the Ming Prince of Yanchang Zhu Shichuan to the throne as the emperor.[54] The Muslim Ming loyalists were supported by Hami's Sultan Sa'id Baba and his son Prince Turumtay.[55][56][57] The Muslim Ming loyalists were joined by Tibetans and Han Chinese in the revolt.[58] After fierce fighting, and negotiations, a peace agreement was agreed on in 1649, and Milayan and Ding nominally pledged allegiance to the Qing and were given ranks as members of the Qing military.[59] When other Ming loyalists in southern China made a resurgence and the Qing were forced to withdraw their forces from Gansu to fight them, Milayan and Ding once again took up arms and rebelled against the Qing.[60] The Muslim Ming loyalists were then crushed by the Qing with 100,000 of them, including Milayin, Ding Guodong, and Turumtay killed in battle.

The Confucian Hui Muslim scholar Ma Zhu (1640-1710) served with the southern Ming loyalists against the Qing.[61] Zhu Yu'ai, the Ming Prince Gui was accompanied by Hui refugees when he fled from Huguang to the Burmese border in Yunnan and as a mark of their defiance against the Qing and loyalty to the Ming, they changed their surname to Ming.[62]

In Guangzhou, there are three tombs of Ming loyalist Muslims who were martyred while fighting in battle against the Qing in the Manchu conquest of China in Guangzhou. The Ming Muslim loyalists were called "jiaomen sanzhong ("Three defenders of the faith" or "The Muslim's Loyal Trio").[62][63]

See also

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Notes

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  •  This article incorporates text from The preaching of Islam: a history of the propagation of the Muslim faith, by Sir Thomas Walker Arnold, a publication from 1896, now in the public domain in the United States.
  •  This article incorporates text from Mediæval Researches from Eastern Asiatic Sources: Fragments Toward the Knowledge of the Geography and History of Central and Western Asia from the 13th to the 17th Century, Volume 2, by E. Bretschneider, a publication from 1888, now in the public domain in the United States.
  1. ^ Richard W., Bulliet; Crossley, Pamela Kyle; Headrick, Daniel R.; Hirsch, Steven W.; Johnson, Lyman L.; Northrup, David (2004). The Earth and Its Peoples: A Global History (3rd ed.). Boston: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 0-618-42770-8. OCLC 58479926.
  2. ^ Israeli (2002), pg. 292
  3. ^ Thomas Walker Arnold (1896). The preaching of Islam: a history of the propagation of the Muslim faith. WESTMINSTER: A. Constable and co. p. 248.(Original from the University of California)
  4. ^ http://www.chinaheritagenewsletter.org/features.php?searchterm=005_calligraphy.inc&issue=005 Archived 4 February 2012 at the Wayback Machine Islamic Calligraphy in China
  5. ^ H., Hagras (1 June 2019). "Xi'an Daxuexi Alley Mosque: Historical and Architectural Study". Egyptian Journal of Archaeological and Restoration Studies. 9 (1): 97–113. doi:10.21608/ejars.2019.38462. ISSN 2090-4940.
  6. ^ Hagras, Hamada Muhammed (20 June 2017). "An Ancient Mosque In Ningbo, China "Historical And Architectural Study"". Journal of Islamic Architecture. 4 (3): 102. doi:10.18860/jia.v4i3.3851. ISSN 2356-4644.
  7. ^ Cowen, Jill S. (July–August 1985). "Muslims in China: The Mosque". Saudi Aramco World. pp. 30–35. Archived from the original on 22 March 2006. Retrieved 8 April 2006.
  8. ^ a b c d e Hagras, Hamada (20 December 2019). "The Ming Court as Patron of the Chinese Islamic Architecture: The Case Study of the Daxuexi Mosque in Xi'an". SHEDET (6): 134–158. doi:10.36816/shedet.006.08. Archived from the original on 18 October 2020. Retrieved 15 March 2020.
  9. ^ Susan Naquin (2000). Peking: temples and city life, 1400–1900. University of California Press. p. 214. ISBN 978-0-520-21991-5.
  10. ^ China China archaeology and art digest, Volume 3, Issue 4. Art Text (HK) Ltd. 2000. p. 29.(Original from the University of Michigan)
  11. ^ Tan Ta Sen; Dasheng Chen (2000). Cheng Ho and Islam in Southeast Asia. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. p. 170. ISBN 978-981-230-837-5.
  12. ^ Shoujiang Mi; Jia You (2004). Islam in China. 五洲传播出版社. p. 135. ISBN 978-7-5085-0533-6.
  13. ^ "China's Islamic Communities Generate Local Histories | China Heritage Quarterly".
  14. ^ E. Bretschneider (1888). Mediæval Researches from Eastern Asiatic Sources: Fragments Toward the Knowledge of the Geography and History of Central and Western Asia from the 13th to the 17th Century, Volume 2. LONDON: Trübner & Co. p. 258.(Original from the New York Public Library)
  15. ^ China archaeology and art digest, Volume 3, Issue 4. Art Text (HK) Ltd. 2000. p. 29.
  16. ^ Dru C. Gladney (1996). Muslim Chinese: ethnic nationalism in the People's Republic. Harvard Univ Asia Center. p. 269. ISBN 978-0-674-59497-5.
  17. ^ Donald Daniel Leslie (1998). "The Integration of Religious Minorities in China: The Case of Chinese Muslims" (PDF). The Fifty-ninth George Ernest Morrison Lecture in Ethnology. p. 14. Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 December 2010.
  18. ^ Donald Daniel Leslie (1998). "The Integration of Religious Minorities in China: The Case of Chinese Muslims" (PDF). The Fifty-ninth George Ernest Morrison Lecture in Ethnology. p. 15. Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 December 2010.
  19. ^ Michael Dillon (1999). China's Muslim Hui community: migration, settlement and sects. Richmond: Curzon Press. p. 40. ISBN 978-0-7007-1026-3.
  20. ^ Julia Ching (1993). Chinese religions. Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-333-53174-7.
  21. ^ Jay A. Levenson, National Gallery of Art (U.S.) (1991). Circa 1492: art in the age of exploration. Yale University Press. p. 360. ISBN 978-0-300-05167-4.
  22. ^ Chiang Han Hua Jennifer (28 April 2007). "Crossing Culture in the Blue-and-White with Arabic or Persian inscriptions under Emperor Zhengde (r. 1506–21)" (PDF). The University of Hong Kong Faculty of Arts School of Humanities Department of Fine Arts. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 March 2012.
  23. ^ Claire Roberts; Geremie Barmé (2006). The Great Wall of China, Volume 2006. Powerhouse. ISBN 978-1-86317-121-2.
  24. ^ Kees Versteegh; Mushira Eid (2005). Encyclopedia of Arabic Language and Linguistics: A-Ed. Brill. p. 380. ISBN 978-90-04-14473-6.
  25. ^ "Looking East: The challenges and opportunities of Chinese Islam". Archived from the original on 12 March 2008.
  26. ^ BUELL, PAUL D. (1979). "Sino-Khitan Administration in Mongol Bukhara". Journal of Asian History. 13 (2): 137–8. JSTOR 41930343.
  27. ^ Association for Asian studies (Ann Arbor;Michigan) (1976). A-L, Volumes 1–2. Columbia University Press. p. 817. ISBN 9780231038010.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  28. ^ Chen, Da-Sheng. "CHINESE-IRANIAN RELATIONS vii. Persian Settlements in Southeastern China during the T'ang, Sung, and Yuan Dynasties". Encyclopedia Iranica. Retrieved 28 June 2010.
  29. ^ Joseph Needham (1971). Science and civilisation in China, Volume 4. Cambridge University Press. p. 495. ISBN 9780521070607.
  30. ^ Murata, Sachiko (2004). "The Unity of Being in Liu Chih's "Islamic Neoconfucianism"". Journal of the Muhyiddin Ibn Arabi Society. 36 (4). Oxford – via The Muhyiddin Ibn Arabi Society.
  31. ^ a b Wang, Wei (16 August 2022). "On the Historical Background and Ideological Resources of the Confluence of Islam and Confucianism". Religions. 13 (8): 8, 12–13. doi:10.3390/rel13080748. ISSN 2077-1444.
  32. ^ a b "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 November 2012. Retrieved 15 November 2013.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  33. ^ Cheng Ho and Islam in Southeast Asia By Tan Ta Sen, Dasheng Chen, pg 170
  34. ^ Dun J. Li The Ageless Chinese (Charles Scribner's Sons: 1971), p. 276
  35. ^ Fish, Robert J. "Primary Source: Zheng He Inscription". Univ. of Minnesota. Retrieved 23 July 2009.
  36. ^ Warren I. Cohen (2000). East Asia at the center: four thousand years of engagement with the world (illustrated ed.). Columbia University Press. p. 175. ISBN 978-0-231-10109-7. One of the great beneficiaries of Chinese naval power in the early years of the fifteenth century was the city-state of Melaka ... Perceiving threats from Majapahit and the Tai who were extending their power down the Malay peninsula, Paramesvara looked to the more distant Chinese as a counterweight. He responded quickly to Ming overtures, sent a tribute mission to China in 1405 and was invested as king of Melaka by the Ming emperor. Visits by Zheng He's fleets left little doubt in the region that Melaka had become a Chinese protectorate. Taking no chances, Paramesvara personally led tribute mission to Peking on two or three occasions.
  37. ^ Kenneth Warren Chase (2003). Firearms: a global history to 1700 (illustrated ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 51. ISBN 978-0-521-82274-9. The Chinese recognized Melaka as an independent state and warned the king of Thailand not to meddle with it ... Nevertheless, the Chinese did not seek to establish colonies overseas, even when they anchored in places with large Chinese populations, like Sumatra and Java. They turned Melaka into a kind of protectorate and built a fortified warehouse there, but that was about it.
  38. ^ Colonial armies in Southeast Asia. Routledge. 21 December 2005. p. 21. ISBN 978-1-134-31476-8. important legacy of Chinese imperialism ... by intervening in the Melaka Straits in a way that facilitated the rise of Melaka, and protected it from depredations from Thailand (Siam) and from Java's state of Majapahit; ... Melaka ... having been founded ... by a ruler fleeing Singapore in the fact of Thai and Javanese hostility. Melaka repeatedly sent envoys to China. China in turn claimed the power to deter other tributary states, such as Thailand, from interfering with Melaka, and also claimed to have raised the 'chief' of Melaka to the status of king in 1405, and Melaka to a protected polity in 1410. Melaka as a Muslim Sultanate consolidated itself and thrived precisely in an era of Chinese-led 'globalisation'. which was gathering pace by the late fourteenth century, and peaked at this time.
  39. ^ Karl Hack; Tobias Rettig (2006). Karl Hack; Tobias Rettig (eds.). Colonial armies in Southeast Asia. Vol. 33 of Routledge studies in the modern history of Asia (illustrated ed.). Psychology Press. p. 21. ISBN 978-0-415-33413-6. important legacy of Chinese imperialism ... by intervening in the Melaka Straits in a way that facilitated the rise of Melaka, and protected it from depredations from Thailand (Siam) and from Java's state of Majapahit; ... Melaka ... having been founded ... by a ruler fleeing Singapore in the fact of Thai and Javanese hostility. Melaka repeatedly sent envoys to China. China in turn claimed the power to deter other tributary states, such as Thailand, from interfering with Melaka, and also claimed to have raised the 'chief' of Melaka to the status of king in 1405, and Melaka to a protected polity in 1410. Melaka as a Muslim Sultanate consolidated itself and thrived precisely in an era of Chinese-led 'globalisation'. which was gathering pace by the late fourteenth century, and peaked at this time.
  40. ^ Nigel Cameron (1976). Barbarians and mandarins: thirteen centuries of Western travelers in China. Vol. 681 of A phoenix book (illustrated, reprint ed.). University of Chicago Press. p. 143. ISBN 978-0-226-09229-4. envoy, had most effectively poured out his tale of woe, of deprivation at the hands of the Portuguese in Malacca; and he had backed up the tale with others concerning the reprehensible Portuguese methods in the Moluccas, making the case (quite truthfully) that European trading visits were no more than the prelude to annexation of territory. With the tiny sea power at this time available to the Chinese
  41. ^ Zhidong Hao (2011). Macau History and Society (illustrated ed.). Hong Kong University Press. p. 11. ISBN 978-988-8028-54-2. Pires came as an ambassador to Beijing to negotiate trade terms and settlements with China. He did make it to Beijing, but the mission failed because first, while Pires was in Beijing, the dethroned Sultan of Malacca also sent an envoy to Beijing to complain to the emperor about the Portuguese attack and conquest of Malacca. Malacca was part of China's suzerainty when the Portuguese took it. The Chinese were apparently not happy with what the Portuguese did there.
  42. ^ Ahmad Ibrahim; Sharon Siddique; Yasmin Hussain, eds. (1985). Readings on Islam in Southeast Asia. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. p. 11. ISBN 978-9971-988-08-1. in China was far from friendly; this, it seems, had something to do with the complaint which the ruler of Malacca, conquered by the Portuguese in 1511, had lodged with the Chinese emperor, his suzerain.)
  43. ^ Koninklijk Instituut voor Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde (Netherlands) (1968). Bijdragen tot de taal-, land- en volkenkunde, Part 124. M. Nijhoff. p. 446. The reception in China was far from friendly; this, it seems, had something to do with the complaint which the ruler of Malacca, conquered by the Portuguese in 1511, had lodged with the Chinese emperor, his suzerain.(University of Minnesota)
  44. ^ Bijdragen tot de taal-, land- en volkenkunde, Volume 124. 1968. p. 446. The reception in China was far from friendly; this, it seems, had something to do with the complaint which the ruler of Malacca, conquered by the Portuguese in 1511, had lodged with the Chinese emperor, his suzerain.(the University of California)
  45. ^ Alijah Gordon, Malaysian Sociological Research Institute (2001). The propagation of Islam in the Indonesian-Malay archipelago. Malaysian Sociological Research Institute. p. 136. ISBN 978-983-99866-2-4. His reception in China was far from friendly; this, it seems, had something to do with the complaint which the ruler of Melaka, conquered by the Portuguese in 1511, had lodged with the Chinese emperor, his suzerain.(the University of Michigan)
  46. ^ Instituut voor Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch Indië, Hague (1968). Bijdragen tot de taal-, land- en volkenkunde van Nederlandsch-Indië, Volume 124. M. Nijhoff. p. 446. The reception in China was far from friendly; this, it seems, had something to do with the complaint which the ruler of Malacca, conquered by the Portuguese in 1511, had lodged with the Chinese emperor, his suzerain.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)(the University of Michigan)
  47. ^ John Horace Parry (1 June 1981). The discovery of the sea. University of California Press. p. 238. ISBN 978-0-520-04237-7. In 1511 ... Alboquerque himself sailed ... to attack Malacca ... The Sultan of Malacca fled down the coast, to establish himself in the marshes of Johore, whence he sent petitions for redress to his remote suzerain, the Chinese Emperor. These petitions later caused the Portuguese, in their efforts to gain admission to trade at Canton, a great deal of trouble
  48. ^ John Horace Parry (1 June 1981). The discovery of the sea. University of California Press. p. 239. ISBN 978-0-520-04237-7. When the Portuguese tried to penetrate, in their own ships, to Canton itself, their reception by the Chinese authorities—understandably, in view of their reputation at Malacca—was unwelcoming, and several decades elapsed before they secured a tolerated toehold at Macao.
  49. ^ Kenneth Scott Latourette (1964). The Chinese, their history and culture, Volumes 1–2 (4, reprint ed.). Macmillan. p. 235. The Moslem ruler of Malacca, whom they had dispossessed, complained of them to the Chinese authorities. A Portuguese envoy, Pires, who reached Peking in 1520 was treated as a spy, was conveyed by imperial order to Canton(the University of Michigan)
  50. ^ Kenneth Scott Latourette (1942). The Chinese, their history and culture, Volumes 1–2 (2 ed.). Macmillan. p. 313. The Moslem ruler of Malacca, whom they had dispossessed, complained of them to the Chinese authorities. A Portuguese envoy, Pires, who reached Peking in 1520 was treated as a spy, was conveyed by imperial order to Canton(the University of Michigan)
  51. ^ John William Parry (1969). Spices: The story of spices. The spices described. Vol. 1 of Spices. Chemical Pub. Co. p. 102. Fernao Pires de Andrade reached Peking, China, in 1520, but unfortunately for that Portuguese envoy, he was treated as a spy and died in a Cantonese prison. establishing a(the University of California)
  52. ^ Stephen G. Haw (2008). A traveller's history of China (5, illustrated ed.). Interlink Books. p. 134. ISBN 978-1-56656-486-1. the Portuguese had established positions in India ... They seize Malacca in 1511, and immediately began to explore the routes to the south China coast. As early as 1514 the first Portuguese ships reached China. An official embassy was despatched from Malacca to Guangzhou in 1517, but was not allowed to proceed to Beijing until 1520 ... At the same time envoys arrived from Malacca seeking Chinese help against Portuguese rapacity. Shortly afterwards trade with the Europeans was banned, and the members of the Portuguese embassy were throne into prison on their return to Guangzhou; they were never released.
  53. ^ Millward, James A. (1998). Beyond the Pass: Economy, Ethnicity, and Empire in Qing Central Asia, 1759–1864 (illustrated ed.). Stanford University Press. p. 298. ISBN 978-0804729338.
  54. ^ Lipman, Jonathan Neaman (1998). Familiar strangers: a history of Muslims in Northwest China. University of Washington Press. p. 53. ISBN 978-0295800554.
  55. ^ Lipman, Jonathan Neaman (1998). Familiar strangers: a history of Muslims in Northwest China. University of Washington Press. p. 54. ISBN 978-0295800554.
  56. ^ Millward, James A. (1998). Beyond the Pass: Economy, Ethnicity, and Empire in Qing Central Asia, 1759-1864 (illustrated ed.). Stanford University Press. p. 171. ISBN 978-0804729338.
  57. ^ Dwyer, Arienne M. (2007). Salar: A Study in Inner Asian Language Contact Processes, Part 1 (illustrated ed.). Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. p. 8. ISBN 978-3447040914.
  58. ^ Lipman, Jonathan Neaman (1998). Familiar strangers: a history of Muslims in Northwest China. University of Washington Press. p. 55. ISBN 978-0295800554.
  59. ^ WAKEMAN JR., FREDERIC (1986). GREAT ENTERPRISE. University of California Press. p. 802. ISBN 978-0520048041.
  60. ^ WAKEMAN JR., FREDERIC (1986). GREAT ENTERPRISE. University of California Press. p. 803. ISBN 978-0520048041. milayin.
  61. ^ Brown, Rajeswary Ampalavanar; Pierce, Justin, eds. (2013). Charities in the Non-Western World: The Development and Regulation of Indigenous and Islamic Charities. Routledge. ISBN 978-1317938521.
  62. ^ a b Michael Dillon (16 December 2013). China's Muslim Hui Community: Migration, Settlement and Sects. Taylor & Francis. p. 45. ISBN 978-1-136-80940-8.
  63. ^ Ring & Salkin & La Boda 1996, p. 306.
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