Tesis de Fuerza
Tesis de Fuerza
Tesis de Fuerza
Autor:
Jorge Miguel González Hernández
Directores:
Dr. D. Pedro Jiménez Reyes
Dr. D. Gonzalo Márquez Sánchez
Dra. Dña. Asta Tvarijonaviciute
Autor:
Jorge Miguel González Hernández
Directores:
Dr. D. Pedro Jiménez Reyes
Dr. D. Gonzalo Márquez Sánchez
Dra. Dña. Asta Tvarijonaviciute
Por lo visto, cuando tenía tres años, mi padre me insistía con la idea de
que cuando fuera mayor, tenía que ser médico o arquitecto. Hasta que un día, le
respondí que de mayor sería lo que yo quisiera ser. Parece que esas palabras poco
comunes en un niño de esa corta edad marcaron a mis padres, y desde entonces se
han propuesto ayudarme y apoyarme en todo lo posible para conseguir esa meta.
Carmen Jose y Miki, sin duda son los principales responsables de todo lo bueno
que estoy viviendo. Gracias por la educación en valores que me han proporcionado
y por los grandes esfuerzos que han hecho para que pudiera estudiar y vivir lejos
de casa con el fin de hacer realidad mis sueños y convertirme en alguien diferente.
Incluso, sin comprender del todo esto en que invierto tanto tiempo, siempre he
podio contar con sus consejos, sus palabras de aliento y, sobre todo, me han hecho
sentir cerca de casa aún estando a tantos kilómetros de distancia. Gracias por su
apoyo constante y por confiar en mí cuando nadie lo hacía. Sin duda, son los padres
que cualquier hijo desearía tener.
Durante estos años lejos de casa siempre has estado apoyándome, nunca han
faltado tus llamadas. Tus consejos han sido una gran guía en todo este camino y eso
siempre te lo agradeceré. Gracias primo Jose Domingo; desde pequeño siempre he
querido parecerme a ti por tu capacidad de lucha y de superación.
Todo este proceso se lleva mejor con amigos como Mario Pérez, Mario
González, Aarón Baez, Lauren Olivia, María Espinosa, André Barbuzano, Fernando
Cabrera, Borja Elías, Alberto García y Carlos Murcia. Gracias por haber sido un
gran apoyo y ser de los que más han sufrido la dedicación que he tendido a la tesis,
y por la que he tenido que renunciar a muchos planes con ellos. Gracias por haber
estado a mi lado aún estando lejos. Gracias Alejando Oliva, por ser un auténtico
hermano para mí. Desde que me fui de casa has estado de forma incondicional a
mi lado, visitándome en cada uno de mis destinos y has sido mi aliado en la isla
estando fuera.
La primera investigación de esta tesis comenzó con ustedes dos, unos jóvenes
muy curiosos y ambiciosos, guiados por Pedro. Además, he tenido la suerte de
llegar a otro continente empujados por nuestras ideas. Gracias, amigos Rául Andrés
y Antonio García -Peñuela. por haber sido una fuente de motivación y un impulso
para mí.
Sin duda has sido de las personas que más ha sufrido los esfuerzos que he
tenido que realizar durante esta etapa. Siempre te estaré agradecido por haber
formado parte de ella, apoyarme y motivarme a seguir, aportándome la confianza
necesaria para saber que lo conseguiríamos. Muchas gracias, Súper.
Durante este último año has sido una persona clave en mi desarrollo
profesional, me has ayudado a pensar más allá y tener otra visión del entrenamiento.
He podido discutir y debatir diferentes puntos de vista casi a diario, forzándome
a argumentar y respaldar mis ideas. Además, me has sugerido propuestas para
confeccionar este manuscrito, por lo tanto, no puedo dejar de mencionarte en estas
líneas. Gracias, Kala, por confiar en mí, enseñarme tanto y, cómo tú dices, ser mi
“padre deportivo”.
El día a día se hace más productivo cuando compartes opiniones e ideas con
compañeros de doctorado y profesores. Gracias David Colomer, Adrián Castaño,
Fernando Capelo, Luis Manuel Martínez, Fernando Llorente, Alexander Gil, Víctor
Cuadrado y María Cadenas por hacerme crecer, por compartir sus conocimientos
conmigo y por mostrarme siempre vuestro apoyo.
During this doctoral thesis I was lucky enough to have the help of
international researchers. I have been able to learn a lot from you and we have built
up an interesting research network. Thank you, Daniel Boullosa, James Tufano and
Danica Janicijevic, for all the effort put into this project
No puedo acabar este apartado sin antes agradecer a cada uno de los sujetos
que han participado en los estudios que confeccionan esta Tesis Doctoral. Sin su
compromiso desinteresado nada de esto hubiera sido posible y nuestras ideas solo
serian teorías. Muchas gracias a los enfermeros Alejandro Navarro y Jésica Rojas
por realizar las extracciones de sangre durante los estudios. Gracias a Lorena Franco
por el análisis de las muestras de sangre y saliva. Gracias al resto de coautores que
han participado en los estudios de esta Tesis Doctoral. Y gracias a los deportistas
y entrenadores del Club Atletismo Clator, al Juvenil Nacional del Progreso FC, al
Alevín-B UCAM CF y al Juvenil-C del Club Deportivo Tenerife, donde he estado
trabajando y me han permitido poner en práctica todo lo que aprendido durante
este proceso.
John Galsworthy
ÍNDICE
I/ INTRODUCCIÓN 51
II/ ORIGEN DE LA PROBLEMÁTICA OBJETO DE ESTUDIO 61
III/ ESTADO ACTUAL DE CONOCOMIENTO 69
3.1. Entrenamiento de fuerza y rol de la fuerza en las nuevas 71
tendencias de entrenamiento
3.2. Factores determinantes del rendimiento de fuerza 75
3.2.1. Factores Mecánicos / estructurales 76
3.2.1.1. Área de Sección Transversal 76
3.2.1.2. Ángulo de Penneación 77
3.2.1.3. Tipo de Fibras 78
3.2.2. Factores Neurológicos 78
3.2.2.1. Reclutamientos de Unidades Motoras 79
3.2.2.2. Frecuencia del Estímulo 79
3.3. Variables determinantes de la configuración de las series 80
3.3.1. Volumen 80
3.3.2. Intensidad 82
3.3.2.1. Repeticiones a realizar en función de las 82
realizables
3.3.2.2. X-RM y Velocidad de ejecución 84
3.3.2.3. Índice de Esfuerzo 87
3.3.2.4. Tiempo de recuperación 87
3.3.2.5. Percepción del Esfuerzo a través de escalas 92
subjetivas de perción del esfuerzo
3.3.3. Frecuencia 94
3.3.4. Tiempo bajo Tensión TUT 95
3.4. Papel Modulador de la Fatiga en el entrenamiento de fuerza 96
3.4.1. Fatiga Central y Periférica 97
3.4.1.1. Índicadores Bioquímicos 102
3.4.1.1.1. Estrés metabólico 103
3.4.1.1.2. Marcadores de daño muscular 104
3.4.2. Indicadores Mecánicos de fatiga 107
3.4.2.1. Contración Isométrica máxima 107
3.4.2.2. Pérdida de Velocidad de Ejecución 108
3.4.2.3. Pérdida de Altura de Salto 110
3.4.2.4. Velocidad 1m/s en Sentadilla y Press de 111
Banca
3.4.2.5. Relación Fuerza Velociad 112
3.4.3. Indicadores Metabólicos de Fatiga 113
IV/ FORMULACIÓN DEL PROBLEMA 119
V/ OBJETIVOS E HIPÓTESIS 125
VI/ METODOLOGÍA 131
6.1. Sujetos 134
6.2. Ejercicios 136
6.3. Variables de estudio 137
6.4. Test y materiales 138
6.4.1. Saltos con Contramovimiento CMJ (ESTUDIO I) 138
6.4.2. Test de detección de la carga del 1RM y 10 RM 139
(ESTUDIOS I-V)
6.4.3. Pérdida de Velocidad 141
6.4.4. Test Lactato 141
6.4.5. Escala Subjetiva de Percepción del Esfuerzo OMNI 142
6.4.6. Perfil Fuerza-velocidad 142
6.4.7. Evaluación de la Función Neuromuscular 143
6.4.8. Extracción de Sangre y determinación de los valores 145
de Estrés Metabólico y Daño Muscular
6.4.9. Extracción de Saliva y determinación de los valores 146
de Estrés Metabólico y Daño Muscular
6.5. Procedimientos 147
6.5.1. Estudio I 147
6.5.2. Estudio II 148
6.5.3. Estudio III 149
6.5.4. Estudio IV 150
6.5.5. Estudio V 151
VII/ ESTUDIO I: Mechanical, metabolic, and perceptual acute responses 159
to different set configurations in full squat
7.1. Introduction 163
7.2. Methods 165
7.2.1. Experimental approach to the problem 165
7.2.2. Subjects 167
7.2.3. Procedures 168
7.2.4. Set configurations 169
7.2.5. Measures of fatigue 170
7.2.6. Statistical analyses 171
7.3. Results 172
7.3.1. Mechanical responses 172
7.3.2. Metabolic responses 177
7.3.3. Perceptual responses 178
7.4. Discussion 179
7.5. Practical applications 182
7.5.1. Conflict of Interest Statement 182
7.5.2. Acknowledgments 182
VIII/ ESTUDIO II: Influence of Sampling Conditions, Salivary Flow and 185
Total Protein Content in Uric Acid Measurements in Saliva
8.1. Introduction 189
8.2. Materials and methods 190
8.2.1. Experimental Approach to the Problem 190
8.2.2. Subjects 191
8.2.3. Procedures 191
8.2.4. Statistical analyses 193
8.3. Results 193
8.4. Discussion 196
8.5. Conclusion 198
IX/ ESTUDIO III: Effect of different interset rest intervals on movement 201
velocity during the squat and bench press exercises
9.1. Introduction 205
9.2. Methods 207
9.2.1. Participants 207
9.2.2. Experimental Design 207
9.2.2.1. Experimental sessions (sessions 4-6) 208
9.2.3. Statistical Analysis 210
9.3. Results 210
9.4. Discussion and implications 215
9.5. Conclusion 218
X/ ESTUDIO IV: Response of muscle damage markers in serum and saliva 221
to an accentuated eccentric training protocol
10.1. Abstract 225
10.2. Introduction 225
10.3. Methods 228
10.3.1. Experimental approach to the problem 228
10.3.2. Subjects 228
10.3.3. Procedures 229
10.3.4. Serum and saliva samples 230
10.3.5. Statistical analyses 230
10.4. Results 231
10.5. Discussion 235
10.6. Practical applications 238
XI/ ESTUDIO V: Resistance training to failure vs. not to failure: acute and 241
delayed markers of mechanical, neuromuscular and biochemical fatigue
11.1. Abstract 245
11.2. Introduction 245
11.3. Methods 247
11.3.1. Experimental approach to the problem 247
11.3.2. Subjects 248
11.3.3. Procedures 249
11.3.4. Statistical analysis 251
11.4. Results 252
11.4.1. Reliability of baseline values 252
11.4.2. Mean velocity during training 252
11.4.3. Neuromuscular function 252
11.4.4. Biomarkers of muscle damage 254
11.4.5. The effects of a matched volume on fatigue-related 254
variables
11.4.6. Correlation analysis 255
11.5. Discussion 256
11.6. Practical applications 259
XII/ DISCUSIÓN GENERAL 261
12.1. Efectos mecánicos 264
12.1.1. La pérdida de velocidad 264
12.1.2. Pérdida de altura de Salto en CMJ 268
12.1.3. Perfil Fv 270
12.2. Efectos metabólicos 271
12.3. Efectos perceptuales 272
12.4. Efectos bioquímicos 273
12.5. Efectos Neurológicos 279
XIII/ CONCLUSIONES 285
XIV/ APLICACIONES PRÁCTICAS 293
XV/ LIMITACIONES 299
XVI/ FUTURAS LÍNEAS DE INVESTIGACIÓN 305
XVII/ REFERENCIAS 311
XVIII/ ANEXOS 363
SIGLAS Y ABREVIATURAS
El último estudio de esta tesis tuvo como objetivo evaluar el daño muscular
y la fatiga producida en los extensores de rodilla tras el entrenamiento de fuerza
al fallo y no al fallo en sentadilla. Doce estudiantes de Ciencias del Deporte
completaron dos sesiones de entrenamiento de fuerza (una de ellas consistió en
repeticiones hasta el fallo (6x10) mientras que en la otra realizaban la mitad de
las repeticiones posible por serie (6x5)). La velocidad de ejecución fue medida
durante cada repetición. La función neuromuscular de los extensores de rodilla
se evaluó en línea base, inmediatamente después de cada serie y 1h, 24h y 48h
después del entrenamiento mediante la estimulación eléctrica superimpuesta. Las
extracciones de suero para la determinación del daño muscular se realizaron en
línea base y 1h, 24 h y 48 h post. Los resultados de este estudio mostraron una
significativa reducción de la velocidad de ejecución para el protocolo hasta el fallo.
La activación voluntaria como indicador de fatiga central se vio comprometida
hasta las 48h post. Y, por último, tanto la fatiga periférica cómo el daño muscular,
fue significativamente mayor para el protocolo hasta el fallo. Lo que sugiere que el
entrenamiento hasta el fallo produce un mayor descenso del rendimiento durante
la sesión y ocasiona un mayor grado de fatiga hasta las 48h post entrenamiento.
Además, se propone la pérdida de velocidad entre series cómo indicador de fatiga
en el entrenamiento de fuerza.
Many sports centres offer training programmes without any logical criteria
as to the progression of the loads. Neither is the individualisation of training or
simply taking into account the effect that occurs in a session for the next day.
Collective classes or modalities such as Crossfit demolish many of the basic
principles of training, which opens a debate between the marketing that involves
these modalities, supported by the good training environment and the mentality
of “no pain, no gain”, which means that if you do not suffer while training, you do
not improve. This idea is closely linked to training up to muscle failure, exhausting
all possible repetitions, where quantity is of the utmost importance. As opposed to
another current, somewhat more unusual to see in the job market, which guarantees
getting the best out of the sportsman with the least possible effort, “no pain, more
gain” prioritizing quality. This vision of training requires much more knowledge
than the first one by the professionals who manage it, since it aims to provide the
athlete with the minimum dose necessary to promote his improvement, keeping
him away from overtraining and the risk of injury.
During resistance training, the way in which the variables that make up
the configuration of the sets are configured (rest time between series or between
repetitions, number of sets or repetitions, movements velocity, or the relationship
of the repetitions carried out according to those that can be achieved) will condition
effect of training. There are many possibilities that allow us to play with these
variables and the knowledge of the effects that this causes needs to be investigated
in depth. Therefore, the purpose of this doctoral thesis is to study the acute and
delate effects of different set configurations in resistance training, from a mechanical,
metabolic, biochemical, perceptual and neurological point of view.
The following five studies have been designed with the intention of
responding to the problems found in the literature. they can provide information
on the state of the athlete during training, just after finishing and how his recovery
behaves days later. In addition, these studies have been carried out after different
configurations of resistance training (different intra set rest and inter repetitions
rest time, different number of repetitions depending on the achievable ones etc.)
and studying different responses (rate of perceived exertion, movement velocity
and jump height as mechanical indicators of fatigue, study of central and peripheral
fatigue and biochemical response etc.). Aimed to provide a full perspective of these
effects
In the first Study, the mechanical, metabolic and perceptual effect of six
different squat resistance training protocols are compared: This study aimed to
compare mechanical, metabolic, and perceptual responses between two traditional
(TR) and four cluster (CL) set configurations. In a counterbalanced randomized
order, eleven men were tested with the following protocols in separate sessions
(sets × repetitions [inter-repetition rest]): TR1: 3×10 [0-s]; TR2: 6×5 [0-s]; CL1: 3×10
[10-s]; CL2: 3×10 [15-s]; CL3: 3×10 [30-s]); CL4: 1×30 [15-s]). The exercise (full squat),
number of repetitions (30), inter-set rest (5 min), and resistance applied (10RM) was
the same for all set configurations. The full squat was chosen because it is one of the
most used exercises to improve lower-limb muscular strength (Schoenfeld, 2010a).
The full study protocol was composed of seven sessions: one initial test session and
six different protocol sessions. The warm-up and the procedure used to determine
the 10RM load was identical for all subjects in all sessions. Subjects performed a
10-min standardized warm-up that included jogging, joint mobility exercises, two
sets of eight repetitions in the unloaded squat, five progressive CMJs, and two
sprints of 20 meters. Once the warm-up was completed, a progressive loading test
in the full-squat exercise was performed until the load produced an MPV of 0.75
m·s⁻¹ (≈ 10RM load according to Sánchez Medina and González Badillo). The initial
external load was set at 40 kg for all subjects, and was progressively increased by
20 kg when the MPV was higher than 1 m·s⁻¹, 10 kg when the MPV was between
1 m·s⁻¹ and 0.8 m·s⁻¹, and from 5 to 1 kg when the MPV was below 0.8 m·s⁻¹. Four
repetitions were performed when the MPV was above 1 m·s⁻¹, two repetitions when
the MPV was between 1 m·s⁻¹ and 0.8 m·s⁻¹, and only one repetition when the MPV
was below 0.8 m·s⁻¹. The recovery period between sets was three minutes and this
test was carried out to determinate the load of training in each study of this thesis.
A linear encoder (Chronojump, Barcelona, Spain) was used to measure the velocity
of the bar. Once the load linked to an MPV of 0.75 m·s⁻¹ was obtained, the subjects
rested for five minutes, and then this load was lifted as many times as possible
to determine whether this load was close to the 10RM or if a slight increment/
decrement in the magnitude of the load was needed. This test was considered to
be properly performed when the last repetition was lifted at an MPV lower than
0.35 m·s⁻¹ (Luis Sánchez-Medina & González-Badillo, 2011). Mechanical fatigue
was quantified by measuring the mean propulsive velocity during each repetition,
and the change in countermovement jump height observed after each set and after
the whole training session. During the training sessions, metabolic and perceptual
fatigue were assessed via the blood lactate concentration and the OMNI perceived
exertion scale measured after each training set, respectively. The mechanical,
metabolic, and perceptual measures of fatigue were always significantly higher
for the TR1 set configuration. The two set configurations that most minimized
the mechanical measures of fatigue were CL2 and CL3. Perceived fatigue did not
differ between the TR2, CL1, CL2 and CL3 set configurations. The lowest lactate
concentration was observed in the CL3 set configuration.
Saliva and blood were sampled at four different times. First sample
corresponding with baseline was taken at 8:30 AM. The second saliva and blood
sample were collected 60 min post-training. Finally, the third and fourth extraction
corresponded with 24 and 48h post-training. The order of collection was saliva
by passive flow first, followed by collecting saliva using salivette and finally
blood sample was collected. Participants were not allowed to eat, drink coffee or
caffeinated soft drinks, and consume dairy products one hour before collecting
saliva samples. Furthermore, five minutes prior to saliva collection participants
were asked to rinse their mouth with clear water to avoid contaminations.
The third study aimed to compare the effect of three rest intervals between
sets (1,3 and 5 minutes) on (I) the average mean velocity during a squat and bench
press strength training session, and (II) the force-velocity profile before and after
training. Fifteen male university students completed three sessions (Rec1’, Rec3’
and Rec5’) consisting of three sets of five reps with the load that they could perform
10 reps. The force-velocity profile was evaluated at the beginning and end of
each session using the countermovement jump and bench press throw exercises.
Movement velocity was slower for the Rec1’ protocol compared to the other two,
but there were no significant differences between the Rec3’ and Rec5’.
The three main experimental sessions (sessions 4-6) consisted of three sets
of five repetitions against the 10RM load during the full squat and bench press
exercises. The only difference between the three experimental sessions was the
interset rest duration (1 minute [Rest 1’], 3 minutes [Rest 3’] and 5 minutes [Rest
5’]). The order of the full squat and bench press exercises was counterbalanced
between participants, but the same order was followed for individual participants
in the three experimental sessions. The order of the interset rest protocols was
randomized. The F-v relationship during the CMJ and bench press throw exercises
was determined on two occasions during each session: 5 min after the warm-up
(Pre) and 10 min after the last set of the training session (Post). All sessions were
performed at the same time of the day for each participant. During training, mean
velocity was slower in sets 2 and 3 of the Rest 1’ protocol compared to Rest 3’ and
Rest 5’, but no significant differences were present between Rest 3’ and Rest 5’.
After training, there was a significant decrease in F0 (p = 0.017) and Pmax (p =
0.010), but not in v0 (p = 0.259).
In a fourth investigation, the aimed were (I) to examine the acute and delayed
responses of three muscle damage biomarkers: creatine kinase (CK), aspartate
aminotransferase (AST) and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) to an accentuated eccentric
training protocol in serum, and (II) to explore the changes of these biomarkers in
saliva and compare them with serum. Sixteen resistance-trained university students
(10 men [age = 26.6 ± 4.8 years, full squat one-repetition maximum [1RM] = 103.4
± 14.4 kg] and 6 women [age = 22.7 ± 1.4 years, full squat estimated 1RM = 68.3 ±
10.5 kg]) completed an accentuated eccentric strength training protocol with the
full squat exercise consisting of 8 sets of 10 repetitions against the 120% estimated
1RM load. The duration of the eccentric phase was set at 3 seconds and 5 minutes
of rest were implemented between successive sets. Subjects came to the laboratory
on four occasions. The first session was used to familiarize the subjects with the
saliva extraction process, determine the estimated 1RM load during the full squat
exercise, and certify that all of subjects were able to perform the eccentric full squat
protocol with a proper technique. The second one after 72 hours of rest to perform
the eccentric strength training protocol. Serum and saliva samples were collected
at the beginning of session 2 (Pre), 24 hours after training (session 3; Post24) and
96 hours after training (session 4; Post96). Extractions of serum and saliva were
always conducted in the morning (0800-0930 hours) at rest and fasting. In serum,
lower values of the three muscle damage markers were observed at Pre compared
to Post24 and Post96, while no significant differences were observed between
Post24 and Post96 for any analyte. In saliva, there was a significant increase in men
at Post96 compared with Pre in CK. The correlations between the measurements in
serum and saliva ranged from trivial to small (r = -0.034 to 0.212).
Our results displayed a higher reduction of the MPV during TLF (-21.7%)
than during TNLF (-3.5%). Furthermore, peripheral fatigue was higher during TLF
than during TNLF (p < 0.05). Voluntary activation remained depressed up to 48h
(~-7.5%) regardless of the training protocol, indicating the persistence of central
fatigue. TLF induced higher muscle damage than TNLF, which lasted up to 48h
post-training (CK: +111.9%; AST: +27.6%; p < 0.05). Changes in CK and MVC were
also correlated
For the first study, we can conclude that the different Cluster protocols with
recovery time between repetitions that we have studied have reported significantly
less mechanical, metabolic and perceptual fatigue after a squatting training session
and with the 10RM load, reporting better results the protocols CL2 and CL3.
However, the CL2 set configuration presents two main advantages with respect to
CL3: (1) it reduces training session duration, and (2) it promotes higher metabolic
stress, which to some extent may be beneficial for inducing muscle strength and
hypertrophy gains. On the other hand, all the cluster protocols evaluated have
managed to maintain higher values of mean propulsive velocity during squats
compared to the traditional set configuration of continuous repetitions. Hence, this
mean better performance per session. Although speculative, we suggest the possible
influence of a post-activation potentiation (PAP) phenomenon that counteracts the
negative influence of fatigue during recovery, thus minimizing the loss of headroom
in CMJ after the CL4 (1x30 IRR 15”) configuration. Ultimately, these results propose
Cluster training as a great strategy for training with low levels of fatigue and loss
of performance.
In the third study, when comparing the mean velocity of the squat and bench
press reps in three training sessions consisting of 3 sets of 5 reps, each with different
rest times (1-3 and 5 min), significantly lower values of mean velocity can be seen in
the 1 min rest protocol compared to the 3 and 5 min reps. On the other hand, for the
configuration of the series chosen in our research (3x5(10)) when retrieving 3 or 5 min
between series no significant differences were found in terms of performance when
evaluating the mean velocity in squats and bench press. Finally, after performing
squat and bench press training with half the level of the effort (3x5(10)), studying
the residual fatigue, regardless of the recovery time (1-3 or 5 min), the parameters
of the F-V ratio were not affected. Therefore, the results of this study propose Rec3’
as the most efficient protocol in time for maintaining movement velocity during
training sessions not leading to the muscle failure.
In our fourth study, the results showed that after the eccentric strength training
accentuated in squats with 120% MRI we could only find a significant increase of
Creatine Kinase in saliva for men at 96h Post Training. This implies a low level of
similarity between the values of this muscle damage marker in serum and saliva.
Moreover, the lack of correlation between serum and saliva values found in our
research could be due, among other causes, to different dynamics of the enzymes
CK, AST and LDH in serum and saliva. It seems that the response in saliva is later
than in serum, which makes us think that measuring these values hours later could
give us more related values, even if they are far from the practice, since it means
a long waiting time to know the induced damage. So, our results suggest that the
measurement of muscle damage markers in serum and saliva do not provide the
same information in the conditions of our study.
In the last study, when is compared two squat resistance protocols, one
leading to failure and one not leading to the failure, we have seen how, based on
the acute response, the protocol leading to the failure induced a significant decrease
in the movement velocity during the fifth and sixth sets. While, studying the delay
response, we can appreciate how both training protocols produced a significant
loss of maximum voluntary contraction, remaining affected even 24 hours after
training. Predictably leading to failure protocol produced significantly higher
levels of peripheral fatigue right after training and higher levels of muscle damage
at all measured times than training not leading to the failure. Although for both
configurations of the sets, the maximum values of muscle damage and peripheral
fatigue have been reported to coincide at the Post 1 hour time. On the other hand,
voluntary activation was reduced even to 48 hours after training for both protocols,
indicating the inability of the nervous system to recruit the entire motor neuron
pool. Finally, the result of the last study suggests that training leading to the failure
produces a greater decrease in performance during the session and causes a greater
degree of fatigue until 48 hours after training
Moreover, as novelty, the velocity loss between sets has been successfully used
to quantify mechanical fatigue during strength training to failure and not failure.
According to previous research (J J Gonzalez-Badillo et al., 2016; Juan José Gonzalez-
Badillo et al., 2017; F Pareja-Blanco et al., 2016; Luis Sánchez-Medina & González-
Badillo, 2011) training until failure generated a significant decrease in movement
velocity, when compared to the protocol until failure. In these publications and in
our previous studies (Study 1 and Study 3), we observed the velocity loss during the
sets, comparing the percentage difference between the fastest (usually the first) and
slowest repetition of each series (usually the last). According to this interpretation,
the fatigue generated at the end of the session would be known by averaging the
velocity losses suffered in each of the sets. It was Sánchez Medina and González
Badillo in 2011who proposed this excellent strategy to quantify the neuromuscular
fatigue during resistance training. But in this methodology, the state of the athlete
is not considered at the beginning of each sets, since as fatigue appears, the faster
repetition of each series, it decreases. Therefore, it is normal to see how the velocity
value at the beginning of each sets does not match, being higher in the first set,
especially during the training leading to the failure. In the opposite position, the
value of the slowest repetition, if usually similar between series, especially when all
possible repetitions are exhausted. This causes the first sets to experience a greater
loss of movement velocity than the last, since there is a greater difference between
the movement velocity of the fastest and slowest repetition of each set, which may
imply that the first sets generates more fatigue than the last.
I/ INTRODUCCIÓN
Durante esta Tesis Doctoral se han llevado a cabo los siguientes estudios
científicos con el fin de dar explicación a las cuestiones planteadas anteriormente,
buscando aportar respuestas ante estímulos agudos desde diferentes perspectivas.
Todos ellos se han llevado a cabo con estudiantes entrenados de Ciencias de la
Actividad Física y del Deporte, que han firmado un consentimiento informado al
cumplir con los criterios de inclusión para el mismo y cumpliendo con los comités
de ética pertinentes.
Estudio II: Influence of Sampling Conditions, Salivary Flow and Total Protein
Content in Uric Acid Measurements in Saliva
El ácido úrico es un marcador de estrés oxidativo que ha demostrado
presentar una buena respuesta en saliva tras el entrenamiento de fuerza. Por lo
tanto, el objetivo de este estudio ha sido evaluar el efecto de diferentes métodos
de extracción de saliva y de medición de ácido úrico tras dos entrenamientos de
fuerza en sentadillas con distinto nivel de esfuerzo, relacionándolo con los valores
de ácido úrico en sangre como Gold Standard. Las extracciones se realizaron pre
y post (60min, 24 y 48h) para sangre y saliva. Se obtubo saliva no estimulada (por
flujo pasivo) y estimulada (utilizando rollitos de algodón). Además, se evaluaron
tres tipos de expresion de valores de ácido úrico en saliva corregidos por flujo
salival, por proteinas totales salivares y sin corregir (en valores absolutos). Con el
fin de obtener el método más preciso posible a la hora de medir la respuesta de este
metabolito en saliva tras el entrenamiento de fuerza.
Estudio V: Resistance training to failure vs. not to failure: acute and delayed
markers of mechanical, neuromuscular and biochemical fatigue
La fatiga central y periférica tras el entrenamiento de fuerza nos aporta
una valiosa información acerca de las demandas neurales del entrenamiento.
La primera de ellas denota una incapacidad del sistema nervioso central para
transportar la información hasta el músculo, mientras que la fatiga periférica ocurre
como consecuencia del decremento de la capacidad contráctil de la musculatura.
Esta última está asociada a un alto índice de daño muscular. Por lo que el objetivo
del estudio ha sido comparar la fatiga y el daño muscular producido tras dos
protocolos diferentes de fuerza en sentadilla, uno de ellos hasta el fallo (6 series de
10 repeticiones) y otro hasta el no fallo (6 series de 5 repeticiones). Estas mediciones
se realizaron pre y post entrenamiento (a los 60 min, 24 y 48 horas) para comprobar
como evolucionaba la fatiga a lo largo de los días posteriores. Con la intención de
dar explicación del tipo de fatiga y la duración de esta, además del daño muscular
producido tras estos dos entrenamientos con configuraciones de la serie diferente.
Destacamos la novedad de utilizar la pérdida de velocidad entre series como
indicador de fatiga mecánica.
El test del XRM surge como una opción popular para “evitar” la exigencia
del test de 1RM. En esta prueba se busca estimar la carga con la que se puede hacer
un número submáximo de repeticiones y a partir de aquí, mediante una formula
propuesta en el año 1993 por Matt Brzycki, (Brzycki, 1993) es posible determinar el
valor de la RM.
RM= c/(1.0278-(n*0.0278))
RM=100/(1.0278-(3*0.0278)) = 105kg
Nos hemos percatado de que el estudio de los efectos agudos producidos por
el entrenamiento de fuerza tiene mayor protagonismo en la literatura científica. Son
muchos los trabajos que abordan esta problemática desde una perspectiva mecánica,
ya sea a través de la velocidad de ejecución (García Ramos et al., 2018; González
Badillo & Sanchez Medina, 2010; Pérez Castilla, García Ramos, Padial, Morales
Artacho, & Feriche, 2018; Rodríguez Rosell et al., 2020), o la pérdida de altura de salto
vertical (Claudino et al., 2017; Pérez Castilla, García Ramos, et al., 2018; Rodríguez
Rosell et al., 2020). También podemos encontrar investigaciones que han explorado
las consecuencias del entrenamiento de fuerza desde un punto de vista metabólico,
analizando metabolitos como el Lactato o el Amonio (Gorostiaga et al., 2014;
Pareja Blanco et al., 2014; Rodríguez Rosell et al., 2018; Sánchez Medina, González
Badillo, Pérez, & Pallarés, 2014), diferentes biomarcadores de daño muscular como
la Creatina Kinasa (Brancaccio, Limongelli, & Maffulli, 2006; Clarkson & Hubal,
2002; González Badillo, Marques, & Sánchez Medina, 2011; Gonzalez Badillo et al.,
2016; Koch, Pereira, & Machado, 2014; Pareja Blanco et al., 2016) u hormonas como
la Testosterona (Hayes, Bickerstaff, & Baker, 2010; Izquierdo et al., 2009; Kraemer
et al., 2001). Del mismo modo, la percepción subjetiva del esfuerzo ha demostrado
tener un gran protagonismo a la hora de cuantificar el esfuerzo ocasionado durante
ESTADO ACTUAL DEL CONOCIMIENTO 73
De Hoyo et al., 2016; Loturco et al., 2015; Rodríguez Rosell et al., 2016) y mejoras
de la velocidad del balón al ser golpeado a través del entrenamiento de fuerza
(Rodríguez Lorenzo, Fernandez Del Olmo, Sanchez Molina, & Acero, 2016).
Por último, desde un punto de vista Neural, debemos tener en cuenta los
factores neurológicos como condicionantes de la aplicación de fuerza. Sobre todo,
en las primeras fases de entrenamiento, donde la mejora de la fuerza no se consigue
mediante el aumento del AST del músculo, sino por una mejora del impulso
nervioso desde el sistema nervioso central (SNC) a las fibras musculares (González
Badillo & Serna, 2002).
ESTADO ACTUAL DEL CONOCIMIENTO 79
Las unidades motoras se componen por una motoneurona alfa y las fibras
musculares a las que inervan (Chicharro & Mojares, 2008). Es común que una
motoneruona inerve a cientos de fibras musculares. Esto se traduce en que un
mayor número de unidades motoras reclutadas generará una mayor producción
de fuerza (Suchomel et al., 2018). El tipo de actividad va a determinar las fibras que
se activen. Aquí toma protagonismo el concepto de principio de tamaño, propuesto
por Henneman en el año (1957), basándose en que, durante un ejercicio, las fibras
musculares respetan un orden jerárquico de contracción. De esta forma, se explica
que frente a una actividad donde se requiere de poca fuerza, se reclutarán primero
las fibras musculares de tipo I (bajo umbral exitatorio) ya que son suficientemente
efectivas para estas demandas. A medida que aumenta la demanda de fuerza
se van reclutando mayor porcentaje de fibras tipo I y tipo II (mayor umbral
excitatorio). Este principio del tamaño no siempre se cumple, existen acciones
balísticas, explosivas que demandan un reclutamiento temprano de fibras tipo II
y a medida que fuera apareciendo la fatiga, se reclutarían mas fibras de tipo I para
soportar la actividad en cuestión, pero está claro que a velocidades más lenta. Es
un ejemplo de lo que sucede con el entrenamiento de fuerza hasta el fallo, donde al
entrenar con cargas altas e intención de desplazar la carga a máxima velocidad se
empezarán reclutando motoneuronas de mayor tamaño y fibras rápida y la perdida
de velocidad, relacionada con la aparición de la fatiga, ocasionará la activación de
fibras tipo I (Macgregor & Hunter, 2018; Pareja Blanco et al., 2016).
3.3.1. Volumen
Se debe hacer una distinción en cuanto al nivel del deportista para poder
transcribir un volumen de entrenamiento a medida de su experiencia. Diversas
investigaciones han estudiado el efecto al realizar entre dos y más de seis series
y todas ellas han encontrado diferencias significativas entre sujetos entrenados y
no entrenados en cuanto a las ganancias de fuerza. Los sujetos poco entrenados
consiguen mejoras con menos estímulo (Berger, 1962b; Dudley & Djamil, 1985;
Hortobágyi et al., 1996; Sale, Jacobs, Macdougall, & Garner, 1990), siendo tres el
número optimo de series para la ganancia de fuerza en ambos grupos (Berger,
82 JORGE MIGUEL GONZÁLEZ HERNÁNDEZ
3.3.2. Intensidad
posibles en una serie (entrenamiento al fallo) y por otro, no agotar todas las posibles
repeticiones (entrenamiento hasta el no fallo). Existe en la literatura científica gran
controversia sobre estos tipos de entrenamiento. Aunque algunos estudios (Davies,
Orr, Halaki, & Hackett, 2016; Drinkwater et al., 2005; Folland et al., 2002; Nóbrega
& Libardi, 2016) sugieren que el fallo muscular puede ser necesario para maximizar
la hipertrofia muscular y la fuerza, también hay evidencias que indican que el
entrenamiento al no fallo produce incluso mayores mejoras en cuanto a la ganancia
de fuerza y potencia (Davies et al., 2016; Folland et al., 2002; Nóbrega & Libardi,
2016; Sampson et al., 2016). Sin duda son dos estrategias opuestas donde está claro
que entrenar con menos repeticiones de las posibles, o con carácteres del esfuerzo
bajo ha mostrado menor sensación de fatiga (Hackett & Cobley, 2018; Vieira, Dias,
Lacio, Filipe, & Leitao, 2019). Por lo tanto, si se consiguen adaptaciones similares,
con niveles inferiores de percepción del esfuerzo para el entrenamiento hasta el
no fallo, esto lo propone cómo un método más eficaz (Fisher, Blossom, & Steele,
2015). Además se ha comprobado cómo el entrenamiento hasta el fallo produce
una mayor pérdida de rendimiento durante la sesión de entrenamiento (Fonseca
et al., 2020; Griffiths et al., 2019; Sánchez Moreno, Rodríguez Rosell, Pareja Blanco,
Mora Custodio, & González Badillo, 2017) necesitando más tiempo de recuperación
(Navarro et al., 2017) e incluso afecta a días posteriores ( Pareja Blanco et al., 2016;
Párraga Montilla et al., 2018).
Es por ello que el entrenamiento hasta el fallo parece estar más orientado a
programas orientados a la hipertrofia (Grgic et al., 2018b; Schoenfeld et al., 2017).
Mientras que un diseño de entrenamientos basados en entrenar con bajo carácter
del esfuerzo, dejando repeticiones por realizar, han demostrado producir mayores
mejoras en cuanto al rendimiento de pruebas como altura de salto o sprint (Davies
et al., 2016; Fonseca et al., 2020; Gonzalez Badillo et al., 2016; Navarro et al., 2017;
Pareja Blanco et al., 2016).
no fallo. Minetras que un RIR 0 significa que no se dejan repeticiones por hacer, o
lo que es lo mismo, entrenaminto al fallo. Se necesita de familiarización por parte
de los deportistas, ya que es una medición subjetiva de intensidad. Zourdos MC. et
al. (2016) han demostrado que existe una relación entre RIR y percepción subjetiva
del esfuerzo (Rated Perceived Exertion RPE), mostrando una relación directa entre
RPE y RIR, donde una RPE 10 se asocia con un RIR 0 y valores intermedios como
RPE de 7 se ven relacionados con un RIR 3. Posteriormente, Garciá Ramos et al
(2018) también relacionó estos valores de RIR con la velocidad de ejecución.
Por otro lado, siguiendo la misma línea que los conceptos mencionados
anteriormente, el carácter del esfuerzo (level of effort) representa la relación entre
las repeticiones realizadas en función de las realizables (Gonzalez Badillo et al.,
2016). Es necesario que el deportista interiorice las repeticiones que podría hacer
con una carga determinada. De esta forma se puede preescribir entrenamiento
en base a esas repeticiones posibles. Por ejemplo, si se persigue realizar 3 series
de 10 repeticiones con un peso que se podría realizar 12, se presentaría de la
siguiente forma: 3x10(12). Mientras que si comparamos la configuración anterior
con 3x10(20), aunque compartan el mismo número de series y repeticiones, la carga
es diferente, puesto que en la primera se usa la carga con la que se pudiera realizar
12 repeticiones y en la segunda opción la carga utilizada es menor, permitiendo
completar 20 repeticiones. Por lo tanto, la intensidad varía, siendo más intensa la
primera configuración.
movimientos cada día y con información inmediata, este sería posiblemente el mejor punto
de referencia para saber si el peso es adecuado o no. Un descenso determinado de la velocidad
es un indicador válido para suspender el entrenamiento bajar el peso de la barra. También
podríamos tener registrada la velocidad máxima registrada de cada levantador por cada tanto
porciento y en función de esto, valorar el esfuerzo.” Sin duda, el Dr. González Badillo ha
sido todo un visionario para la época, impulsando así esta línea de investigación.
El índice de esfuerzo fue propuesto por David Rodriguez Rosel et al. (2018)
como indicador de intensidad en un entrenamiento de fuerza. Para calcular este
Índice es necesario multiplicar el valor de la repetición más rápida del entrenamiento
por el porcentaje de pérdida a lo largo de todas las series. Por ejemplo, en un
entrenamiento de fuerza en sentadillas, con una carga relacionada con un 10RM se
ha realizado la repetición más rápida a una velocidad de 0,75m/s y tras completar
tres series de 10 repeticiones se ha experimentado una pérdida de velocidad de
un 47%. (IE = velocidad de la repetición más rápida (0,75) * pérdida media de velocidad
en la sesión (47) -> IE=28). A través de este índice podremos conocer la intensidad
del entrenamiento realizado y comparar el efecto de diferentes configuraciones,
puesto que, en esta investigación, los autores han relacionado diferentes IE con la
concentración de lactato como medida metabólica de intensidad.
Son muchos los artículos que han reportado diferencias en cuanto respuesta
aguda y adaptaciones tras el entrenamiento con diferentes tiempos de recuperación
entre series (Abdessemed, Duche, Hautier, Poumarat, & Bedu, 1999; Ammar et al.,
2019; Davies, Halaki, Orr, Helms, & Hackett, 2019; Girman, Jones, Matthews, &
Wood, 2014; Miranda et al., 2009; Tan, 1999; Willardson, 2006; Willardson & Burkett,
2008). En relación con las adaptaciones conseguidas, el Colegio Americano de la
Medicina Deportiva (Adams et al., 2002) propuso recuperaciones entre serie entre
30 y 90 segundos para aquellos entrenamientos orientados a la hipertrofia, mientras
que, para entrenamientos dedicados a la mejora de los niveles de fuerza o potencia,
se debe recuperar entre 3 y 5 minutos entre series. En las últimas investigaciones,
Schoenfeld et al. (2016) demuestra cómo recuperaciones en torno a 5 min producen
mayores incrementos de masa muscular en comparación con las recuperaciones
cortas de entre 30 y 90 segundos. Esto es debido sobre todo al mayor protagonismo
88 JORGE MIGUEL GONZÁLEZ HERNÁNDEZ
del tiempo bajo tensión, tensión mecánica, daño muscular y volumen realizado.
Y es que el número máximo de repeticiones que se puede completar es una de las
variables más utilizadas para cuantificar el efecto de los intervalos de descanso
entre series sobre el rendimiento mecánico (Rahimi, 2005; Rahman Rahimi, Sadeghi,
Mozafari’, & Faraji, 2009; Senna, Salles, Prestes, Mello, & Simão, 2009). El el estudio
de Rahimi (2005) se evaluó el efecto de tres intervalos de descanso entre series
(1, 2 y 5 minutos) sobre el número total de repeticiones completadas durante una
sesión de RT que consta de 4 series al 85% RM con la sentadilla, y mostraron que
5 minutos de descanso entre series permitieron el mayor volumen. Senna y col.
(2009) también descubrieron que el número de repeticiones completadas durante
una sesión de fuerza con los ejercicios de press de piernas, extensión de piernas,
curl de piernas, press de banca, pec-deck y tríceps fue mayor usando 5 minutos en
comparación con 2 minutos de descanso entre series. Por otro lado, 3 minutos de
ha sido recomendado por Ammar et al. (2019) para que prevalezca la los niveles de
potencia y la técnica de ejecución durante sucesivos Clean and Jerk con el 100%RM.
Sin embargo, el efecto de los intervalos de descanso entre series sobre las variables
mecánicas cuando las series de fuerza no se realizan a fallo muscular ha recibido
menos atención científica.
Por otro lado, existe una corriente que aboga por incluir recuperaciones entre
grupos de repeticiones o entre cada repetición (Cluster o Inter Repetition Rest IRR)
(Haff & Stone, 2003; Haff et al., 2008; Lawton, Cronin, & Lindsell, 2006; Lawton,
Cronin, Drinkwater, Lindsell, & Pyne, 2004; Tufano, Brown, & Haff, 2016). Esto se
fundamenta bajo la teoría de que, durante una serie convencional de repeticiones
continuas, se produce un descenso de la velocidad de ejecución, debido a la fatiga
muscular, atribuida principalmente a la indisponibilidad de fosfocreatina (PCr) y el
grado de resíntesis de adenosín trifosfato (ATP) en los músculos que participan en
la acción requerida (Bogdanis, Nevill, Boobis, & Lakomy, 1996; Wells, Selvadurai,
& Tein, 2009). La depleción de los niveles de ATP y PCr, se ve relacionada con un
aumento en la acumulación de lactato en el músculo, y consecuentemente, un peor
rendimiento (Gorostiaga et al., 2012). Por consiguiente, durante el entrenamiento
de fuerza a través de repeticiones continuas se experimenta una disminución de
velocidad de ejecución, siendo especialmente notoria en la segunda mitad de
repeticiones de una serie (Haff et al., 2008). Por lo tanto, el efecto principal de las
ESTADO ACTUAL DEL CONOCIMIENTO 89
3.3.2.5. Percepción del Esfuerzo a través de escalas subjetivas de perción del esfuerzo
Fue unos años después, cuando los investigadores Naclerio et al. (2011)
quienes determinaron la aplicabilidad de la escala de percepción de esfuerzo OMNI
para el control del entrenamiento de fuerza. Esto lo consiguieron relacionando los
valores de la escala con la respuesta metabólica de lactato tras repeticiones hasta el
fallo en press de banca a diferentes intensidades (40, 50, 60,70,80,90 %1RM). Esto
supuso un gran avance, puesto que se consigue relacionar la escala de percepción
del esfuerzo con la respuesta de un indicador de fatiga metabólica, de esta forma se
puede tener una orientación de la cantidad de lactato acumulado sin necesidad de
tener un medidor de lactatemia.
Esta escala subjetiva del esfuerzo sin duda es una herramienta muy cercana
al campo práctico del entrenamiento, donde no se disponen de grandes recursos.
Los investigadores Naclerio & Larumbe Zabala (2016) fueron capaces de proponer
una fórmula para predecir la carga a través de la velocidad de ejecución y la
escala OMNI. Esto abre un amplio abanico de posibilidades para introducir esta
herramienta en la investigación del entrenamiento de fuerza, con la intención de
aportar una respuesta práctica y fácil de medir al explorar diferentes entrenamientos
de fuerza.
94 JORGE MIGUEL GONZÁLEZ HERNÁNDEZ
3.3.3. Frecuencia
a baja frecuencia se caracteriza por una mayor pérdida relativa de fuerza a baja
frecuencia de estimulación y una recuperación lenta. La fatiga de baja frecuencia
se asocia generalmente con un fallo en el acoplamiento excitación-contracción, ya
que las mediciones intracelulares han demostrado que este modelo de fatiga se
debe a una reducción en la liberación de Ca2+ (Hill, Thompson, Ruell, Thom, &
White, 2001). Por el contrario, la fatiga de alta frecuencia se caracteriza por una
pérdida excesiva de fuerza a altas frecuencias de estímulo y se atribuye, al menos
en parte, a una acumulación de K extracelular. En la fatiga de alta frecuencia, la
rápida recuperación de la fuerza se produce cuando se reduce la frecuencia de
los estímulos (Carroll et al., 2016). Al estudiar el decremento de fuerza aplicada a
través del ratio 10:100 (Estimulación a baja y alta frecuencia) se puede determinar
alteraciones en la liberación del Ca2+ durante el proceso de acoplamiento de
contracción (Millet et al., 2012).
Son varios los procesos distales que pueden verse afectados por el
entrenamiento, desencadenando fatiga periférica y como consiguiente,
comprometiendo la capacidad contráctil de la musculatura. En primer lugar, es
importante entender que en el exterior de la membrana celular se enceuntra Na⁺y
K⁺, conformando el mecanismo conocido como bomba Sodio-Potasio. Mediante el
flujo de estos iones hacia el interior de la membrana se produce la propagación del
impulso nervioso o potencial de acción, originando la contracción (Chicharro &
Mojares, 2008). Para que la bomba sodio-potasio funcione es necesario el ATP, por
lo tanto, un desceso de este sustrato afectará a la efectividad del Potencial de acción.
Otra muestra de fatiga periférica es la afectación de la exitabilidad sarcolema, el
cual se puede apreciar durante una reducción de la actividad electromiográfica
(Pasquet, Carpentier, Duchateau, & Hainaut, 2000).
et al., 2010; Friden & Lieber, 2001; Hortobágyi & Denahan, 1989; Raeder et al.,
2016), este método es doloroso, invasivo y lento. Recientemente, se ha descrito
un procedimiento más funcional para medir la respuesta de biomarcadores en
muestras de saliva (Barranco et al., 2017; Deminice et al., 2010; Papacosta & Nassis,
2011; Tvarijonaviciute et al., 2017). Esto es posible ya que en las glándulas salivales
tiene lugar el transporte de proteínas e iones de la sangre a la saliva, especialmente
a través de los vasos sanguíneos que nutren estas glándulas. Este enlace podría
representar el puente entre el sistema vascular y la cavidad oral (Haekel & Häneke,
1996). Las principales ventajas para medir las variables bioquímicas en la saliva
son una mejor tolerancia al muestreo por parte de los participantes y que puede
recolectarse simultáneamente en múltiples sujetos en condiciones de campo
(Deminice et al., 2010). Varios estudios ya han reportado con éxito la respuesta
hormonal en la saliva después de diferentes protocolos de entrenamiento (Beaven,
Gill, & Cook, 2008; Hayes et al., 2010), pero sólo unos pocos estudios han examinado
la respuesta al daño muscular (Barranco et al., 2017; Thorpe & Sunderland, 2012),
estrés metabólico (Deminice et al., 2010; Gonzalez, Marquina, Rondon, Rodriguez
Malaver, & Reyes, 2008) e inflamación (Minetto et al., 2005; Prokopchuk et al.,
2007), lo que supone un campo de alto interés para la investigación en ciencias del
deporte.
un fiable indicador de fatiga por depleción del ATP muscular. Por otro lado,
Gorostiaga et al. (2012) investigaron la respuesta de diferentes metabolitos tras dos
protocolos de fuerza, 5 series de 10 repeticiones vs. 10 series de 5 repeticiones con la
misma carga (10RM) recuperando 2 minutos en el ejercicio de extensión de rodilla.
Esta diferencia en cuanto al carácter del esfuerzo produjo un incremento del 19%
de los valores de ácido úrico respecto al pre, para el protocolo hasta el fallo (5x10) al
final de la serie. Por el contrario, Pareja Blanco et al. (2014) no encontraron ningún
incremento significativo de ácido úrico al concluir dos programas de entrenamiento
de fuerza de 8 semanas: en uno de ellos se desplazaba la carga a la mitad de la
velocidad posible y el otro tenía la directriz de mover carga a la mayor velocidad
intencionada posible en el ejercicio de sentadilla.
Por otro lado, Pareja Blanco et al. (2016) compararon la respuesta aguda de
dos protocolos de entrenamiento de fuerza en sentadilla y press de banca. Uno de
los protocolos consistió en 3 series de 6 repeticiones con el peso del 12RM (mitad
del carácter del esfuerzo), mientras que el otro fue diseñado con 3 series de 12
repeticiones con el peso del 12RM (carácter del esfuerzo máximo). Este segundo
protocolo no solo presentaba un mayor esfuerzo, sino que se realizaron el doble de
repeticiones. Los resultados obtenidos reportaron en relación con la concentración de
CK en sangre, el pico de esta proteína a las 48h para el protocolo hasta el fallo (3x12),
acompañado de un gran decremento en la velocidad de ejecución y reducción de
altura de salto y variabilidad de frecuencia cardiaca. A pesar de la importancia que
tiene el estudio de la CK tras el entrenamiento de fuerza, no existen publicaciones
que muestren los valores de diferentes biomarcadores de daño muscular en saliva
tras el entrenamiento de fuerza. En otras disciplinas deportiva, destaca el trabajo de
Barranco et al. ( 2017) donde estudiaron el comportamiento de la CK, AST y LDH
tras un partido de fútbol sala. Reportaron un aumento significativo para la CK a las
12h post partido y de LDH a los 30 minutos del final del encuentro.
Por otro lado, también los autores Pareja Blanco et al. (2017) estudiaron las
adaptaciones conseguidas al comparar una pérdida de velocidad de ejecución en
la serie de un 15% frente a un 30% en sentadilla con futbolistas durante un periodo
de 6 semanas. El entrenamiento con una pérdida menor de velocidad (15%) indujo
mayores niveles en cuanto a ganancia de fuerza y altura de salto. Demostrando así
ESTADO ACTUAL DEL CONOCIMIENTO 109
El salto vertical es uno de los test más usados para la medición indirecta de
la fuerza y potencia de los músculos extensores de las piernas. (Bosco, Luhtanen, &
Komi, 1983). El salto con contramovimiento (countermovement jump CMJ) quizás
es el más popular por la fiabilidad y validez de su ejecución. Se traduce en un
indicador de la capacidad reflejo elástica explosiva de las piernas, discriminando la
acción de los brazos al realizarse con las manos fijas en la cadera. Este test ha sido
comúnmente elegido para valorar la fatiga, al comparar la pérdida de la altura de
salto pre y post series o del entrenamiento de fuerza, (Sánchez Medina & González
Badillo, 2011) e incluso tras el esprint, ya que este esfuerzo se basa en la aplicación
de fuerza durante cada apoyo y se ha demostrado que representan niveles de fatiga
similares a ejercicios de fuerza como sentadilla (Jimenez Reyes et al., 2016).
Ya antes del año 2000, Smilios (1998) demostró cómo al variar la intensidad
del entrenamiento de fuerza afectaba a la altura de salto. Comparó entrenamientos
de extensión de piernas con el 50, 70 y 90% del 1RM hasta la extenuación,
mostrando que el protocolo con el 70% del RM produjo un descenso del 33% en
la altura de salto. Este valor es muy elevado en comparación con lo reportado por
investigaciones más novedosas. Pero hay que tener en cuenta que en esta época no
se podía medir la velocidad de ejecución para controlar realmente la intensidad de
la carga utilizada.
ESTADO ACTUAL DEL CONOCIMIENTO 111
Los autores Sánchez Medina & González Badillo (2011) fueron los pioneros
en implementar este modelo de medición de fatiga, relacionándolos con otros
112 JORGE MIGUEL GONZÁLEZ HERNÁNDEZ
Por otro lado, los autores Torrejón et al. (2019) investigaron la relación FV
tras tres entrenamiento de fuerza en Press de Banca: uno tradicional (6 series
de 4 repeticiones recuperando 3 minutos) otro Cluster (6 series de 4 repeticiones
ESTADO ACTUAL DEL CONOCIMIENTO 113
Por otro lado, quizás por su facilidad para ser medido, uno de los metabolito
más estudiado en el entrenamiento de fuerza es el lactato, ya que representa
un indicador indirecto de la acidosis muscular y es el resultado derivado de
la contracción muscular (Tran et al., 2006). Esto es debido a que, durante un
entrenamiento de fuerza, la mayor obtención de energía es a partir del metabolismo
anaeróbico de la vía glucolítica (Balsalobre Fernández & Jimenez Reyes, 2014).
Cómo consecuencia de este proceso, se produce una acumulación de lactato e
hidrogeniones (H⁺) y un descenso rápido de la fosfocreatina en consecuencia
de la hidrólisis del ATP produciendo H⁺ para obtener energía en situaciones de
anaerobiosis. Esto desencadena un declive en el rendimiento físico, ya que, se ha
demostrado que la acidosis intramuscular como consecuencia de la acumulación
de hidrogeniones se relaciona con la reducción de la capacidad de generar fuerza,
potencia y la velocidad de acortamiento de fibras musculares in vitro (Cady,
Elshove, Jones, & Moll, 1989).
Como hemos visto, el trabajo de fuerza exige una gran implicación del
metabolismo glucolítico, y se ha demostrado que una elevación de los niveles de
lactato en sangre es concomitante con una reducción en el rendimiento. Sin embargo,
se supone que romper las series en pequeños grupos de repeticiones inhibe los
efectos de la acumulación metabólica y el agotamiento de sustratos energéticos
(Haff et al., 2008; Mora Custodio et al., 2018). Esto ha sido una de las bases teóricas
que respalda en entrenamiento Cluster o IRR. En el estudio de Iglesias Soler et
al. (2012) analizaron el efecto de realizar dos protocolos de entrenamiento de
fuerza en sentadilla: repeticiones continuas hasta el fallo (3 series de 4 repeticiones
recuperando 3 minutos) vs distribución con recuperación entre repeticiones (3
series de 4 repeticiones recuperando 180 segundos entre repeticiones). Observaron
que el protocolo de entrenamiento de repeticiones continuas producía un descenso
mayor de la velocidad de ejecución al final del entrenamiento y un aumento
considerable de la concentración de lactato en relación con el entrenamiento con
recuperación entre repeticiones, lo que posiciona al entrenamiento IRR como un
protocolo válido para preservar velocidades de ejecución altas y acumular bajos
niveles de lactato. Como ejemplo de entrenamiento Cluster con recuperación entre
bloque de repeticiones, Girman et al. (2014) estudiaron el efecto de dos protocolos de
entrenamiento en sentadilla y cargada: uno de ellos tradicional donde se realizaron
4 series de 6 repeticiones recuperando 2 minutos y otro Cluster con recuperación de
15 segundos a la mitad de las repeticiones. Se reportaron una mayor concentración
de lactato y peor rendimiento en Salto vertical y horizontal para el protocolo
tradicional inmediatamente después y a los 15 y 30 minutos post entrenamiento.
Por otro lado, García Ramos et al. (2020) comprobaron cómo el entrenamiento de
fuerza en press de banca con recuperación entre repeticiones de 10 y 15 segundos
producía una acumulación significativamente menor de lactato en comparación
con los protocolos de fuerza tradicionales de repeticiones continuas hasta el fallo y
con la mitad del carácter del esfuerzo.
IV
Formulación del problema
FORMULACIÓN DEL PROBLEMA 121
indicador de fatiga. Pero son pocas las investigaciones que valoran los efectos
agudos y tardíos sobre la fatiga central y periférica ocasionada tras diferentes
protocolos de entrenamiento de fuerza.
V/ OBJETIVOS E HIPÓTESIS
Estudio I
Objetivo
Comparar las respuestas mecánicas (pérdida de velocidad y altura de
salto), metabólicas (lactato) y perceptivas (percepción subjetiva del esfuerzo)
entre diferentes configuraciones de las series en el ejercicio de sentadilla con una
carga de 10RM. Se han diseñado dos protocolos tradicionales de repeticiones
continuas (TR1:3x10 y TR2: 6x5) y cuatro protocolos Cluster con recuperación entre
repeticiones (CL1: 3x10[10], CL2: 3x10[15], CL3: 3x10[30] y CL4: 30 [15]).
Hipótesis
Nuestra primera hipótesis es que todas las configuraciones de la serie en
Clúster inducirán una menor fatiga mecánica, metabólica y perceptiva que las
configuraciones de las series tradicionales basadas en repeticiones continuas ya al
disponer de mayor tiempo de recuperación (Haff et al., 2008).
Estudio II
Objetivo
Estudiar la relación entre la sangre y la saliva para la determinación del stress
metabólico ocasionado tras dos protocolos de entrenamiento de fuerza en sentadilla,
uno agotando todas las repeticiones posibles (6x10) y otro realizando la mitad
de las repeticiones posibles (6x5). Evaluando cómo dos condiciones de muestreo
diferentes en saliva (Flujo pasivo o Salivette con algodón) y tres procedimientos
de normalización diferentes (sin ninguna corrección, corregida por el flujo salival
128 JORGE MIGUEL GONZÁLEZ HERNÁNDEZ
Hipótesis
Nuestra segunda hipótesis es que la saliva puede ser util para la medición del
estés metabólico tras diferentes entrenamientos de fuerza, a través de la medición
del ácido úrico (Deminice et al., 2010).
Estudio III
Objetivos
(I) Comparar el efecto de varios intervalos de descanso diferente entre
series (1, 3 y 5 minutos) sobre la velocidad de ejecución durante una sesión de
entrenamiento de fuerza (3 series de 5 repeticiones con la carga del 10RM) para los
ejercicios de sentadillas y press de banca. (II) Explorar la fatiga inducida tras cada
sesión de entrenamiento de fuerza con las tres propuestas de tiempo de descanso
entre series (1,3 y 5min) en la relación F-v de los músculos del miembro inferior y
superior del cuerpo.
Hipótesis
(I) Suponemos que las velocidades de ejecución más lentas y rápidas se
observarán en los protocolos con los intervalos de descanso entre series de 1 y
5 minutos respectivamente. (II) Todas las sesiones de entrenamiento de fuerza,
independientemente del intervalo de descanso entre series, tendrían un impacto
negativo en la relación Fv de los músculos tanto del miembro inferior como superior
del cuerpo (es decir, valores más bajos de F0, v0 y Pmax), pero los mayores efectos
negativos se producirían como resultado de intervalos de descanso más cortos
entre series.
Estudio IV
Objetivos
(I) Examinar las respuestas agudas (tras 24h) y tardías (tras 96h) para la CK,
AST y LDH como biomarcadores de daño muscular en sangre tras un entrenamiento
OBJETIVOS E HIPÓTESIS 129
Hipótesis
(I) Hipotetizamos que la concentración de estos biomarcadores de daño
muscular será significativamente mayor en a las 24 y 96h en comparación con
el pre y (II) estas enzimas mostrarán cambios similares en suero y saliva tras el
entrenamiento.
Estudio V
Objetivos
El objetivo principal del presente estudio fue comparar el efecto agudo
(después de cada serie de entrenamiento) y retardado (1, 24 y 48 horas después
del entrenamiento) de dos protocolos de fuerza en sentadilla al fallo (6 series e 10
repeticiones) y no fallo (6 series de 5 repeticiones) sobre la fatiga periférica y central.
El objetivo secundario era relacionar los cambios en la función neuromuscular con
el rendimiento mecánico (fuerza isométrica máxima) y el daño muscular (CK y
AST)
Hipótesis
Es posible hipotetizar que la configuración de entrenamiento de fuerza al
fallo producirá mayores niveles de fatiga central y periférica, además de daño
muscular que el entrenamiento hasta el no fallo. Ocasionando, además, que la
respuesta tardía, relacionada con la recuperación de la función neuromuscular y el
daño muscular también sea diferente.
VI
Metodología
METODOLOGÍA 133
VI/ METODOLOGÍA
Para conseguir los objetivos planteados en esta tesis hemos diseñado cinco
estudios diferentes. Estos se basan en la formulación del problema descrito a partir
de las necesidades encontradas en la literatura. La siguiente tabla muestra un
resumen del diseño metodológico llevado a cabo en cada una de las investigaciones
que dieron lugar a las cinco publicaciones de esta tesis.
6.1. SUJETOS
Los sujetos que tomaron parte de los diferentes estudios que conforman esta
tesis doctoral fueron estudiantes del Grado en Ciencias de la Actividad Física y
del Deporte. Todos ellos tenían mínimo un año de experiencia con los ejercicios
evaluados, pero aún así, participaron en un periodo de entre 2 y 3 semanas de
familiarización con los ejercicios y las técnicas de evaluación. Todos estos
participantes aseguraban no haber tenido lesiones en los seis meses previos que
pudieran dificultar la participación en el estudio, además de asegurar que no
consumían ni ayudas ergogénicas ni drogas que pudieran alterar las mediciones.
Todos los sujetos fueron informados de los posibles riesgos asociados a las
intervenciones y firmaron un consentimiento informado (Adjunto en Anexos) al
principio de cada estudio. Los protocolos experimentales fueron aprobados por el
comité ético local de la Universidad Católica de San Antonio (Murcia) de acuerdo
con la Declaración de Helsinki. A continuación, se detalla la descripción de los
sujetos que participaron en cada estudio
METODOLOGÍA 135
6.2. EJERCICIOS
de codos para sujetar la barra con la manos y se desciende mediante una flexión de
codo y extensión de hombro para que una vez llegue la barra al pecho, se vuelva a
la posición inicial mediante la flexión de hombro y extensión de codos (Janicijevic,
González Hernández, Gu, & Garcia Ramos, 2020).
series); 13 veces en el protocolo TR2 (se realizaron 6 series); y tres veces durante
el protocolo CL4 (se realizó 1 serie). Estas mediciones se relacionan con un test
antes de empezar cada protocolo, otra justo al acabar la serie y una última 4 min 15
segundos al acabar cada serie. En cada medición, se realizaron tres CMJ máximos
separados por 5 segundos, y el intento con la mayor altura de salto se utilizó para
el análisis posterior con el fin de cuantificar la fatiga.
Para el ejercicio de Sentadilla el valor del 1RM se estimó con un encoder lineal
a través de una prueba de cargas progresivas en el ejercicio de sentadilla completa
hasta alcanzar la carga a la que el sujeto conseguía desplazar a una velocidad de
0,75 m/s (≈ Carga de 10RM (Sánchez Medina & González Badillo, 2011). Se premisa
fue que los sujetos debían realizaran la fase concéntrica de todas las repeticiones
a la máxima velocidad posible. La carga externa inicial se fijó en 40 kg para todos
los sujetos, y se incrementó progresivamente en 20 kg cuando la VMP era superior
a 1 m/s, en 10 kg cuando la VMP oscilaba entre 1 m/s y 0,8 m/s, y de 5 a 1 kg
cuando la VMP era inferior a 0,8 m/s. Se realizaron cuatro repeticiones cuando la
VMP era superior a 1 m/s, dos repeticiones cuando la VMP estaba entre 1 m/s y
0,8 m/s, y sólo una repetición cuando la VMP era inferior a 0,8 m/s. El período de
recuperación entre las series fue de tres minutos. Una vez que se obtuvo la carga
vinculada a una VMP de 0,75 m/s, los sujetos descansaron durante cinco minutos,
y luego se procedió a realizar la segunda parte del test. Los participantes debían
realizar todas las repeticiones posibles con esta carga, si conseguían completar las
10 repeticiones, la estimación había sido correcta, si no, era necesario un ligero
incremento/disminución en la magnitud de la carga. Se consideró que esta prueba
se había realizado correctamente cuando la última repetición se realizaba a una
VMP inferior a 0,35 m/s (Sánchez Medina & González Badillo, 2011)
140 JORGE MIGUEL GONZÁLEZ HERNÁNDEZ
Para el Estudio IV, se llevó a cabo otro test con la intención de determinar
la carga asociada al 1RM en sentadilla para poder estimar después la carga que
representaba el 120%RM. En esta prueba, la carga inicial se fijó en 20 kg para todos
los sujetos y se incrementó progresivamente en 10 kg hasta que la VMP de la
barra fue inferior a 0,60 m/s (≈ 80%1RM). Se realizaron dos repeticiones con cada
carga y se implementaron 3 minutos de descanso pasivo entre series. Se instruyó
a los sujetos para que realizaran la fase concéntrica de todas las repeticiones a la
máxima velocidad posible. La velocidad registrada en las diferentes cargas se usó
para estimar la sentadilla completa 1RM y posteriormente 120%RM a través de
un modelo de regresión lineal individual como la carga asociada a una velocidad
media de 0,33 m/s (Pérez Castilla, García Ramos, Padial, Morales Artacho, &
Feriche, 2017).
METODOLOGÍA 141
lactato en sangre como medida de fatiga metabólica (Sánchez Medina & González
Badillo, 2011). Estas mediciones se obtuvieron de la yema de los dedos 30 segundos
después de la finalización de cada serie. Por lo tanto, se realizaron tres mediciones
para los protocolos TR1, CL1, CL2 y CL3 (se realizaron 3 series), seis mediciones
para el protocolo TR2 (se realizaron 6 series) y sólo una medición en el l protocolo
CL4 (se realizó 1 serie). Para las mediciones de lactato se utilizó un analizador de
lactato portátil (Lactate Scout, SensLab GmbH, Leipzig, Alemania). El analizador
de lactato se calibró antes de cada sesión de ejercicio según las especificaciones del
fabricante.
La relación F-v se determinó durante los ejercicios CMJ y PBL a través del
método de dos puntos propuesto por García Ramos & Jaric (2018). Se realizaron
dos CMJ sin carga (carga ligera) y dos CMJ con la carga externa asociada a una
altura de salto de ≈ 12 cm (carga pesada: 51,8 ± 13,6 kg) separados por 1 minuto.
A continuación, se realizaron dos pruebas del PBL con la barra de máquina Smith
descargada (carga ligera: 20 kg para todos los participantes) y dos pruebas con la
carga de 10RM (carga pesada: 47,3 ± 16,5 kg) separadas por 1 minuto. El intento con
la mayor altura de salto (CMJ) y la VMP más rápida (BPT) de cada carga se utilizó
para modelar la relación F-v. Cabe señalar que la relación F-v también se determinó
METODOLOGÍA 143
de saliva por el tiempo del período de muestreo (1 min) (Contreras Aguilar et al.,
2017; Rohleder & Nater, 2009). El volumen de saliva se obtuvo restando el peso del
tubo vacío del lleno de saliva, y los valores en gramos obtenidos se consideraron
equivalentes a mililitros. La cantidad de ácido úrico se multiplicó posteriormente
por el caudal (mg/min). La cuantificación de la proteína total de la saliva (Prot.T)
expresada en mg/mL se realizó mediante un equipo colorimétrico disponible en
el mercado para medir la orina y las proteínas de la región de baja complejidad
(LCR) (Proteína en la orina y LCR, Spinreact, España). La primera muestra
correspondiente a la línea de base se tomó a las 8:30 AM. Las segundas muestras de
suero se recogieron 60 minutos después del entrenamiento. Finalmente, la tercera y
cuarta extracción correspondieron a 24 y 48h post-entrenamiento.
Para el Estudio IV se midieron los valores de CK, AST y LDH en saliva como
indicadores de daño muscular. Los sujetos realizaron enjuagues bucales antes de
recoger cada muestra de saliva. La saliva se recogía con Salivettes de flujo pasivo.
Estos consistían en un tubo con pajita (flujo pasivo) y los sujetos salivaban durante
1 minuto. Estas extracciones se llevaron a cabo siempre por la mañana (08:00-09:30
horas) en reposo y en ayunas. Los Salivettes se almacenaban en hielo hasta que
se terminaban todas las mediciones. Estos se centrifugaban a 3.500 rpm durante
7 minutos, y el sobrenadante se extraía del tubo y se almacenaba a -80 ºC hasta
que se analizaba. La CK, AST y LDH se midieron con kits comercial (Barranco et
al., 2017). Todos los ensayos se adaptaron para su uso en muestras de saliva y se
realizaron en un analizador bioquímico automatizado (Olympus A400, Beckman
Coulter, Brea, EE.UU.) a 37 ºC (Barranco et al., 2017). El análisis de saliva se realizó
utilizando valores absolutos y siguiendo el proceso de validación según Barranco
et al. (Barranco et al., 2017).
6.5. PROCEDIMIENTOS
6.5.1. ESTUDIO I
primera sesión de pruebas se utilizó para asegurar que todos los sujetos incluidos
en el experimento fueran capaces de realizar el sentadillas y saltos de forma correcta
y para identificar su carga de 10RM. Durante las siguientes tres semanas, los sujetos
realizaron dos sesiones por semana, separadas por 48-72 horas. Estas sesiones
fueron dedicadas a realizar los protocolos de entrenamiento en orden aleatorio.
Concretamente, dos protocolos de configuraciones de la serie tradicionales (TR)
(es decir, sin descanso entre las repeticiones) que difirieron en el nivel de esfuerzo
(series × repeticiones: TR1: 3 × 10; TR2: 6 × 5) y cuatro configuraciones de la serie
Cluster diferentes (CL) que difieren en la duración del período de descanso entre las
repeticiones (series × repeticiones [descanso entre las repeticiones]: CL1: 3 × 10 [10
s]; CL2: 3 × 10 [15 s]; CL3: 3 × 10 [30 s]) o en el número de series (series × repeticiones
[TIR]: CL4: 1 × 30 [15 s]). El número de repeticiones (30), el descanso entre sets (5
min) y la carga utilizada (10RM) fueron los mismos para todas las configuraciones
de sets. Cada día los sujetos realizaron una activación estandarizada de 10 minutos
que incluyó trote, ejercicios de movilidad. Las sesiones se realizaron por las tardes,
a la misma hora del día para cada sujeto (± 1 h), y bajo condiciones ambientales
constantes (~20 ºC y ~60% de humedad).
6.5.2. ESTUDIO II
El diseño de este estudio se organizó en seis sesiones, dos veces por semana,
separadas por al menos 48 horas, durante tres semanas consecutivas. Las sesiones
150 JORGE MIGUEL GONZÁLEZ HERNÁNDEZ
1-2 se utilizaron para asegurar que todos los participantes pudieran realizar los
ejercicios de SQ, salto CMJ, PB y PBL con la técnica adecuada con una variedad de
cargas externas. La sesión 3 se utilizó para determinar la carga de 10RM durante
los ejercicios de SQ y PB, así como la carga externa asociada con una altura de salto
de 12 cm durante el ejercicio de CMJ. La carga de 10RM determinada en la sesión
3 se aplicó durante las sesiones experimentales restantes. Tras los estudios previos,
la carga externa asociada a una altura de salto de 12 cm se utilizó para determinar
la relación F-v durante el ejercicio de CMJ en las tres sesiones experimentales
principales.
6.5.4. ESTUDIO IV
6.5.5. ESTUDIO V
VII/ ESTUDIO I
ESTUDIO I 163
7.1. INTRODUCTION
It has been argued that the lower metabolic stress induced by cluster set
configurations may be detrimental to the induction of hypertrophic adaptations
(Girman et al., 2014; Oliver et al., 2015b). In contrast, recent studies have suggested
that training to failure (i.e., maximizing metabolic stress) may not be needed to
maximize hypertrophic adaptations (Sampson & Groeller, 2016). In fact, performing
only half the maximum possible number of repetitions per set (i.e., level of effort
reduced by a 50%) could be enough when the total volume (i.e., the number of
repetitions) is controlled between groups (Izquierdo, Ibañez, González Badillo, et al.
2006). In this regard, velocity loss has been proposed as a practical and valid criterion
to decide when a training set should be stopped to maximize training adaptations
(González Badillo, Yañez García, Mora Custodio, & Rodríguez Rosell, 2017;
González Badillo et al., 2011; Sánchez Medina & González Badillo, 2011). Therefore,
cluster set configurations may be useful to increase the number of repetitions per
set that can be performed before the critical fatigue threshold (assessed as velocity
or power output losses) is reached (García Ramos et al., 2016). Greater training
volumes are associated with greater hypertrophic adaptation (Schoenfeld, Ogborn,
& Krieger, 2017). Thus, it would seem of interest to evaluate mechanical, metabolic,
and perceptual responses to different cluster set configurations performed with the
loads commonly applied during hypertrophy-oriented resistance training sessions.
Therefore, the objective of the current study was to assess the acute fatigue
induced by two traditional training protocols differing in the level of effort
(repetitions to failure vs. half the maximum number of repetitions), and four
cluster training protocols differing in either the duration of the inter-repetition rest
period (10 s vs. 15 s vs. 30 s) or the number of sets performed (1 vs. 3). Specifically,
we aimed to compare mechanical, metabolic, and perceptual responses between
different traditional and cluster set configurations in the full-squat exercise
performed with 10RM load (i.e., the load with which subjects can perform a
maximum of 10 continuous repetitions). It was hypothesized that all cluster set
configurations would elicit lower mechanical, metabolic, and perceptual fatigue
than both traditional set configurations.
7.2. METHODS
humidity) of mechanical fatigue, such as velocity loss during a training set and
countermovement jump [CMJ] height loss, and metabolic markers of fatigue such
as lactate and ammonia concentrations (Jimenez Reyes et al., 2016; Morcillo et al.,
2015; Sánchez Medina & González Badillo, 2011). Additionally, perceived exertion
scales are becoming increasingly popular for monitoring resistance training fatigue
(Naclerio & Larumbe Zabala, 2016; Zourdos et al., 2016). Although some of these
markers of fatigue have been previously used to compare traditional and cluster set
configurations, to the best of our knowledge, no study has used these four markers
of fatigue (i.e., blood lactate concentration, velocity loss within a set, CMJ height
loss, and perceived exertion) to compare the acute responses between traditional
and cluster training.
Therefore, the objective of the current study was to assess the acute fatigue
induced by two traditional training protocols differing in the level of effort
(repetitions to failure vs. half the maximum number of repetitions), and four
cluster training protocols differing in either the duration of the inter-repetition rest
period (10 s vs. 15 s vs. 30 s) or the number of sets performed (1 vs. 3). Specifically,
we aimed to compare mechanical, metabolic, and perceptual responses between
different traditional and cluster set configurations in the full-squat exercise
performed with 10RM load (i.e., the load with which subjects can perform a
maximum of 10 continuous repetitions). It was hypothesized that all cluster set
configurations would elicit lower mechanical, metabolic, and perceptual fatigue
than both traditional set configurations.
Figure 9. Traditional (TR; no rest between repetitions) and cluster set configurations (CL;
a rest period was introduced between individual repetitions) analyzed in the present study.
R: repetition.
ESTUDIO I 167
7.2.2. Subjects
Eleven strength-trained male sport science students (mean ± SD: age 23.3 ±
2.0 years, body mass 79.3 ± 5.5 kg, height 178.8 ± 4.7 cm) volunteered to participate
168 JORGE MIGUEL GONZÁLEZ HERNÁNDEZ
7.2.3. Procedures
The full study protocol was composed of seven sessions: one initial test
session and six different protocol sessions. The warm-up and the procedure used
to determine the 10RM load was identical for all subjects in all sessions. Subjects
performed a 10-min standardized warm-up that included jogging, joint mobility
exercises, two sets of eight repetitions in the unloaded squat, five progressive CMJs,
and two sprints of 20 meters. Once the warm-up was completed, a progressive
loading test in the full-squat exercise was performed until the load produced
an MPV of 0.75 m·s⁻¹ (≈ 10RM load according to Sánchez Medina and González
Badillo (2011). The initial external load was set at 40 kg for all subjects, and was
progressively increased by 20 kg when the MPV was higher than 1 m·s⁻¹, 10 kg
when the MPV was between 1 m·s⁻¹ and 0.8 m·s⁻¹, and from 5 to 1 kg when the MPV
was below 0.8 m·s-1. Four repetitions were performed when the MPV was above 1
m·s⁻¹, two repetitions when the MPV was between 1 m·s⁻¹ and 0.8 m·s⁻¹, and only
one repetition when the MPV was below 0.8 m·s⁻¹. The recovery period between
sets was three minutes. A linear encoder (Chronojump, Barcelona, Spain) was used
to measure the velocity of the bar. Once the load linked to an MPV of 0.75 m·s⁻¹
was obtained, the subjects rested for five minutes, and then this load was lifted as
many times as possible to determine whether this load was close to the 10RM or if
a slight increment/decrement in the magnitude of the load was needed. This test
was considered to be properly performed when the last repetition was lifted at an
MPV lower than 0.35 m·s⁻¹ (Sánchez Medina & González Badillo, 2011).
ESTUDIO I 169
• TR1: 3 sets of repetitions to muscle failure with the 10RM load with no
rest between repetitions.
• TR2: 6 sets of 5 repetitions with no rest between repetitions.
• CL1: 3 sets of 10 repetitions with 10 seconds of rest between each repetition.
• CL2: 3 sets of 10 repetitions with 15 seconds of rest between each repetition.
• CL3: 3 sets of 10 repetitions with 30 seconds of rest between each repetition.
• CL4: 1 set of 30 repetitions with 15 seconds of rest between each repetition.
The two traditional set configurations differed in the level of effort (TR1:
repetitions to muscle failure; TR2: half the maximum possible number of repetitions
per set). The only difference between CL1, CL2 and CL3 was the duration of the
rest period between repetitions. Finally, CL4 used the same inter-repetition rest
period as CL2 (15 seconds), but all the volume (i.e., 30 repetitions) was performed
in only one set, thus reducing the session duration. The inter-set rest (5 min) and the
resistance applied (10RM) was the same for the six set configurations. The 10RM
load was adjusted in each testing session to account for possible training effects
(Sánchez Medina & González Badillo, 2011).
The full-squat exercise was chosen because it is one of the most effective
exercises that can be used to enhance lower-body muscular strength (Schoenfeld,
2010a). The depth of the squat was performed until the crease of the hip descended
below the knees. An elastic cord was used to ensure the correct depth in each
repetition and monitored through the linear encoder. All testing sessions were
conducted using a Smith machine (Technogym, Cesena, Italy) to ensure a vertical
displacement of the bar. All sessions were carried out under the direct supervision
of the primary author of this study, who verbally encouraged the subjects to
170 JORGE MIGUEL GONZÁLEZ HERNÁNDEZ
perform all repetitions at the maximum possible velocity. Note that training at the
maximum intended velocity induces greater training adaptations than deliberately
slower velocity training (González Badillo et al., 2014). A timer was used to monitor
the duration of the rest periods in the four CL protocols. Subjects were instructed
to keep their feet on the floor during the inter-repetition rest periods to avoid
differences in execution technique between repetitions.
Movement velocity. The reduction in the velocity of the bar was used as a
measure of mechanical fatigue (Sánchez Medina & González Badillo, 2011). The
MPV of the bar during the 30 repetitions performed with each set configuration was
recorded using a linear encoder with a sampling rate of 1,000 Hz via a 3 m cable.
The software automatically distinguished the eccentric and concentric phases of
the full-squat exercise. The MPV was subsequently calculated by the software as
the average velocity from the first positive velocity until the velocity of the bar
became lower than gravity (Sanchez Medina et al., 2010).
measurement in the CL4 set configuration (1 set was performed). A portable lactate
analyzer (Lactate Scout, SensLab GmbH, Leipzig, Germany) was used for lactate
measurements. The lactate analyzer was calibrated before each exercise session
according to the manufacturer’s specifications.
medium, and large, respectively (Cohen, 2013). Statistical tests were performed
using the software package SPSS (version 22.0: SPSS, Inc., Chicago, IL, USA).
Significance was set at P ≤ 0.05.
7.3. RESULTS
Table 4. Two-way repeated measures ANOVAs examining the effect of the number of
sets (1, 2 and 3) and repetitions (1-10) on movement velocity during each set configuration.
ESTUDIO I 173
Table 5. Comparison of velocity loss (%) among the different set configurations.
174 JORGE MIGUEL GONZÁLEZ HERNÁNDEZ
Figure 10. Velocity loss observed for six set configurations analyzed. Results are presented
as percent change from the first repetition of each testing session. Sets × repetitions [inter-
repetition rest]: TR1 = 3 × 10 [0 s]; TR2 = 6 × 5 [0 s]; CL1 = 3 × 10 [10 s]; CL2 = 3 × 10 [15 s];
CL3 = 3 × 10 [30 s]; CL4 = 1 × 30 [15 s].
Table 6. Two-way repeated measures ANOVAs examining the effect of the number of
sets (1, 2 and 3) and the time of measurement (pre-set and post-set) on countermovement
jump height.
176 JORGE MIGUEL GONZÁLEZ HERNÁNDEZ
Figure 11. Countermovement jump (CMJ) height loss observed after the training sets (top
panel) and the whole training session (low panel) in the six set configurations. a, significantly
different from TR1; b, significantly different from TR2; c, significantly different from CL1; d,
significantly different from CL2; e, significantly different from CL3; f, significantly different
from CL4. Sets × repetitions [inter-repetition rest]: TR1 = 3 × 10 [0 s]; TR2 = 6 × 5 [0 s]; CL1
= 3 × 10 [10 s]; CL2 = 3 × 10 [15 s]; CL3 = 3 × 10 [30 s]; CL4 = 1 × 30 [15 s].
ESTUDIO I 177
Figure 12. Comparison of blood lactate concentration among the different set
configurations. a, significantly different from TR1; b, significantly different from TR2; c,
significantly different from CL1; d, significantly different from CL2; e, significantly different
from CL3; f, significantly different from CL4. Sets × repetitions [inter-repetition rest]: TR1
= 3 × 10 [0 s]; TR2 = 6 × 5 [0 s]; CL1 = 3 × 10 [10 s]; CL2 = 3 × 10 [15 s]; CL3 = 3 × 10 [30 s];
CL4 = 1 × 30 [15 s].
178 JORGE MIGUEL GONZÁLEZ HERNÁNDEZ
OMNI-RES values significantly differed between training sets for all set
configurations (TR1: F = 41.4, P < 0.001, η²p = 0.838; TR2: F = 18.5, P < 0.001, η²p =
0.698; CL1: F = 25.1, P < 0.001, η²p = 0.758; CL2: F = 6.8, P = 0.028, η²p = 0.460; and
CL3: F = 5.5, P = 0.042, η²p = 0.407). Post-hoc comparisons revealed that OMNI-
RES values increased with the number of sets.
OMNI-RES values were averaged over the different sets in each session and
then compared with a one-way ANOVA for repeated measures (F = 6.8, P < 0.001,
η²p = 0.461). The post-hoc comparisons revealed significant differences between set
configurations as follows: TR1 > CL4 > TR2, CL1, CL2 and CL3 (Figure 13).
Figure 13. Comparison of OMNI-RES vales among the different set configurations.
a, significantly different from TR1; b, significantly different from TR2; c, significantly
different from CL1; d, significantly different from CL2; e, significantly different from CL3;
f, significantly different from CL4. Sets × repetitions [inter-repetition rest]: TR1 = 3 × 10 [0
s]; TR2 = 6 × 5 [0 s]; CL1 = 3 × 10 [10 s]; CL2 = 3 × 10 [15 s]; CL3 = 3 × 10 [30 s]; CL4 = 1 ×
30 [15 s].
ESTUDIO I 179
7.4. DISCUSSION
IIn the present study we explored the effect of different set configurations on
mechanical, metabolic, and perceptual measures of fatigue during multiple sets in
the full-squat exercise performed with the 10RM load. Our main findings are: 1)
the CL2 and CL3 set configurations (15 and 30 s inter-repetition rest, respectively)
were able to maintain greater velocities during the training; 2) while CL2 and CL3
were also the set configurations that produced lower CMJ height loss after each
training set, the CL4 (i.e., 1 set of 30 repetitions with 15 s of inter-repetition rest) was
the set configuration that induced a lower CMJ height loss after the whole training
session; 3) longer inter-repetition rest periods were associated with lower lactate
concentrations; and 4) CL4 and especially TR1 were the two set configurations
associated with greater perceptual fatigue. These results indicate that for a
training session with the same volume (30 repetitions) and relative load (10RM),
the implementation of different cluster configurations is effective in influencing
mechanical, metabolic, and perceptual responses.
MPV within the training session. It should be noted that 15 s of inter-repetition rest
could be preferable to 30 s because it markedly reduces training session durations.
The effect of the number of sets on blood lactate concentration was different
than that observed with regard to mechanical responses. The performance of
successive sets induced an increment in blood lactate concentration after TR1, but
no significant changes were observed after the remaining set configurations. This
result indicates that 5 min of inter-set rest was enough to minimize metabolic stress
between successive sets in all the set configurations analyzed, with the exception
of TR1. In agreement with previous studies, the inclusion of longer rest periods
between repetitions was associated with lower lactate concentrations (Girman
et al., 2014; Iglesias Soler et al., 2012). It should be noted that metabolic stress is
deemed one of the main mechanisms responsible for muscle hypertrophy (Brad
Schoenfeld, 2013); consequently, the lower metabolic stress induced by cluster set
configurations could be detrimental to the induction of hypertrophic adaptations
(Girman et al., 2014; Oliver et al., 2015b). In this regard, CL2 (15 s inter-repetition
rest) may be preferable to CL3 (30 s inter-repetition rest) because it induced greater
metabolic stress but similar mechanical performance. Further studies should
ESTUDIO I 181
Finally, in agreement with the results obtained for the mechanical variables,
the number of sets was associated with an increase in perceived fatigue (i.e., higher
OMNI-RES values) in all the set configurations analyzed. As expected, TR1 was
associated with the highest perceptual fatigue. However, contrary to the results
obtained from both mechanical and metabolic variables, CL4 was the second
most perceptually fatiguing set configuration, while no differences were observed
between the other four set configurations (TR2, CL1, CL2, and CL3). Although
the higher perceived fatigue in TR1 and CL4 could be attributed to their shorter
training sessions (11.5 and 8.75 min, respectively; see Figure 19previous studies
have also shown that cluster set configurations induce lower perceived fatigue
when the total session duration is equalized with respect to traditional continuous
repetition training (Mayo et al., 2014). Overall, these results confirm the usefulness
of different cluster set configurations when the objective is to reduce the perceived
degree of effort (Hardee, Lawrence, Utter, et al., 2012; Mayo et al., 2014). However,
although it was effective in terms of low levels of mechanical and metabolic fatigue,
CL4 (a set of 30 repetitions with 15 s inter-repetition rest) may not be suitable for
novice subjects since it was perceived as very stressful compared to other cluster
set configurations.
One strength of the present study was that the 10RM load was adjusted on
a per session basis. This decision was justified as a training-related effect would
be expected to be induced by the successive testing sessions, in addition to the
inherent differences in physical readiness that may occur on a daily basis (González
Badillo et al., 2017; Sánchez Medina & González Badillo, 2011). The non-significant
differences in the MPV attained at the first repetition in each testing session show
that the relative load was similar for all six set configurations (González Badillo
& Sanchez Medina, 2010). In addition, the absence of significant differences in the
CMJ height achieved at the beginning of each session indicates that the physical
readiness of the subjects was similar in all of them. Cluster training studies have
used protocols with brief rest periods introduced between individual repetitions or
group of repetitions. While in the present study we explored the effect of introducing
182 JORGE MIGUEL GONZÁLEZ HERNÁNDEZ
brief rest periods between single repetitions, future studies should explore the effect
of introducing rest periods after groups of two or three continuous repetitions.
Based on the results of the present study, CL2 (15 s inter-repetition rest) and
CL3 (30 s inter-repetition rest) were the two set configurations that minimized
mechanical fatigue (movement velocity and CMJ height loss). Additionally,
perceptual fatigue did not differ between CL2 and CL3. Therefore, since CL2
reduces training session durations and promotes similar metabolic stress, we
would recommend the application of 15 s of inter-repetition rest over the rest of the
cluster set configurations evaluated in the present study.
The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any
commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict
of interest.
7.5.2. Acknowledgments
We are very grateful to the subjects who participated in this study for
their involvement. The authors sincerely thank Raul Andrés López and Antonio
García-Peñuela for their participation in the measurement sessions and valuable
participation during the process. We also thank Dr. David G. Behm for the English
revision of the manuscript.
VIII
Estudio II
ESTUDIO II 187
VIII/ ESTUDIO II
ESTUDIO II 189
8.1. INTRODUCTION
One of the causes that can produced changes in the oxidative status and
increases in UA is the resistance training (RT), which is a physical exercise modality
allowing the modification of variables such as number of sets, repetitions or rest
time [14, 19]. Training to failure (TF) is characterised by the inability to complete
a concentric phase due to the high level of fatigue fatigue (Drinkwater et al., 2005;
Brad J. Schoenfeld et al., 2017). On the other hand, training consisted of number of
repetitions that are less than achievable maximum is known as training not leading
to failure (TNLF) and has been shown to produce less fatigue and similar or even
better adaptations than TF (Folland et al., 2002).
190 JORGE MIGUEL GONZÁLEZ HERNÁNDEZ
The features of the device used for sampling, as well as the way the analytes
are expressed in saliva, may influence the results. For example, Salivette cotton
rolls significantly increase salivary testosterone and estradiol levels (Celec &
Ostatníková, 2012) and in the specific case of dehydroepiandrosterone, the cotton
interference effect is of sufficient magnitude to attenuate the association between
serum and saliva levels (Shirtcliff, Granger, Schwartz, & Curran, 2001). On the
other hand, in some analytes, such as the salivary alpha-amylase (sAA), the use
of normalized values by considering salivary flow or protein concentration can
produce variability in the results of sAA in different stress models, compared
with the results expressed without any correction (Contreras Aguilar et al., 2017).
Saliva has been collected for measuring levels of UA by different methods, such
as flow stimulation by chewing on paraffin (Gonzalez et al., 2008) using a cotton
roll (Chielle, Casarin, Chielle, & Casarin, 2017) or without stimulation (Kondakova,
Lissi, & Pizarro, 1999). However, there are no comparative studies about whether
different sampling and normalization procedures might affect the UA values in
saliva. Therefore, the main objective of this study was to evaluate how two different
sampling conditions (using passive drool or Salivette with cotton) and three
different normalization procedures (without any correction, corrected by salivary
flow or corrected by total protein concentration) could influence the measured
values of UA in saliva. For this purpose, the effect of different sampling conditions
and normalization procedures in saliva on UA concentrations and their correlations
with serum values, were evaluated in saliva samples that were obtained by two
experimental models of acute exercise (TLF and TNLF) in order to get samples with
different UA concentrations.
6 sets of 10 repetitions (TF), while the second one included 6 sets of 5 repetitions
(TNLF), both with 5 minutes of interest rest and same external load corresponding
to 10 repetition maximum (RM). Subjects performed two different protocols in
a counterbalanced order during two consecutive weeks. Moreover, all training
sessions were supervised by a strength and conditioning specialist, in order to
ensure the correct performance of the exercise. On the other hand, saliva sampling
was made by two different procedures, passive drool and salivette cotton roll both
during 1 min. Saliva results were expressed without any correction and corrected
by salivary flow rate, and total protein.
8.2.2. Subjects
Twelve trained males (age 23.5 ± 3.5 years, height 1.77 ± 0.10 m and body mass
73± 7.2 kg), volunteered to participate in this study. The criteria of inclusion were
the absence of any health problems or musculoskeletal injures and also the absence
of ingestion of any drug in the last six months. participants were fully informed
of any possible risks and discomforts associated with experimental procedures
and provided a written informed consent to participate in this study, which was
approved by the local ethical committee in agreement with the Declaration of
Helsinki.
8.2.3. Procedures
Saliva and blood were sampled at four different times. First sample
corresponding with baseline was taken at 8:30 AM. The second saliva and blood
sample were collected 60 min post-training. Finally, the third and fourth extraction
corresponded with 24 and 48h post-training. The order of collection was saliva
by passive flow first, followed by collecting saliva using salivette and finally
blood sample was collected. Participants were not allowed to eat, drink coffee or
caffeinated soft drinks, and consume dairy products one hour before collecting
saliva samples. Furthermore, five minutes prior to saliva collection participants
were asked to rinse their mouth with clear water to avoid contaminations.
After saliva collection, blood extractions were performed from the antecubital
vein (5ml) into one plane tube to get serum (approximately 2 mLs) that was stored
at -80ºC until analysis.
Salivary flow rate was obtained by dividing the volume of saliva by the time
of the sampling period (1 min) (Contreras Aguilar et al., 2017; Rohleder & Nater,
ESTUDIO II 193
2009). Saliva volume was obtained by subtracting the empty tube weight from
the saliva-filled one, and values in grams obtained were considered equivalent to
milliliters. UA amount was later multiplied by flow rate (mg/min).
A post hoc power analysis was conducted using the values obtained to verify
the null hypothesis. By using the mean and standard deviation of uric acid for
basal time and after 60 minutes of exercise, and a power of 80 % with at 5% level
of significance, the number of individuals were calculated. The data analysis was
done using ClinCal statistic analyser software.
8.3. RESULTS
The power analysis test indicates that 10 subjects were required in order to
obtain a power of 80% with a 5% level of significance.
194 JORGE MIGUEL GONZÁLEZ HERNÁNDEZ
Table 7. Mean (interquartile range) data of serum and salivary UA before (Pre) and after
60 min (Post_60), 24 hours (Post_24), and 48 hours (Post_48) of acute exercise. TLF: training
leading to failure, TNLF: training not leading to failure, TP: total proteins
ESTUDIO II 195
Table 8. Comparison between uric acid values obtained in serum and in saliva using
salivette and passive drool
196 JORGE MIGUEL GONZÁLEZ HERNÁNDEZ
8.4. DISCUSSION
The use of Salivette has been previously recommended in some studies since
by using the rolls and after centrifugation, the saliva contains less mucins and loses
viscosity, making sample processing easier (Lamey & Nolan, 1994). However it can
198 JORGE MIGUEL GONZÁLEZ HERNÁNDEZ
alter the composition of some analytes, and therefore the number of analytes that
can be measured with this procedure is limited (Celec & Ostatníková, 2012; Kruger,
Breunig, BiskupekSigwart, & Dorr, 1996). In our study no differences were found
between the use of salivette and passive drool in UA in saliva, so apparently both
methods could be used for UA measurements.
8.5. CONCLUSION
IX
Estudio III
ESTUDIO III 203
9.1. NTRODUCTION
Previous studies have shown that the acute and chronic effects of RT are
influenced by the interset rest intervals (Ahtiainen, Pakarinen, Alen, Kraemer, &
Häkkinen, 2005; Kraemer, Noble, Clark, & Culver, 1987; Senna et al., 2009). The
American College of Sports Medicine recommend short interset rest intervals (e.g.,
30-90 seconds) during hypertrophy-oriented RT sessions, whereas longer interset rest
intervals (e.g., 3-5 minutes) are recommended during strength-oriented and power-
oriented RT sessions (Adams et al., 2002). However, recent evidence suggests that
longer rest periods could also be recommended during hypertrophy based training
because the ability to lift heavy loads could be reduced when short rest intervals are
implemented ( Schoenfeld et al., 2016). The maximum number of repetitions that
can be completed is one of the variables most used to quantify the effect of interset
rest intervals on mechanical performance (Rahimi, 2005; Senna et al., 2009). Rahimi
(2005) showed that 5 minutes of interset rest allowed a higher volume than interset
rest intervals of 1 and 2 minutes during a RT session consisting of 4 sets at the 85%
of the one-repetition maximum (1RM) with the squat (SQ) exercise. Senna et al.
(2009) also found that the number of repetitions completed during a RT session
206 JORGE MIGUEL GONZÁLEZ HERNÁNDEZ
with the leg press, leg extension, leg curl, bench press (BP), pec-deck and triceps
pulley exercises was higher using 5 minutes compared to 2 minutes of interset
rest. These results could be expected because it is known that longer rest intervals
increase the recovery of bioenergetic factors such as adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
and phosphocreatine (PCr) (Wells et al., 2009). However, the effect of interset rest
intervals on mechanical variables when RT sets are not performed to muscular
failure has received less scientific attention. This issue is worth investigating since
previous studies have revealed greater increments in athletic performance when
RT sets are not performed to failure (Davies, Orr, Halaki, & Hackett, 2015; Folland
et al., 2002; Nóbrega & Libardi, 2016; Pareja Blanco et al., 2016).
The aims of the present study were (I) to compare the effect of three different
interset rest intervals (1, 3, and 5 minutes) on mean velocity during a RT session
ESTUDIO III 207
conducted with the SQ and BP exercises performed in a Smith Machine, and (II) to
explore the fatigue induced by RT sessions differing only in the interset rest duration
on the F-v relationship of lower- and upper-body muscles. We hypothesised that
(I) the slowest and the fastest mean velocities would be observed for the interset
rest intervals of 1 and 5 minutes, respectively, and (II) all RT sessions, regardless
of the interset rest interval, would have a negative impact on the F-v relationship
of lower- and upper-body muscles (i.e., lower values of F0, v0, and Pmax), but the
largest negative effects would occur as a result of shorter interset rest intervals.
9.2. METHODS
9.2.1. Participants
Fifteen male sport science students (mean ± standard deviation [SD]; age =
20.3 ± 3.3 years, body mass = 72.1 ± 8.3 kg, height = 1.73 ± 0.04 m, SQ 10RM = 63.2
± 11.7 kg, and BP 10RM = 47.3 ± 16.5 kg) participated in this study. Participants
reported to be enrolled in RT programs that included the SQ and BP exercises for
a minimum of 1 year and all them demonstrated a proper execution technique
during both exercises. All participants were informed about the study procedures
and signed a written informed consent before the initiation of the study. The study
protocol adhered to the tenets of the Declaration of Helsinki and was approved by
the Institutional Review Board (935/CEIH/2019)
the remaining experimental sessions (details of the main experimental sessions are
presented below). Following previous studies, the external load associated with a
jump height of 12 cm was used to determine the F-v relationship during the CMJ
exercise in the three main experimental sessions (Garcia Ramos et al., 2018).
Figure 14. Overview of the experimental sessions. The order of the squat and bench
press exercises performed during training and the interset rest protocols (1, 3 or 5 minutes)
was counterbalanced between participants. CMJ, countermovement jump; BPT, bench press
throw; RM, repetition maximum; F-v, force-velocity.
The three main experimental sessions (sessions 4-6) consisted of three sets of
five repetitions against the 10RM load during the SQ and BP exercises. The only
difference between the three experimental sessions was the interset rest duration
(1 minute [Rest 1’], 3 minutes [Rest 3’] and 5 minutes [Rest 5’]). The order of the SQ
and BP exercises was counterbalanced between participants, but the same order
was followed for individual participants in the three experimental sessions. The
order of the interset rest protocols was randomised. The F-v relationship during
the CMJ and BPT exercises was determined on two occasions during each session:
5 min after the warm-up (Pre) and 10 min after the last set of the training session
(Post). All sessions were performed at the same time of the day for each participant.
The mean propulsive values of force and velocity were used to determine
the F-v relationship during the CMJ exercise through the simple method proposed
by Samozino and colleagues (Jiménez Reyes et al., 2017; Samozino, Morin, Hintzy,
& Belli, 2008). Jump height was estimated from flight time using a validated
mobile application (MyJump2) that recorded the video-image at 240 fps through
an iPhone 8 plus (Balsalobre Fernandez et al., 2015). The mean propulsive values of
force and velocity used to determine the F-v relationship during the BPT exercise
were collected with a linear velocity transducer (T-Force System; Ergotech, Murcia,
Spain) (Courel Ibáñez, J., Martínez Cava, A., Morán Navarro, R., Escribano Peñas,
P., Chavarren Cabrero, J., González Badillo, & Pallarés, 2019; García Ramos et al.,
2018). The loaded CMJ and BPT were performed in a Smith machine (Multipower
FF683; Ffittech, Santo Estevao, Portugal). The mean propulsive values of force and
velocity obtained under two loading conditions were used for the assessment of
the F-v relationship through a linear model: F(V) = F0 – aV, in which F0 represents
the force intercept and a is the slope of the F-v relationship. The maximum velocity
(v0 = F0/a) and maximum power (Pmax = F0·v0/4) were also calculated. An
acceptable reliability of the two-point method for determining the F-v relationship
during the CMJ and BPT exercises has been reported elsewhere (Garcia Ramos et
al., 2018; Pérez Castilla, Jaric, et al., 2018).
210 JORGE MIGUEL GONZÁLEZ HERNÁNDEZ
Descriptive data are presented as means and SD. The normal distribution of
the data (Shapiro-Wilk test) and the homogeneity of variances (Levene’s test) were
confirmed (p > 0.05). A three-way repeated measures ANOVA (exercise [SQ and
BP], set [1, 2 and 3], and rest protocol [Rest 1’, Rest 3’ and Rest 5’]) with Bonferroni
post hoc corrections was conducted on the mean velocity of each set. A one-way
ANOVA with Bonferroni post hoc corrections were also used to compare the mean
velocity of each individual repetition between the rest protocols separately for the
SQ and BP exercises. Finally, a three-way repeated measures ANOVA (exercise [SQ
and BP], time [Pre and Post], and rest protocol [Rest 1’, Rest 3’ and Rest 5’]) with
Bonferroni post hoc corrections was applied on each F-v relationship parameter
(F0, v0, and Pmax). The intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC, model 3.1) calculated
from the three Pre-session values revealed a high reliability for F0 (ICC = 0.91 for
CMJ and 0.98 for BPT) v0 (ICC = 0.80 for CMJ and 0.81 for BPT) and Pmax (ICC =
0.80 for CMJ and 0.96 for BPT). All statistical analyses were performed using SPSS
software version 22.0 (SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, USA) and statistical significance was
set at an alpha level of 0.05.
9.3. RESULTS
velocity]; Rest 5’ > Rest 1’ [7.4% higher velocity] (Table 10, Figure 15). No significant
differences in mean velocity were observed between the sets 1 and 2 (p = 0.052,
2.4% higher velocity) nor between the Rest 3’ and Rest 5’ protocols (p = 0.088, 3.9%
higher velocity). The exercise × set interaction (p = 0.012) was caused by the higher
velocity loss observed in the BP compared to the SQ (set 3 vs. set 1: 11.8% and 1.6%
of velocity loss, respectively). The set × rest protocol interaction (p < 0.001) was
caused by the lower velocities at sets 2 and 3 for the Rest 1’ protocol compared to the
Rest 3’ and Rest 5’ protocols. The velocity achieved against individual repetitions
was lower for the Rest 1’ protocol compared to the Rest 3’ (4 repetitions in the SQ
and 9 repetitions in the BP) and Rest 5’ protocols (7 repetitions in the BP), while
no significant differences were observed between the Rest 3’ and Rest 5’ protocols
(Figure 15).
Table 10. Three-way repeated measures ANOVA used to compare movement velocity
between the exercises, sets, and rest protocols.
212 JORGE MIGUEL GONZÁLEZ HERNÁNDEZ
Figure 15. Comparison of mean velocity between the different interset rest protocols and
number of sets for the squat (upper panel) and bench press (lower panel) exercises. *, Rest 3’
significantly faster than Rest 1’; #, Rest 5’ significantly faster than Rest 1’. NS, no significant
differences between sets.
ESTUDIO III 213
Figure 16. Comparison of mean velocity at each repetition between the interset rest
protocols of minute (Rest 1’; white squares), 3 minutes (Rest 3’; black squares) and 5 minutes
(Rest 5’; grey squares) for the squat (upper panel) and bench press (lower panel) exercises.
Error bars depict the standard error. *, Rest 3’ significantly faster than Rest 1’; #, Rest 5’
significantly faster than Rest 1’.
at Post in the CMJ compared to the BPT. The exercise × rest protocol interaction was
significant for v0 and Pmax due to higher values for the Rest 1’ protocol compared
to the Rest 3’ and Rest 5’ protocols during the CMJ, while no significant differences
were observed during the BPT. The time × rest protocol interaction was significant
for all parameters (F0: higher decrement for the Rest 1’ protocol compared to the
Rest 3’ and Rest 5’ protocols; v0: higher decrement for the Rest 5’ protocol compared
to the Rest 1’ and Rest 3’ protocols; Pmax: lower decrement for the Rest 1’ protocol
compared to the Rest 3’ and Rest 5’ protocols). Pairwise comparisons between the
time points and rest protocols are presented in Figure 17.
Table 11. Three-way repeated measures ANOVA used to compare the force-velocity
relationship parameters between the exercises, point of measure, and rest protocols.
ESTUDIO III 215
Figure 17. Comparison of the maximal capacities of the muscles to produce force (upper-
panel), velocity (middle panel) and power (lower panel) before (Pre) and after (Post) the
training session for the interset rest protocols of 1 minute (Rest 1’; white squares), 3 minutes
(Rest 3’; black squares) and 5 minutes (Rest 5’; grey squares) during the countermovement
jump (CMJ; left panels) and bench press throw (BPT; right panels) exercises. Error bars
depict the standard error. *, significant differences between Rest 1’ and Rest 3’; #, significant
differences between Rest 1’ and Rest 5’; †, significant differences between Rest 3’ and Rest
5’.
This study was designed to compare mean velocity and the changes in the
F-v relationship parameters between RT sessions differing only in the duration of
the interset rest intervals. The RT session comprised three sets of a lower-body
216 JORGE MIGUEL GONZÁLEZ HERNÁNDEZ
(SQ) and three sets of an upper-body (BP) exercise. The main findings of this study
revealed lower velocities for the Rest 1’ protocol compared to the Rest 3’ and Rest
5’ protocols, while no significant differences were observed between the Rest 3’
and Rest 5’ protocols. However, the decrement in Pmax was higher for the Rest
3’ and Rest 5’ protocols compared to the Rest 1’ protocol. Therefore, although the
Rest 1’ protocol does compromise the maintenance of high mean velocities during
the successive sets of a RT session, the residual fatigue induced by the RT session
(assessed by the decrement in the magnitude of the F-v relationship parameters)
does not seem to be increased when short interset rest intervals are used.
while it could be speculated that the levels of ATP and PCr could be recovered after
3 minutes specially when the training sets are not performed to failure (Wells et al.,
2009). Therefore, although the Rest 3’ and Rest 5’ protocols allowed a comparable
velocity performance, the Rest 3’ protocol presents the main advantage of the RT
session being shorter. Similar results were obtained by Abdessemed et al. (1999)
who reported higher blood lactate concentration and lower power production
during a RT session that comprised 10 sets of 6 repetitions of the BP at 70%1RM
using interset rest intervals of 1 minute compared to interset rest intervals of 3
and 5 minutes. The load magnitude (≈ 75%1RM) and the training strategy (i.e.,
sets not performed to muscular failure) could have influenced these results, being
plausible that the use of heavier loads or leaving less repetitions in reserve (i.e.,
approaching to muscular failure) would require longer interset rest for maintaining
velocity performance during RT sessions. However, based on the results discussed
above, it seems that 3 minutes of interset rest is optimal for the maintenance of
high velocities during RT sessions conducted with the SQ and BP exercises against
moderate loads (≈75%1RM or 10RM) when approximately half of the maximum
number of repetitions per set are performed.
To our knowledge, this has also been the first study that has used the F-v
relationship modelling to quantify the fatigue induced by RT sessions on F0, v0,
and Pmax. We hypothesised that a significant decrement in F0, v0, and Pmax
would be observed after all RT sessions, being the decrement accentuated using
shorter interset rest intervals. This hypothesis was only partially confirmed since
after the RT sessions a significant decrease was observed for F0 and Pmax, but not
in V0. However, the lack of significant change for v0 is in line with the study of
García Ramos et al. (2018) who reported a significant decrement in F0 but not in v0
after RT sets not performed to failure during the BP exercise. Therefore, reducing
the level of effort by performing approximately half of the maximum number of
repetitions per sets seems an appropriate strategy to preserve v0 capacity. Although
the decrement in mean velocity during training was higher for the Rest 1’ protocol,
the magnitude of the deterioration of the F-v relationship parameters after training
did not differ between the different interset rest protocols. The lack of differences in
the residual fatigue induced by the RT sessions could be explained because after 10
minutes of rest the recovery of bioenergetic factors such as ATP and PCr should be
218 JORGE MIGUEL GONZÁLEZ HERNÁNDEZ
similar for the three interset rest protocols (Wells et al., 2009; Willardson & Burkett,
2005).
One limitation of the study is that only mechanical variables were collected.
Therefore, the response of other variables that are known to influence the acute
training stimulus and the subsequent neuromuscular and physiological adaptations
(e.g., metabolic biomarkers [e.g., lactate], muscle damage markers [e.g., creatine
kinase] or hormones [e.g., testosterone and cortisol]) remain unexplored. Future
studies should also explore the effect of interset rest duration on mechanical
performance using other exercises (e.g., leg press or pull-ups), loads (e.g., 20RM
and 5RM), training strategies (i.e., proximity to failure), and participant populations
(e.g., women or highly trained athletes). For example, although the Rest 3’ protocol
provided satisfactory results in the present study, it is plausible that longer interset
rest periods are needed to maintain mechanical performance when lifting heavier
loads or when the sets are finished closer to failure. Finally, it is important to note
that only 3 sets were performed for each exercise and, therefore, it remains to be
elucidated whether the Rest 5’ protocol could provide better results than the Rest 3’
protocol with increasing number of sets. However, the results of the present study
provide valuable practical information because it is frequent to prescribe 3 sets per
exercise during RT programs.
9.5. CONCLUSION
Finally, we can conclude that mean velocity during training was significantly
lower for Rest 1’ compared to Rest 3’ and Rest 5’, while no significant differences
were observed between the Rest 3’ and Rest 5’. The residual fatigue of the RT sessions
on the magnitude of the F-V relationship parameters was not meaningfully affected
by the interset rest intervals. Therefore, Rest 3’ and Rest 5’ could be recommended
over Rest 1’ for the maintenance of acute mean velocities during training, with
Rest 3’ possibly desirable over Rest 5’ because it shortens the RT session. The Rest
3’ protocol should be recommended for the maintenance of high velocities during
RT sessions conducted with the SQ and BP exercises performed against the 10RM
load when only half of the maximum number of repetitions per set are performed.
However, the level of fatigue induced by the RT session does not seem to be affected
ESTUDIO III 219
X/ ESTUDIO IV
ESTUDIO IV 225
10.1. ABSTRACT
This study aimed (I) to examine the acute and delayed responses of three
muscle damage biomarkers: creatine kinase (CK), aspartate aminotransferase
(AST) and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) to an accentuated eccentric training
protocol in serum, and (II) to explore the changes of these biomarkers in saliva and
compare them with serum. Sixteen resistance-trained university students (10 men
[age = 26.6 ± 4.8 years, full squat one-repetition maximum [1RM] = 103.4 ± 14.4 kg]
and 6 women [age = 22.7 ± 1.4 years, full squat estimated 1RM = 68.3 ± 10.5 kg])
completed an accentuated eccentric strength training protocol with the full squat
exercise consisting of 8 sets of 10 repetitions against the 120% estimated 1RM load
with 5 minutes of interset rest. The activity of muscle damage biomarkers (CK,
AST and LDH) were measured in serum and saliva before training (Pre), 24 hours
after training (Post24), and 96 hours after training (Post96). In serum lower values
of the three muscle damage markers were observed at Pre compared to Post24 and
Post96, while no significant differences were observed between Post24 and Post96
for any analyte. In saliva there was a significant increase in men at Post96 compared
with Pre in CK. The correlations between the measurements in serum and saliva
ranged from trivial to small (r = -0.034 to 0.212). These results suggest that the
measurement of muscle damage markers in serum and saliva do not provide the
same information in the conditions of our study.
10.2. INTRODUCTION
squat, bench press, etc.). It is known that the eccentric strength potential is higher
than the concentric one (maximal force output is ≈ 20-50% higher during eccentric
actions) (Enoka, 1996). Therefore, during conventional resistance training the
intensity of the eccentric portion of the movement is never maximized, since the
magnitude of the load is limited by the maximal concentric force. To overcome this
limitation, an advance training method known as “accentuated eccentric training”
has been frequently included within athletes’ resistance training routines (Douglas
et al., 2018; Sheppard et al., 2008). Briefly, accentuated eccentric training consists of
exercising against loads higher than the one-repetition maximum (1RM) (Douglas
et al., 2018). The higher force that can be produced during supramaximal eccentric
actions together with the high muscle microtrauma induced by eccentric actions
are believed to stimulate the muscle adaptation process (Wagle et al., 2017). In this
regard, there is strong evidence supporting the superiority of accentuated eccentric
training compared to concentric-only training to induce gains in maximal strength
(Walker et al., 2016). However, practitioners should also be concerned about the high
muscle damage induced by accentuated eccentric training because it may cause
perturbations in post exercise metabolic rate (Dolezal et al., 2000) and lengthen the
recovery process (Brancaccio et al., 2010).
and eccentric training, and they reported the highest levels of CK after eccentric
training and the peak values 24 hours after training. However, Nosaka et al. (2002)
reported higher CK values after 96 hours of eccentric training compared to 24 and
48 hours after training.
Even though the blood collection is considered an efficient and valid procedure
for exploring the muscle damage response to physical exercise (Friden & Lieber,
2001), this method is somehow painful, invasive and time-consuming. Saliva has
been described of potential use for the measurement of different analytes, including
muscle damage markers in saliva samples (Barranco et al., 2017; Deminice et al.,
2010). The main advantages to measure biochemical variables in saliva are a better
tolerance to sampling by participants and that it can be collected simultaneously in
multiple subjects under field conditions (Deminice et al., 2010). Several studies have
already reported the hormonal response in saliva after different training protocols
(Beaven et al., 2008; L. D. Hayes, Sculthorpe, & Baker, 2015), but only few studies
have examined the muscle damage response in saliva (Barranco et al., 2017). In
addition, there are no previous reports about the level of agreement between serum
and saliva procedures when determining markers related to muscle damage after
a controlled effort. Therefore, it would be of interest to explore whether the activity
of muscle damage markers (e.g., CK, AST and LDH) in saliva is correlated to those
measured in serum.
The purposes of this study were (I) to examine the acute (Post 24 hours; Post24)
and delayed (Post 96 hours; Post96) responses of muscle damage biomarkers (CK,
AST and LDH,) to an accentuated eccentric training protocol in serum, and (II)
to explore the changes of these biomarkers in saliva and compare them with
serum. We hypothesized that (I) the concentration of CK, AST and LDH would be
significantly higher at Post24 and Post96 compared to Pre, and (II) these enzymes
would show changes in serum and saliva after the training protocol.
228 JORGE MIGUEL GONZÁLEZ HERNÁNDEZ
10.3. METHOD
10.3.2. Subjects
10.3.3. Procedures
The study protocol consisted of four sessions. The full squat 1RM was estimated
in the first session through the individual load-velocity relationship (Pérez Castilla
et al., 2017). Subjects performed a 10 minutes standardized warm-up that included
jogging, joint mobility exercises, two sets of eight unloaded squats, five progressive
countermovement jumps, and one set of eight repetitions against 20 kg during the
full squat exercise. Thereafter, an incremental loading test was performed using the
full squat exercise following the procedure described by Pérez Castilla et al. (2017).
The initial load was set at 20 kg for all subjects and was progressively incremented
in 10 kg until the mean concentric velocity of the barbell was below 0.60 m·s-1
(≈ 80%1RM). Two repetitions were performed with each load and 3 minutes of
passive rest were implemented between successive sets. Subjects were instructed
to perform all repetitions at maximum intended velocity. The velocity collected at
the different loads was used to estimate the full squat 1RM through an individual
linear regression model as the load associated with a mean velocity of 0.33 m·s-
1 (Pérez Castilla et al., 2017). The 1RM was estimated from the individual L-V
relationship instead of performing an actual 1RM test to minimize the fatigue and
discomfort associated with lifting the 1RM load during the full squat exercise. Note
that although subjects had resistance training experience, some of them were not
lifting loads close to their 1RM during their regular training. The mean velocity of
the barbell was calculated from the displacement-time data recorded at 1,000 Hz
by a linear position transducer (Chronojump, Barcelona, Spain). The squat exercise
was always performed in a Smith machine (Technogym, Cesena, Italy).
- Serum: Blood samples were extracted from the antecubital vein (12 ml)
in plain tubes which were used to measure CK, AST and LDH. The analyses
were performed by spectrophotometry using commercial kits (Beckman) on an
automated biochemical analyzer (Olympus A400, Beckman Coulter, Brea USA)
(Barranco et al., 2017).
Descriptive values of all dependent variables (i.e., CK, AST, and LDH) are
presented as means, SD, and range. The normal distribution assumption was
violated for all dependent variables (Shapiro-Wilk test: p < 0.05). Consequently,
the Friedman test was used to explore the effect of an eccentric strength training
protocol on muscle damage markers measured in serum and saliva at three time
points (Pre, Post24, and Post96). The magnitude of the differences between the time
points was calculated through the Cohen’s d effect size (ES) and the following scale
was used for interpretation: negligible (< 0.2), small (0.2–0.5), moderate (> 0.5–0.8),
ESTUDIO IV 231
and large (≥ 0.8) (Cohen, 2013). Bland-Altman plots were constructed to explore
the level of agreement between the three muscle damage markers measured in
saliva (practical measure) and serum (criterion measure). Since we observed a
proportional bias for the three markers (r2 > 0.1) (Atkinson & Nevill, 1998), the data
were log-transformed before calculating the Pearson’s product-moment correlation
coefficients (r) (Hopkins, Marshall, Batterham, & Hanin, 2009). The criteria to
interpret the strength of the r coefficients was as follows: trivial (< 0.1), small (0.1-
0.3), moderate (0.3-0.5), high (0.5-0.7), very high (0.7-0.9), or practically perfect (>
0.9). Statistical analyses were performed using the software package SPSS (IBM
SPSS version 22.0, Chicago, IL, USA). Statistical significance was set at p < 0.05.
10.4. RESULTS
Descriptive data of the three analytes at the three time points are presented
in Table 12. In serum, the ANOVA test revealed significant differences between the
time points for the three muscle damage markers (p ≤ 0.001). Post hoc analyses
revealed significantly lower values at Pre compared to Post24 (CK: p< 0.001,
ES= 1.46; AST: p< 0.001, ES= 1.11; LDH: p = 0.010, ES= 0.66) and Post96 (CK: p<
0.001, ES= 1.24; AST: p< 0.001, ES= 1.23; LDH: p = 0.001, ES= 1.22). No significant
differences were observed between Post24 and Post96 for CK (p= 1.00, ES= 0.44),
AST (p= 1.00, ES= 0.24), or LDH (p= 1.00, ES= 0.65) (Figure 18).
Table 12. Descriptive values of the three muscle damage markers measured in serum
and saliva at three time points.
232 JORGE MIGUEL GONZÁLEZ HERNÁNDEZ
Figure 18. Comparison of Creatine kinase (CK) Aspartate aminotransferase (AST) and
Lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) measured in serum between the three time points. The
individual values (dots), averaged across the subjects values (bars) and standard deviations
(error bars) are depicted. *, significantly lower than Post24 and Post96 (p ≤ 0.001).
ESTUDIO IV 233
In saliva there was a significant increase at 96h after the exercise in males
(p<0.05, ES=0.82). On the other hand, the values of CK and AST measured in saliva
were significantly lower compared to serum (CK: p = 0.001, ES = -1.03; AST: p <
0.001, ES = -0.84), while no significant differences were observed for LDH between
serum and saliva (p = 0.126; ES = 0.37). Bland-Altman plots revealed a low level
of agreement between serum and saliva measurements (high random errors and
heteroscedasticity of the errors) and the correlations ranged from trivial to small
(Figure 19).
234 JORGE MIGUEL GONZÁLEZ HERNÁNDEZ
Figure 19. Bland-Altman plots (left hands panels) and association (right hand panels)
of Creatine kinase (CK, upper panel), Aspartate aminotransferase (AST, middle panel) and
Lactate dehydrogenase (LDH, lower panel) measured in serum and saliva. Each Bland-
Altman plot depicts the averaged difference and 95% limits of agreement (dashed lines),
along with the regression line (solid line). The Pearson’s correlation coefficient (r) was
calculated using the log-transformation since the assumption of homoscedasticity was
violated.
ESTUDIO IV 235
10.5. DISCUSSION
TThis study was designed to explore the responses of three muscle damage
markers (CK, AST and LDH) measured in serum and saliva to an accentuated
eccentric training protocol conducted with the full squat exercise. The main findings
of this study revealed (I) a significant increase of muscle damage markers at Post24
and Post96 compared to Pre values in serum, and (II) a low level of agreement
between the same muscle damage markers measured in serum and saliva. These
results highlight that the values of muscle damage markers measured in both
samples are not closely related and, therefore, saliva measurements should not be
used to infer the values of muscle damage markers in serum in situations of acute
muscle damage similar to that we used in our study.
The assays used in our study were validated in a previous report and
showed an adequate imprecision and accuracy to measure the activity of the three
enzymes in saliva. These assays are commercially available and can be used in
spectrophotometric equipment; therefore, can be easily set-up in any laboratory. It
is important to point out that in case of using assays for different manufacturers, an
analytical validation and optimization of the assay would be recommended.
measured in saliva presented a very low level of agreement with respect to the same
markers measured in serum. Deminice et al. (Deminice et al., 2010) examined the
use of serum and saliva to assess oxidative stress after a resistance training session
consisting of 3 sets of 10 repetitions at the 75%1RM with 90 seconds of inter-set
rest time during several exercises. All markers examined in that study (uric acid,
thiobarbituric acid reactive substances, lipid hydroperoxide, advanced oxidation
protein products and glutation) showed a significant increase in serum and saliva,
but only uric acid showed correlations between serum and saliva. Several studies
have also explored the hormonal response in saliva. Mc Lellan et al. (2010) measured
CK in serum and testosterone and cortisol in saliva reporting peak CK values 24
hours after a rugby match, while 5 days were necessary to return to baseline levels.
Regarding the endocrine response, testosterone and cortisol returned to baseline
levels after 48 hours of rest, moreover, showed strong correlation between serum
and saliva, but the level of agreement between CK measured in serum and saliva
was not explored. Our findings are in line with the results reported by Barranco et
al. (2017) who in a pilot study showed no significant correlations between the values
in serum and saliva of the three biomarkers of our study ( CK, AST, and LDH)
after an amateur futsal mach. However, in human with myocardial infarction and
dogs with muscle damage, a moderate significant correlation in CK and AST were
found between serum and saliva. The possible different kinetics of the enzymes in
these processes, differences in severity and magnitude of the muscle damage, the
different methods used for measurement or the fact that samplings were made at
different times after the damage could be the reasons of the divergences of these
reports with our study.
This lack of correlation between serum and saliva values found in our study
could be to different causes such as different dynamics of the enzymes in serum
and saliva, since it seems that in our study there is a need of more time to detect
increases in saliva. Also, it could be due to the existence of a threshold for passing
the enzymes from serum to saliva as occurs with other analytes such as NT-ProBNP
(Foo et al., 2012; Dizgah & Sabet, 2011) or even the possibility of enzyme synthesis
by the salivary glands (Tvarijonaviciute et al., 2017). Further studies should be
made to clarify this and improve our understanding of the cause of the changes of
muscle enzymes in saliva.
238 JORGE MIGUEL GONZÁLEZ HERNÁNDEZ
One limitation of this study is that only one type of sample collection (by
passive flow) and one way to express the result was used. Therefore, future studies
should explore if other saliva collection methods can provide the most accurate
results and also examine saliva analysis controlled for salivary flow rate or total
protein content. The number of individuals of our study was selected based on
the minimum number of individuals needed to get an adequate statistical power,
based on the inter-individual variability of CK in serum, that resulted in a value
of 15 subjects. This size of the sample used in our study was in line or higher than
other previous reports about evaluation of different biomarkers of serum or saliva
after an acute exercise: n = 9 (Pantoja, Alberton, Pilla, Vendrusculo, & Kruel, 2009)
, n=10 (Twist & Eston, 2005), n = 12 (Chapman, Newton, Sacco, & Nosaka, 2006).
However, the higher inter-individual variability of CK in saliva yield that a number
of 60 individuals should have been used to get an appropriate power. Therefore, this
report should be considered as a pilot study that should be confirmed with other
studies involving a larger number of individuals. Finally, future studies should
try to compare serum and saliva measurements to biopsy immunohistochemistry
(gold-standard method to assess muscle damage) to determine which of the two
methods (serum and saliva) provides a better representation of the muscle damage
induced by physical exercise. In addition, studies involving longer time points
would have been advisable in order to evaluate if there is a higher correlation
between saliva and serum measurements after muscle damage at those time points.
Our findings provide new physiological data that could contribute to a more
adequate strength training prescription. The high variability in the individual
responses of CK, AST and LDH to an accentuated eccentric training protocol
suggests that coaches cannot extrapolate the results reported in the literature to their
athletes, being necessary an individual monitoring of these biomarkers. Coaches
should also be aware that level of muscle damage markers measured in serum
and saliva after a physical effort cannot be closely related. Consequently, saliva
measurements should not be used to infer the values of muscle damage markers
in serum in similar situations that were used in our report. Further studies should
ESTUDIO IV 239
be performed about muscle biomarkers in saliva before practitioners can use this
sample to guide resistance training routines.
XI
Estudio V
ESTUDIO V 243
XI/ ESTUDIO V
ESTUDIO V 245
11.1. ABSTRACT
11.2. INTRODUCTION
inorganic phosphate (Pi) after failure protocols (Gorostiaga et al., 2012) might
also affect the capacity of the central nervous system to voluntarily recruit the
motoneurons (i.e., central fatigue) due to an elevated firing frequency of afferent
group III/IV (Carroll et al., 2016; Gandevia, 2001; Macgregor & Hunter, 2018).
Therefore, it is plausible to speculate that failure and non-failure training protocols
would induce different levels of peripheral and central fatigue. However, the acute
and delayed central and peripherical fatigue have never been compared between
failure and non-failure training protocols.
The primary aim of the present study was to compare the acute (after each
training set) and delayed (1 h, 24 h and 48 h post-training) effect of failure and non-
failure protocols on peripheral and central fatigue. The secondary aim was to relate
the changes in the neuromuscular function with mechanical performance (velocity
loss during training and maximal isometric strength) and muscle damage (i.e., CK
and AST). The findings of the present study may help to explain the mechanism
underpinning the impairments in performance observed in previous studies after
protocols leading or not to failure (Gonzalez Badillo et al., 2016; Izquierdo, Ibañez,
González Badillo, et al. 2006).
11.3. METHODS
11.3.2. Subjects
Twelve male sport science students (age = 23.6 ± 1.5 years; height = 178.2 ±
6.6 cm; body mass: 76.5 ± 9.9 kg; SQ 1RM = 91.8 ± 16.7 kg; SQ 10RM = 69.6 ± 11.9
ESTUDIO V 249
kg) with at least one year of RT experience participated in this study. Subjects gave
their written informed consent to participate in this study, which was approved by
the local ethics committee and conducted in agreement with the last version of the
Declaration of Helsinki. None of the participants reported any history of injuries
or neuromuscular disorders that could influence the results of the present study.
Subjects were required to refrain from consuming caffeinated or alcoholic drinks or
exercise 48 h before and after each experimental session.
11.3.3. Procedures
2. Neuromuscular function
The twitch interpolation technique was used to assess voluntary activation
and muscle contractile properties. For this purpose, subjects were seated in a
custom made chair with both knees flexed at 90º and the torso restrained with
belts to avoid any displacement. The right leg was strapped to a force transducer
(NL63-200 Kg; Digitimer, Welwyn Garden City, United Kingdom) just above the
malleoli. Transcutaneous electrical muscle stimuli (200 μs) were delivered using
a constant-current stimulator (DS7AH, Digitimer Ltd, Welwyn Garden City,
Hertfordshire, United Kingdom). Rectangular (5 × 9 cm) self-adhesive surface
electrodes (Valutrode®, Axelagaard Manufacturing Co, Lystrup, Denmark) were
placed proximally (over the upper third of the muscle) and distally (just above
the patella) over the knee extensors. Single stimuli were delivered to the relaxed
muscle beginning at 100 mA and increasing by 20 mA until a plateau occurred in
twitch amplitude. Supramaximal stimulation was ensured by increasing the final
intensity by 30% (mean current = 339 ± 36 mA).
11.4. RESULTS
The analysis showed that MPV was reduced in the last set (6th) of the failure
protocol when compared to the first repetition of the training session (0.73 vs. 0.57
m·s1; p < 0.05), but remained unaltered in the non-failure (0.73 vs. 0.69 m·s-1; p >
0.05). Furthermore, the MPV differed between protocols in the last two sets of the
training (p < 0.05 for all comparisons; Table 13).
Both RT protocols showed a lower MVC after all sets and Post_24h compared
to PRE values (p < 0.05; Table 13). All the markers of peripheral fatigue (i.e., Db100,
Db10, Tw and the 10:100 ratio) were also reduced after both RT protocols from the
ESTUDIO V 253
1st set until Post_1h in comparison with PRE values (p < 0.05; Table 13). Of note is
that the reduction of peripheral markers was significantly higher after the failure
protocol when compared to non-failure protocol from the 3rd to the 6th set (p <
0.05; Table 13). The VA showed a reduction after both RT protocols from the 1st
set till Post_48h when compared to PRE values (p < 0.05; Table 13) indicating the
persistence of central fatigue even after two days of recovery.
Following the failure protocol, CK and AST values were significantly elevated
from Post_1h to Post_48h (p < 0.05; Table 13). In contrast, after the non-failure
protocol, both CK and AST were higher at Post_1h (p < 0.05) but not significant
differences were observed at Post_24h o Post_48h (p > 0.05; Table 13).
Figure 21. Comparison of maximal voluntary contraction (MVC; panel A), voluntary
activation (VA; panel B), potentiated low- frequency doublet (Db10Hz; panel C) and the
ratio of paired stimulation peak forces at 10 Hz over 100 Hz (10:100 ratio; Panel D) before
(PRE) and after performing 30 repetitions (POST_30reps) between both training protocols.
*, depicts significant differences from PRE values. #, shows significant differences between
both training protocols. Data are depicted as means and standard deviations.
Failure protocol. The changes in the MVC were significantly correlated with
those observed in the Db10Hz at Post_1h, Post_24h and Post_48h (r = 0.693, 0.753
and 0.567, respectively; all p < 0.05). Our results also revealed significant correlations
between CK and MVC at Post_1h and Post_48h (r = -0.548 and -0.608 respectively;
both p < 0.05). Moreover, VA changes were significantly associated with those
observed in MVC at Post_24h and Post_48h (r = 0.564 and 0.569, respectively; both
p < 0.05). Finally, the analysis also showed significant correlations between the
changes in CK and VA at Post_24h (r = -0.552; p = 0.031). The remaining correlations
did not reach statistical significance (p > 0.05).
11.5. DISCUSSION
TThis study shows the acute and delayed effects of two RT protocols with
different set configurations, leading or not to failure, on mechanical performance,
central and peripheral factors of fatigue and biomarkers of muscle damage. The
main findings were as follows: (i) only the failure protocols induced a marked
decrease in MV during the 5th and 6th sets, (ii) both training protocols produced
a significant loss of MVC that remained depressed even 24h post training, (iii) the
failure protocol produced higher levels of peripheral fatigue in comparison to the
non-failure protocol, (iv) the decrease in muscle contractile properties due to the
peripheral fatigue was present 1 hour after training for both RT protocols; (v) VA
was reduced even after 48h post-training indicating the inability of the nervous
system to fully recruit the motor neuron pool, and (vi) the failure protocol induced
higher levels of muscle damage than the non-failure protocol, as evidenced by the
greater and more prolonged increase in both CK and AST biomarkers.
Low frequency fatigue also played a key role in the changes observed in the
MVC after both training protocols. This was evidenced by the correlations between
the changes observed in the Db10Hz and those observed in the MVC at Post_1h,
Post_24h and Post_48h. The amount of peripheral fatigue that occurs during a
workout is a major contributor to the amount of muscle damage experienced post
training, due to the effects of calcium ion accumulation in stimulating proteolytic
enzymes that damage the inside of the cell membrane (Zhang et al., 2008). This is in
agreement with the data obtained in the present study, which showed significantly
higher CK and AST values after the failure protocol compared to the non-failure
protocol. Indeed, our results are in line with those reported by Moran Navarro
et al (2017) who revealed that CK concentration was the biochemical parameter
most related to the mechanical variables (e.g.: bar velocity against a given load)
measured following RT protocols leading or not to muscle failure.
258 JORGE MIGUEL GONZÁLEZ HERNÁNDEZ
A limitation of the present study is that the total volume of both protocols
was not matched. However, a previous study indicated that training to failure, even
when compared to a volume-matched not failure protocol, resulted in a significantly
higher acute decline of neuromuscular performance assessed through the recording
of movement velocity (Navarro et al., 2017). Furthermore, the complementary
ESTUDIO V 259
analysis performed in the present study demonstrated that, even when the volume
is matched (i.e., 30 repetitions), subjects experienced higher amounts of peripheral
fatigue after the protocol that led to muscle failure. This reinforces the findings
of previous studies that, independently of the volume, training to muscle failure
might significantly slow down the recovery of biochemical homeostasis (i.e., CK)
and mechanical performance (Gonzalez Badillo et al., 2016; Navarro et al., 2017).
Future studies should test whether the manipulation of training volume may affect
the delayed response of the central and peripheral markers of muscle fatigue after
protocols leading or not to failure.
Our findings provide new physiological and neuromuscular data that could
contribute to a more adequate strength training prescription. In summary, the current
study revealed that a non-failure protocol is associated with less impairment in the
muscle contractile properties compared to a failure protocol, which may explain
the differences in MV during training. Furthermore, it was shown that the higher
the peripheral fatigue the greater the amount of muscle damage experienced by the
subjects. Indeed, both RT protocols led to a reduction in the MVC and a long-lasting
depression (up to 48 hours) of the VA, showing the inability of the subjects to fully
recruit the motor neuron pool. Therefore, coaches and athletes are encouraged to
use non-failure protocols to reduce peripherical fatigue and muscle damage, while
the central fatigue does not seem to affected by the set configuration.
Acknowledgment
We are grateful to all the subject that took part in this study.
XII
Discusión general
DISCUSIÓN GENERAL 263
cómo el valor de velocidad al inicio de cada serie no coincide, siendo más alto en
la primera serie, sobre todo cuando se entrena hasta el fallo. En contra posición, el
valor de la repetición mas lenta, si suele ser similar entre series, sobre todo al agotar
todas las repeticiones posibles. Esto provoca, que las primeras series experimenten
una pérdida de velocidad mayor que las últimas, puesto que hay mas diferencia
entre la velocidad de la repetición más rápida y la más lenta de cada serie, pudiendo
dar a entender que la primera serie genera más fatiga que la última.
De esta forma se tiene en cuenta como afecta la fatiga durante las recuperaciones
y se puede observar como aumenta el valor de perdida de velocidad a medida que
completamos más series. (Figura 22)
268 JORGE MIGUEL GONZÁLEZ HERNÁNDEZ
cada dos repeticiones en el ejercicio de Jump Squat con la carga óptima de salto.
Estos investigadores reportaron PAP a los 30 segundos 4 y 8 minutos para ambos
protocolos, pero la configuración Cluster presentó mayores niveles en cada uno de
estos puntos temporales.
12.1.3. Perfil Fv
más que nuestro protocolo, nos llama la atención que, presentando una perdida de
velocidad de ejecución similar, exista una diferencia de casi el doble en cuanto a la
acumulación de lactato. Esta discrepancia quizás sea debida a la diferencia entre las
características de los sujetos que han tomado parte en cada estudio, pudiendo estar
nuestros sujetos más familiarizados a entrenar con este tipo de cargas.
Por otro lado, cabe señalar que el estrés metabólico se considera uno de los
principales mecanismos responsables de la hipertrofia muscular (Schoenfeld, 2013);
en consecuencia, el menor estrés metabólico inducido por las configuraciones las
series en Cluster con amplios tiempos de recuperación, podría no estar aconsejado
cuando se requiera inducir adaptaciones hipertróficas (Girman et al., 2014; Oliver
et al., 2015a). Según esta idea, el protocolo CL2 (15 segundos de IRR) puede ser
preferible al protocolo CL3 (30 segundos de IRR) al inducir un mayor estrés
metabólico con un rendimiento mecánico similar. Estos resultados evidencian
que un protocolo u otro debe ser elegido en función de la respuesta que se quiera
inducir.
En lo que se refiere al daño muscular, hemos elegido la CK, AST y LDH cómo
indicadores de este efecto. Para ello, diseñamos una primera investigación, Estudio
IV, en la que inducimos un esfuerzo exacerbado a través de un entrenamiento de
fuerza excéntrico acentuado con el 120%del RM en sentadilla. Tras 8 series de 10
repeticiones, evaluamos en suero y saliva el daño muscular a las 24 y 96h post.
Con la intención de comprobar la dinámica de la respuesta para la CK, AST y LDH
en suero y saliva y estudiar la posible fiabilidad de la saliva para detectar el daño
muscular tras el entrenamiento de fuerza.
reportar valores más altos de CK en comparación con los hombres con menor masa
muscular (Brancaccio et al., 2010; Hunter, 2014; Raeder et al., 2016). Sin embargo,
en el presente estudio no se observaron diferencias significativas en la respuesta de
los marcadores de daño muscular entre hombres y mujeres y, en consecuencia, se
agruparon los datos de ambos sexos para realizar análisis estadísticos. De acuerdo
con nuestros resultados, Clarkson et al. (2006) informaron de una alta variabilidad
en las respuestas individuales de CK, AST y LDH después de un entrenamiento
de contracción excéntrica de flexión del codo. La alta variabilidad interindividual
observada en la respuesta a los protocolos de entrenamiento excéntrico acentuado
sugiere que los entrenadores no pueden extrapolar los resultados reportados en la
literatura a sus atletas (Hortobágyi & Denahan, 1989; Joonyoung & Joohyung, 2015;
Koch et al., 2014) y destacan la recomendación de una monitorización individual
de estos biomarcadores comparándolos respecto a los valores de referencia del
individuo.
post entrenamiento, lo que indica la incapacidad del sistema nervioso para reclutar
plenamente el conjunto de motoneuronas; (V) por último, los resultados actuales
muestran que la configuración del entrenamiento hasta el fallo indujo niveles más
altos de daño muscular que el protocolo hasta el no fallo, como lo demuestra el
incremento significativo de los biomarcadores CK y AST después del protocolo de
mayor exigencia, siendo el pico a las 24 h post (CK: 44s UI/L vs 532UI/L y AST:
33,4 UI/L vs 38UI/L).
Dado que los entrenamientos de gran volumen están asociados con mayores
cantidades de fatiga periférica y daño muscular (Marquez et al., 2016; Navarro et al.,
2017), parece plausible que exista una relación entre la cantidad de daño muscular
que se produce en un entrenamiento y la cantidad de fatiga central experimentada.
En relación con esto, nuestro análisis reveló una correlación significativa entre los
cambios en la CK y la activación voluntaria 24 horas después del entrenamiento
hasta el fallo. Además, también se encontraron correlaciones significativas entre los
cambios en activación y contracción voluntarias máxima 24 y 48 horas después del
282 JORGE MIGUEL GONZÁLEZ HERNÁNDEZ
XIII
Conclusiones
CONCLUSIONES 287
XIII/ CONCLUSIONES
Estudio I:
• Los diferentes protocolos de Cluster con tiempo de recuperación entre
repeticiones que hemos estudiado (IRR 10, 15 y 30 segundos) han reportado
significativamente menos fatiga mecánica, metabólica y perceptual tras
una sesión de entrenamiento en sentadilla de 3 series de 10 repeticiones
con la carga del 10RM que el entrenamiento tradicional de repeticiones
continuas.
• Entrenar con la mitad del carácter del esfuerzo, sin llegar al fallo, produce
mejor rendimiento durante la sesión y menor fatiga mecánica, metabólica
y perceptual (fallo TR1: 3x10) vs no al fallo TR2:6x5)
Estudio II:
• Es necesario expresar los resultados del ácido úrico en saliva sin corregir
(mg/dL) los valores obtenidos para que se correlacione con los valores
de este metabolito en sangre tras el entrenamiento de fuerza al fallo y no
fallo.
Estudio III:
• El entrenamiento de fuerza estudiado, (3 series de 5 repeticiones) en
sentadilla y press de banca con la mitad del carácter del esfuerzo,
experimentó significativamente valores más bajos de velocidad cuando
se realizaban recuperaciones entre serie de 1 min, frente a los protocolos
de 3 y 5 min.
Estudio IV:
• El entrenamiento de fuerza excéntrico acentuado en sentadillas con el
120% del RM ha reportado valores máximos de CK, AST y LDH para
sangre y saliva a las 96 h post entrenamiento
Estudio V:
• Entrenar hasta el fallo (6 series de 10 repeticiones) produce una
disminución significativa de la velocidad de ejecución durante la quinta
y sexta serie.
XIV
Aplicaciones prácticas
APLICACIONES PRÁCTICAS 295
Estudio I:
• Introducir tiempo de recuperación entre series es una estrategia validad
para desarrollar un mejor rendimiento en cuanto a velocidad de ejecución
en el entrenamiento de fuerza en sentadillas.
Estudio II:
• La utilización de la saliva para la determinación del estrés metabólico a
partir del ácido úrico tras el entrenamiento de fuerza se presenta como
una propuesta válida, barata, rápida e indolora. Lo que supone ventajas
a la hora de conocer el efecto producido por el entrenamiento, frente al
296 JORGE MIGUEL GONZÁLEZ HERNÁNDEZ
• Para que el uso de la saliva sea fiable, se hace necesario utilizar los
valores absolutos (mg/dL) sin necesidad de normalizar por flujo salival
o proteina total.
Estudio III:
• Recuperaciones de 1 minuto no son suficientes para mantener el
rendimiento en sentadilla y press de banca cuando se entrena con la
mitad del carácter del esfuerzo.
Estudio IV:
• La medición de marcadores de daño muscular en saliva tras el
entrenamiento de fuerza no son fiables, por lo que se deben medir en
suero.
Estudio V:
• Entrenar sin llegar al fallo permite un mejor rendimiento en cuanto a la
velocidad de ejecución durante el entrenamiento de fuerza en sentadilla.
XV/ LIMITACIONES
Para todos los estudios, las participantes han sido estudiantes de educación
física, por lo que es osado pensar que los datos de esta tesis se pueden extrapolar a
cualquier otro sector de la población.
También sería interesante comparar las mediciones de suero y saliva con las
extracciones de biopsia (método Gold Standard en evaluación del daño muscular)
para determinar cuál de los dos métodos (suero y saliva) proporciona una mejor
representación del daño muscular inducido por el ejercicio físico. Además, los
estudios que involucran puntos de tiempo más largos habrían sido aconsejables
para evaluar si existe una mayor correlación entre las mediciones de saliva y suero
después del daño muscular en esos puntos temporales.
308 JORGE MIGUEL GONZÁLEZ HERNÁNDEZ
Por otro lado, otros estudios deberían evaluar si la manipulación del volumen
de entrenamiento puede afectar la respuesta tardía de los indicadores de fatiga
central y periférica tras el entrenamiento al fallo y no fallo.
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XVIII
Anexos
ANEXOS 365
XVIII/ ANEXOS
Publicaciones Científicas:
Estudio I
Estado: Publicado (2020) 34(6), 1581-1590.
Título: Mechanical, metabolic, and perceptual acute responses to different set
configurations in full squat.
Autores:González-Hernádez, J., García-Ramos, A., Capelo-Ramírez, F., Castaño-
Zambudio, A., Marquez, G., Boullosa, D., & Jiménez-Reyes, P
Revista: Journal of Strength and Conditional Research Q1
Estudio II
Estado: Publicado (2019). 8(9), 389.
Título: Influence of Sampling Conditions, Salivary Flow, and Total Protein Content
in Uric Acid Measurements in Saliva.
Autores: Jorge M González-Hernández, Lorena Franco, David Colomer-Poveda,
Silvia Martinez-Subiela, Ramón Cugat, José J Cerón, Gonzalo Márquez, Luis M
Martínez-Aranda, Pedro Jimenez-Reyes and Asta Tvarijonaviciute
Revista: Antioxidants Q1
Estudio III
Estado: Aceptado
Título: Effect of different interset rest intervals on movement velocity during the
squat and bench press exercises
Autores: Jorge M González-Hernández, Pedro Jiménez-Reyes, Danica Janicijevic,
James J Tufano, Gonzalo Márquez, Amador García-Ramos
Revista: Sport Biomechanics Q2
Estudio IV
Estado: En Revisión
Título: Response of muscle damage markers in serum and saliva to an accentuated
366 JORGE MIGUEL GONZÁLEZ HERNÁNDEZ
Estudio V
Estado: En Revision
Título: Resistance training to failure vs. not to failure: acute and delayed markers of
mechanical, neuromuscular and biochemical fatigue
Autores: Jorge M González-Hernández, Amador García-Ramos, David Colomer-
Poveda, Asta Tvarijonaviciute, José Cerón, Pedro Jiménez-Reyes, Gonzalo Márquez.
Revista: Journal of Strength and Conditional Research Q1
ANEXOS 367
Estudio I
368 JORGE MIGUEL GONZÁLEZ HERNÁNDEZ
ANEXOS 369
370 JORGE MIGUEL GONZÁLEZ HERNÁNDEZ
ANEXOS 371
372 JORGE MIGUEL GONZÁLEZ HERNÁNDEZ
ANEXOS 373
374 JORGE MIGUEL GONZÁLEZ HERNÁNDEZ
ANEXOS 375
376 JORGE MIGUEL GONZÁLEZ HERNÁNDEZ
ANEXOS 377
Estudio II
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ANEXOS 379
380 JORGE MIGUEL GONZÁLEZ HERNÁNDEZ
ANEXOS 381
382 JORGE MIGUEL GONZÁLEZ HERNÁNDEZ
ANEXOS 383
384 JORGE MIGUEL GONZÁLEZ HERNÁNDEZ
ANEXOS 385
Estudio III
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ANEXOS 387
388 JORGE MIGUEL GONZÁLEZ HERNÁNDEZ
ANEXOS 389
390 JORGE MIGUEL GONZÁLEZ HERNÁNDEZ
ANEXOS 391
392 JORGE MIGUEL GONZÁLEZ HERNÁNDEZ
ANEXOS 393
394 JORGE MIGUEL GONZÁLEZ HERNÁNDEZ
ANEXOS 395
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ANEXOS 397
398 JORGE MIGUEL GONZÁLEZ HERNÁNDEZ
ANEXOS 399
Título del trabajo: Acute and Delayed Knee Extensor Fatigue and Muscle Damage
Following Resistance Training Leading or Not to Failure in Men vs Women
Nombre del congreso: Simposio Internacional de Actualizaciones en el
Entrenamiento de Fuerza
Autor de correspondencia: Si
Ciudad de celebración: Madrid, Comunidad de Madrid, España
Fecha de celebración: 14/12/2018
Fecha de finalización: 15/12/2018
Entidad organizadora: Universidad Politécnica de Madrid
Ciudad entidad organizadora: Madrid, Comunidad de Madrid, España
Jorge Miguel González Hernández; David Colomer Poveda; Asta Tvarijonaviciute;
José Joaquin Cerón; Gonzalo Márquez Sánchez; Pedro Jiménez Reyes.
Título del trabajo: Acute and Delayed Knee Extensor Fatigue and Muscle Damage
Following Resistance Training Leading or Not to Failure
Nombre del congreso: X Congreso Internacional de la Asociación Española de
Ciencias del Deporte (AECCD)
Autor de correspondencia: Si
Ciudad de celebración: A Coruña, Galicia, España
Fecha de celebración: 21/11/2018
Fecha de finalización: 23/11/2018
Entidad organizadora: Instituto Nacional de Educación Física de Galicia (INEFG)
Ciudad entidad organizadora: A Coruña, Galicia, España
Jorge Miguel González Hernández; David Colomer Poveda; Asta Tvarijonaviciute;
José Joaquin Cerón; Pedro Jiménez Reyes; Gonzalo Márquez Sánchez.
Título del trabajo: Acute and Delayed Knee Extensor Fatigue and Muscle Damage
Following Resistance Training Leading or Not to Failure
Nombre del congreso: 23rd Annual Congress of the European College of Sport
Science
Autor de correspondencia: Si
Ciudad de celebración: Dublin, Irlanda
400 JORGE MIGUEL GONZÁLEZ HERNÁNDEZ
Consentimientos informados
402 JORGE MIGUEL GONZÁLEZ HERNÁNDEZ
ANEXOS 403
404 JORGE MIGUEL GONZÁLEZ HERNÁNDEZ
ANEXOS 405
406 JORGE MIGUEL GONZÁLEZ HERNÁNDEZ
Estancia Internacional
ANEXOS 407