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Cómo citar
Rodríguez Martínez, Pilar (2015). «Un análisis interseccional sobre malos tratos y violencia laboral
en mujeres que ejercen la prostitución». Revista Española de Investigaciones Sociológicas,
151: 123-140.
(http://dx.doi.org/10.5477/cis/reis.151.123)
Reis. Rev.Esp.Investig.Sociol. ISSN-L: 0210-5233. Nº 151, Julio - Septiembre 2015, pp. 123-140
124 Un análisis interseccional sobre malos tratos y violencia laboral en mujeres que ejercen la prostitución
Reis. Rev.Esp.Investig.Sociol. ISSN-L: 0210-5233. Nº 151, Julio - Septiembre 2015, pp. 123-140
Pilar Rodríguez Martínez 125
la violencia contra las mujeres (especialmen- genes sociales para des-cubrir los límites de
te la violencia física) es mera expresión de la las concepciones dominantes sobre la discri-
desigualdad entre los sexos-géneros (Rodrí- minación, que llevan a pensar sobre la subor-
guez, 2010). dinación y la desventaja social de las mujeres
También tenemos en cuenta los resulta- a partir de una única categoría social. Y es
dos del análisis de los datos basados en en- que los estudios —y las políticas— sobre ma-
cuestas representativas que —en países los tratos en el ámbito doméstico suelen cen-
como Gran Bretaña o Estados Unidos— se- trarse en mujeres que o bien son amas de
ñalan que los grupos de mujeres de nivel so- casa, o bien desempeñan trabajos que no
cioeconómico bajo tienen más probabilidad cuestionan el rol tradicional de mujeres.
de experimentar la violencia física por parte
de sus parejas o ex parejas (Resko, 2007;
Walby y Allen, 2004). Recientemente se ha VIOLENCIA LABORAL Y MALOS
difundido una encuesta europea sobre preva- TRATOS EN EL ÁMBITO DOMÉSTICO
lencia de la violencia contra las mujeres rea- HACIA MUJERES QUE EJERCEN
lizada por la European Union Agency for Fun- LA PROSTITUCIÓN
damental Rights (2014), basada en 42.000 Está demostrado que, en las sociedades ac-
entrevistas a mujeres de 28 países. El análisis tuales, las mujeres que ejercen la prostitu-
de los resultados de esa encuesta corrobora ción sufren más violencia que las mujeres
que existen diferencias estadísticamente sig- que no lo hacen. Prueba de ello es que están
nificativas en cuanto a la prevalencia de la desproporcionalmente representadas entre
violencia física y sexual entre las mujeres las mujeres que han sido víctimas de asesi-
europeas. Esas diferencias están relaciona- nato, como Lowman ha demostrado para el
das con la orientación sexual, la discapaci- caso de Canadá, desde 1992 a 1998 (Low-
dad, la edad, el nivel educativo, los ingresos, man, 2000), y Potterat, Brewer et al. han con-
la inserción en el mercado laboral y la ocupa- cluido para el caso de Colorado Springs (Es-
ción. Y apenas están relacionadas con ser tados Unidos), desde 1967 a 1999 (Potterat,
migrante o autóctona, como otros estudios Brewer et al., 2004), y lo mismo ocurre en
ya habían señalado (Rodríguez, 2014). otras ciudades y países.
En esta investigación se ha trabajado Los estudios señalan que las mujeres
también con un concepto de violencia que que ejercen la prostitución han sufrido vio-
tiene en cuenta elementos del nivel micro y lencia física y psíquica, agresiones y viola-
macroestructural, y que permite entender las ciones, además del asesinato. Por ejemplo,
desigualdades en la consideración social de en el estudio de Farley y Barkan en San
las violencias y de las mujeres. Se considera Francisco, el 82% de la población adulta de
que las conductas violentas hay que anali- mujeres que ejercían la prostitución en su
zarlas en el marco de una web de violencias muestra (130) había sido asaltada físicamen-
(Kurtz y Turpin, 1997) pues, en nuestra socie- te, el 83% había sido amenazada con un
dad, hay determinados grupos de mujeres arma, y el 68% había sido violadas (Farley y
que, debido a determinadas condiciones Barkan, 1998). En España, los estudios arro-
personales o sociales, tienen más posibilida- jan conclusiones semejantes. Por ejemplo,
des de sufrir violencia (Lombardo, 2009; de las 24 prostitutas que componían la
Sokoloff y Dupont, 2005: 41). muestra de Barbelet, 16 habían sufrido vio-
Como es habitual en los análisis intersec- laciones, agresiones físicas y psicológicas,
cionales (Choo y Ferree, 2010), aquí se toma robos y engaños en lo acordado (Barberet,
como sujeto de estudio a mujeres de los már- 1996: 3).
Reis. Rev.Esp.Investig.Sociol. ISSN-L: 0210-5233. Nº 151, Julio - Septiembre 2015, pp. 123-140
126 Un análisis interseccional sobre malos tratos y violencia laboral en mujeres que ejercen la prostitución
Los estudios que atienden a los lugares que aborde ambas violencias. Mediante en-
donde se ejerce la prostitución destacan que trevistas semiestructuradas a 76 mujeres mi-
las mujeres que trabajan en la calle son las grantes y 7 españolas del municipio de Mar-
que más violencia física han sufrido, de bella, Quiles señala que un 45% había sufrido
modo que la mayoría de ellas han sido viola- «falta de respeto» por su condición de prosti-
das o agredidas en alguna ocasión (Miller y tutas, un 32,5% de las mujeres había sufrido
Schwartz, 1995; Lalor, 2000; Barnard, 1993; violencia física y psíquica en sus lugares de
Penfold et al., 2004). Y las que trabajan en trabajo, y un 20,5% había sufrido malos tratos
lugares cerrados no han sufrido violencia fí- en el ámbito privado (Quiles, 2007: 4). Esos
sica en tantas ocasiones como las que tra- datos demuestran que las mujeres que ejer-
bajan en la calle (Church et al., 2001). La cen la prostitución constituyen un claro ejem-
violencia que sufren las mujeres que ejercen plo de «víctimas múltiples» que, como seña-
la prostitución suele provenir de chulos, lara Barbelet, se caracterizan por «tener una
proxenetas, dueños de clubes, traficantes de elevada probabilidad de ser víctima de gran
drogas, transeúntes, o incluso policías, pero número de delitos de diverso tipo» (Barberet,
los estudios coinciden en señalar que la ma- 1996: 2).
yor parte de las veces proviene de los clien-
tes (Lowman, 2000; Church et al., 2001; Bar-
nard, 1993; Kurtz et al., 2004; Monto, 2004). OBJETIVOS
Así que las mujeres que ejercen la prosti-
tución sufren más violencia que la media de El objetivo de este estudio es tratar de enten-
las mujeres en las sociedades actuales. Las der la experiencia sobre los malos tratos en el
autoras explican esa diferencia aludiendo al ámbito doméstico y la violencia laboral en una
estigma social (Vanwesenbeeck, 2001: 267- muestra teórica de mujeres migrantes (africa-
268). El estigma social distribuye a las muje- nas y europeas del Este) y españolas, aplican-
res en dos grupos: «decentes» y «putas». En do el análisis interseccional como análisis
un extremo tendríamos a las mujeres «decen- multinivel (Winker y Delege, 2011) y focalizado
tes», que serían aquellas que mantienen rela- en las perspectivas de grupos que experi-
ciones sexuales únicamente en el marco del mentan múltiples marginalidades (Choo y Fe-
matrimonio institucionalizado. En el otro ex- rree, 2010). Nuestra propuesta es innovadora
tremo estarían las «putas», aquellas mujeres en un doble aspecto. Por un lado, desarrolla-
que mantienen relaciones sexuales a cambio mos un análisis cualitativo de los discursos
de dinero. Esa «indeseable diferencia» (Goff- sobre la violencia de mujeres que ejercen la
man, 2006: 15) hace que las mujeres que ejer- prostitución y han sufrido malos tratos en el
cen la prostitución encuentren serias dificul- ámbito doméstico, que parte de las prácticas
tades para demostrar que han sufrido abusos sociales y permite reconstruir las identidades
sexuales o, incluso, que han sido violadas de las mujeres, así como las estructuras y
(Phetherson, 2000: 101-103). Según Juliano, normas sociales sobre los malos tratos en el
el estigma permite también «aumentar el po- ámbito doméstico y la violencia laboral. La
der de los clientes en su trato con las trabaja- segunda innovación que ofrece nuestro traba-
doras sexuales y garantizar su impunidad en jo es que se trata de un análisis combinado de
caso de conflicto» (Juliano, 2004: 129). violencias que nos permite explorar el alcance
Sin embargo, pocos estudios han tratado de la violencia laboral en comparación con la
de investigar si las mujeres que ejercen la violencia en el ámbito doméstico.
prostitución han sufrido en algún momento de En concreto, siguiendo el análisis inter-
sus vidas malos tratos en la pareja o expareja. seccional multinivel, las preguntas que guían
Solo hemos encontrado un estudio reciente esta investigación son las siguientes: ¿con
Reis. Rev.Esp.Investig.Sociol. ISSN-L: 0210-5233. Nº 151, Julio - Septiembre 2015, pp. 123-140
Pilar Rodríguez Martínez 127
qué categoría de mujer se identifican las mu- por doce mujeres que han sufrido violencia
jeres que ejercen la prostitución y que han ejerciendo la prostitución y que, además,
sufrido malos tratos en el ámbito doméstico? han sufrido malos tratos en la pareja. Para
¿Qué normas, principios y patrones interpre- construir la muestra teórica, se han utiliza-
tativos sobre la violencia contra las mujeres do varios criterios para seleccionar a las
—doméstica y laboral— les afectan? ¿Qué entrevistadas. El primer criterio ha sido la
tipo de violencia laboral experimentan? nacionalidad de origen. Se ha diferenciado
¿Cuáles son los contextos estructurales de entre las que provienen de España (4) y las
referencia en su interpretación sobre la vio- migrantes de origen africano (4) y de los
lencia que experimentan? países del Este (4). También se ha tenido
Siguiendo la propuesta teórica y metodo- en cuenta, por un lado, el nivel de estudios
lógica de Crenshaw (1989), Choo y Ferree y, por otro, el estado civil, la edad y el nú-
(2010) y Winker y Delege (2011) se han ex- mero de hijos. Atendiendo a los resultados
plorado los discursos de las mujeres aten- de las investigaciones antes citadas (Euro-
diendo a tres niveles de análisis. En el prime- pean Union Agency for Fundamental
ro, se trata de deconstruir la categoría de Rights, 2014; Resko, 2007; Walby y Allen,
«mujer» (blanca, heterosexual y de clase me- 2004), cabe esperar que las mujeres que
dia) que subyace en los discursos feministas tienen un nivel de estudios superior, son
dominantes (complejidad anticategorial); en solteras, jóvenes y sin hijos, hayan experi-
el segundo, se pretende documentar las re- mentado menos situaciones violentas en el
laciones de desigualdad entre los grupos ámbito laboral.
sociales basadas en el sexo-género, la clase La búsqueda concreta de las entrevista-
social o la raza (complejidad intercategorial); das se ha llevado a cabo contactando con
y, en el tercero, entender las formas cam- las ONG que trabajan ofreciendo algún tipo
biantes de la complejidad centrándose en las de servicio a las mujeres prostitutas (reparto
trayectorias de las personas que cruzan las de condones, oferta de pisos para mujeres
barreras de categorías construidas (comple- que deciden abandonar la prostitución, ase-
jidad intracategorial). En nuestro caso, el pri- soría jurídica, apoyo a las mujeres traficadas,
mer nivel de análisis (complejidad anticate- etc)3. Puesto que las ONG trabajan con mu-
gorial) se refiere a cómo se definen estas jeres que ejercen la prostitución de bajo
«víctimas múltiples» respecto a la categoría standing, las mujeres de nuestra muestra
hegemónica de «mujer decente». El segundo tienen experiencia principalmente con ese
nivel de análisis plantea las posibles interac- tipo de trabajos. Solo una de ellas trabaja
ciones entre violencia en el ámbito domésti- ofreciendo personalmente sus servicios a
co y en el laboral dependiendo de las trayec- través de Internet. En el anexo 1 se presen-
torias de las mujeres (complejidad tan las características sociodemográficas de
intracategorial). En el tercer nivel de análisis las entrevistadas.
se alude al tipo de violencia laboral, teniendo Se ha utilizado como técnica de investi-
en cuenta los grupos de pertenencia de las gación la entrevista semiestructurada. La
mujeres y la consideración social de la pros- duración de las entrevistas realizadas oscila
titución (complejidad intercategorial). entre una hora y hora y media, y en ellas se
Reis. Rev.Esp.Investig.Sociol. ISSN-L: 0210-5233. Nº 151, Julio - Septiembre 2015, pp. 123-140
128 Un análisis interseccional sobre malos tratos y violencia laboral en mujeres que ejercen la prostitución
abordan cuestiones relacionadas con tres De ese modo, y basándonos en sus dis-
grandes dimensiones: percepción de la vio- cursos, clasificamos los agentes y los tipos
lencia, violencia en el trabajo y malos tratos de violencia. Identificamos los siguientes
en el ámbito doméstico, y recursos para en- agentes: los clientes, las compañeras de tra-
frentar la violencia. Las entrevistas han sido bajo, los dueños de los clubes, los chulos y
elaboradas en castellano, transcritas y codi- la policía. Los agentes más frecuentemente
ficadas mediante el software Nudist N-Vivo. implicados son los clientes. La violencia con
Dicho software nos ha permitido, en un pri- las compañeras de trabajo es también bas-
mer momento, seleccionar los textos referi- tante frecuente, siendo mucho menos co-
dos a una serie de «nodos» que se corres- mún la violencia que experimentaron con los
pondían con el desarrollo del guión de la dueños de clubes y chulos. La policía es el
entrevista. Para el análisis que aquí desarro- agente menos nombrado. Los tipos de vio-
llamos escogimos trabajar con los siguientes: lencia relacionados con el trabajo que apare-
«opinión sobre la prostitución», «sueños y cen reflejados en las entrevistas son: abuso
expectativas», «inicio en la prostitución», verbal, chantaje sexual, agresión sexual y
«comparación violencia doméstica y laboral» violación. Como se puede observar en el
y «violencias sufridas durante el ejercicio de anexo 1, las que tienen niveles de estudios
la prostitución». Evidentemente, los «nodos» altos afirman haber sufrido menos tipos de
con los que hemos trabajado más intensa- violencia que las que tienen nivel de estudios
mente no agotan la totalidad de las categori- bajos y medios.
zaciones que se llevaron a cabo atendiendo
al guión de las entrevistas en un primer mo-
mento. Tanto la selección de los nodos como RESULTADOS
el análisis de los mismos es resultado de un
proceso en el que ha sido necesario recons- Seguidamente se van a presentar los resul-
truir las trayectorias descritas en las entrevis- tados de la investigación. Para que el lector/a
tas para entender mejor el inicio del trabajo pueda seguir mejor la presentación, hemos
en la prostitución o volver a las entrevistas realizado el cuadro 1, donde presentamos
originales para categorizar mejor los tipos de los niveles de análisis, el objeto de este y los
violencia. principales resultados obtenidos.
Nivel intracategorial Interacciones entre las violencias (domés- Las trayectorias y los contextos indican
tica y laboral) en relación al inicio del ejer- webs de violencia diferentes, que llevan a
cicio de la prostitución. interpretar los malos tratos en el ámbito
doméstico de distinto modo.
Nivel intercategorial Diferencia entre las mujeres en los tipos El estigma social, la edad y el nivel de es-
de violencia laboral experimentada y en la tudios están estrechamente relacionados
intensidad de la violencia. con la percepción que las mujeres tienen
de la actividad que desarrollan y con la
posibilidad de sufrir violencia en el trabajo.
Fuente: Elaboración propia.
Reis. Rev.Esp.Investig.Sociol. ISSN-L: 0210-5233. Nº 151, Julio - Septiembre 2015, pp. 123-140
Pilar Rodríguez Martínez 129
Reis. Rev.Esp.Investig.Sociol. ISSN-L: 0210-5233. Nº 151, Julio - Septiembre 2015, pp. 123-140
130 Un análisis interseccional sobre malos tratos y violencia laboral en mujeres que ejercen la prostitución
usan más para definirse es «tranquila». La En contraste con las españolas, en los
tranquilidad con la que sueñan se refiere a lo discursos de las mujeres migrantes los ma-
laboral (un trabajo estable) y a lo personal los tratos en el ámbito doméstico no están
(armonía en una familia, con sus hijos, con un relacionados con el inicio de su trabajo en la
esposo). Pero para ellas tiene una significa- prostitución. Nos gustaría destacar el caso
ción especial: una vida sin violencias. de Ana María, la rumana de 25 años y sin
hijos. Llegó a España con 19 años y a esa
edad ya había sufrido malos tratos psicoló-
COMPLEJIDAD INTRACATEGORIAL gicos por parte de su novio en Bucarest.
Para ella, la relación con aquel chico con-
La violencia doméstica y laboral que estas trasta con el mundo que se le abría al descu-
mujeres han experimentado no debería ser brir que podía ganar tanto dinero. Ana María
simultánea, pues, en principio, el rol de mujer tenía una hermana en Almería y decidió ir a
«decente» y el de «puta» son contradictorios, visitarla. Se enamoró de otro chico que la
por lo que los malos tratos en la pareja ocu- trataba bien y decidió no volver a su país.
rrirían cuando las mujeres desarrollan el rol Después de un tiempo sin trabajo, empezó a
de «mujeres decentes» y la violencia laboral trabajar en un club y, más tarde, volvió a tra-
cuando desempeñan el rol de «putas». Pero bajar dando masajes eróticos, primero en un
las cosas no son siempre así. Veamos más local y luego por su cuenta. Afirma, refirién-
detenidamente cómo suceden examinando dose al taxista: «yo, por su culpa, me fui de
algunos casos concretos. mi país…». Ana María establece una co-
En el caso de las españolas, Julia, de 43 nexión clara entre los malos tratos y el inicio
años y 2 hijos, sufrió malos tratos físicos y del proceso migratorio. En su caso, los ma-
psicológicos por parte de su marido durante los tratos suceden simultáneamente a su
15 años. Trabajaba en un Ayuntamiento como entrada a la prostitución, pero no la motivan.
limpiadora, pero tuvo que dejar el trabajo por- Y es que los malos tratos pueden constituir
que su marido la maltrataba. Julia denunció, la causa de la migración.
obtuvo la tutela de sus hijos y estuvo en una Entre las africanas tampoco observamos
casa de acogida en Almería. Después se mar- una relación de causalidad entre los malos
chó a Granada pero no tenía suficiente dinero tratos en el ámbito doméstico y el inicio en el
para mantener a sus hijos. Trabajó como ca- trabajo en la prostitución. Russ, la nigeriana
marera y, en un momento en el que estaba sin de 45 años y madre de 5 hijos, afirma que ha
trabajo, una amiga le sugirió que trabajara en sufrido malos tratos durante unos meses,
la prostitución. Al preguntarle por qué empezó una vez que estaba ejerciendo la prostitución
a trabajar en la prostitución, afirma que es en Almería. Según nos cuenta, tenía un clien-
«Por él, es que es todo por él». Julia, como te marroquí que empezó a «ayudarla» econó-
Carmen, llegó a desempeñar el rol de «puta» micamente a cambio de servicios sexuales.
porque los malos tratos que le propinaba su Con el paso de los meses, empezaron a
marido le impidieron desempeñar su rol de mantener una relación de «novios», y luego
mujer «decente». Las otras dos españolas (de empezaron los episodios de violencia. Según
30 y 28 años) experimentan un proceso se- cuenta ella, «él sintió que tenía derecho» a
mejante, que se precipita por el consumo de maltratarla. En una de esas situaciones, le
drogas. Para estas mujeres, la violencia en el dio una fuerte paliza. Ella no denunció, pero
ámbito doméstico y laboral se suceden y, se- terminó la relación. Y es que las africanas
gún afirman, los malos tratos en el ámbito entrevistadas llegaron a desempeñar el rol
doméstico constituyen la causa del inicio del de prostitutas tras la migración, debido prin-
trabajo en la prostitución. cipalmente a la necesidad económica. Los
Reis. Rev.Esp.Investig.Sociol. ISSN-L: 0210-5233. Nº 151, Julio - Septiembre 2015, pp. 123-140
Pilar Rodríguez Martínez 131
malos tratos que sufrió Russ ni causan su mientras se desarrolla una actividad ilícita.
inicio en la prostitución ni motivan su proce- La nigeriana Russ va más allá que Nora y
so migratorio. Ocurren con un ex cliente. Y, cuando le pedimos que compare la violencia
atendiendo a su discurso, empiezan a suce- en el ámbito doméstico y la laboral nos res-
der cuando inician la relación de «novios». ponde: «Yo soy mayor… yo pasar muchas
Este caso indica que la situación de malos cosas para venir, ¿sabes?» (Russ, 45 años,
tratos en el ámbito doméstico requiere de la Nigeria). Russ se refiere a la violencia que
existencia de una relación de pareja entre la experimentó durante su viaje en patera, en el
mujer y su agresor, situación que no se pro- que vio cómo morían algunas personas. Eso
duce cuando ellos son todavía clientes. hace que, cuando le preguntamos en el inicio
Como consecuencia, españolas, africa- de la entrevista si ha sufrido algún tipo de
nas y europeas del Este no otorgan el mismo violencia, obvie los malos tratos en el ámbito
peso al significado de los malos tratos en el doméstico y la violencia que ha experimen-
ámbito doméstico en relación a la violencia tado ejerciendo la prostitución, y conteste
que han recibido en el trabajo. Las españolas que la única violencia que ha experimentado
ponen énfasis en el hecho de que los malos ha sido durante su viaje a España:
tratos en el ámbito doméstico ocurren en el
espacio privado, íntimo, y son difíciles de R: He sufrido solamente para pasar a Europa
denunciar. A las migrantes de los países del (Russ, 45 años, Nigeria).
Este no parece importarles tanto el hecho de
que los malos tratos se produzcan en la inti- La respuesta de Russ tiene mucho interés
midad ni que sean difíciles de denunciar. Po- porque, aunque a lo largo de la entrevista
nen énfasis en lo que los malos tratos supu- nos cuenta que ha experimentado otras vio-
sieron para el desarrollo de su trayectoria lencias, su experiencia para llegar a España
personal y para su autoestima como muje- colapsa su discurso sobre la violencia. No
res. María destaca lo que perdió en términos suma las violencias que ha experimentado,
físicos y económicos: «Sí. Perdí todo lo que como plantearían los enfoques aditivos, sino
tenía (se ríe, nerviosa). Tenía tanto, perdí que la más fuerte eclipsa a las otras.
todo. Me quedé en los huesos, imagina la
Sin embargo, todas sueñan con un futuro
relación» (María, 37 años, Rusia). María había
«tranquilo», sin violencias, como destacába-
escapado de la red a la que denunció por
mos en el anterior epígrafe. Eso significa que
tráfico de personas. Los malos tratos le im-
la violencia que han experimentado en el ám-
pidieron continuar con éxito su proyecto mi-
bito doméstico (y que para las españolas y
gratorio. Ana María pone énfasis en las con-
de los países del Este es la que más impacto
secuencias que los malos tratos tuvieron de
ha tenido en sus vidas) se interpreta como
cara a su autoestima.
excepción y no como una parte esencial de
A diferencia de las españolas y las euro- la institución matrimonial. Como explicare-
peas del Este, las africanas piensan que los mos en lo que sigue, ese no es el caso de la
malos tratos no son tan importantes como violencia laboral.
otras violencias. Nora, que está viuda en la
actualidad, sufrió durante años los malos tra-
tos por parte de su marido, en Marruecos y COMPLEJIDAD INTERCATEGORIAL
en España. Sin embargo, considera que los
malos tratos constituyen una violencia «nor- Para nuestras entrevistadas, la violencia re-
mal» porque se dan en el marco del matrimo- lacionada con el ejercicio de la prostitución
nio, mientras que con los clientes se trata de tiene menos peso que la violencia derivada
una violencia que «está mal», porque ocurre de los malos tratos en el ámbito doméstico.
Reis. Rev.Esp.Investig.Sociol. ISSN-L: 0210-5233. Nº 151, Julio - Septiembre 2015, pp. 123-140
132 Un análisis interseccional sobre malos tratos y violencia laboral en mujeres que ejercen la prostitución
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Pilar Rodríguez Martínez 133
bién la violencia contra él. Pues ella no es cepto Lorena (la española de 28 años, nivel
una puta, sino una mujer que desempeña el de estudios superiores y sin hijos), el resto de
rol de puta. Y ese marco teatral debe ser res- las entrevistadas ha experimentado abuso
petado: «yo no le puedo decir a uno: mira verbal.
que estás muy feo, que hueles, que no me Como la mayoría de estas mujeres hace
gustas. No puedes, porque si le digo eso, lo servicios que terminan con eyaculación, el
ofendo» (Elisa, 30 años, Rumanía). abuso verbal ocurre cuando los clientes no
Como es sabido, en el ejercicio de la eyaculan. Filomena nos cuenta que, aunque
prostitución, antes de empezar el servicio, ella haya estableciendo el precio y el tiempo
las mujeres pactan el precio, el tipo de servi- del servicio, algunas veces abusan verbal-
cio que el cliente va a recibir y el tiempo que mente de ella. Nos explica también por qué
durará el servicio. De entre nuestras entrevis- piensa que algunos clientes abusan verbal-
tadas, Ana María es la que tiene un discurso mente de ella, y cómo reacciona general-
más elaborado sobre dónde termina el servi- mente ante los abusos: «puede que tengan
cio y empieza la violencia verbal. Como nos mal corazón. Yo abro la puerta, salgo, y vale,
explica, a veces ocurre que los clientes que ta, ta, ta… cuando pasa eso, que la gente me
están recibiendo el servicio que han contra- llama a mí puta, me siento, lloro, mi amigo
tado quieren otro tipo de servicio que ella no viene y dice: “lo siento si tú…” (Es) la vida»
está dispuesta a proporcionar. Es entonces (Filomena, 33 años, Nigeria). Pues el abuso
cuando algunos clientes abusan verbalmen- verbal causa daño a las mujeres, que se
te de ella y, como consecuencia, ella se sien- sienten violentadas.
te maltratada.
Es importante resaltar que estas mujeres
no sufren los abusos verbales todos los días.
Sí. Muchos no respetan. A mí muchas veces no me La frecuencia que señalan puede ir de una
han respetado. Por ejemplo, yo digo mira, el masa- vez cada seis meses hasta una mayor fre-
je se realiza en top less o se realiza desnudo, ¿no? cuencia. Pero lo importante no es cuántas
Y quieren meter mano. Yo se lo he dicho por telé- veces ocurre, sino que es algo con lo que
fono cuando le comento cómo es el masaje y el hay que contar cuando se ejerce la prostitu-
servicio que yo ofrezco… pues me quieren meter ción: «Eso no pasa siempre. Sabes? Tienes
mano, y yo les digo: mira, hasta aquí. Y muchos se que esperarlo… son cosas de prostituta…
ponen violentos, no llegaron a pegarme pero sí se
hay que dejar pasar eso» (Viviana, 22 años,
ponen violentos conmigo, me hacen sentir como…
Nigeria). Y es que estos abusos verbales no
con perdón, pero me hacen sentir una mierda, ¿me
son denunciados a la policía. ¿Cómo denun-
entiendes? Usan muchas veces palabras groseras
ciar que un cliente le agrede llamándole
hacia mí, que eres puta, que eres…. de todo, ¿me
«puta» cuando se está ejerciendo la prostitu-
entiendes? ¡Con perdón! Y no hablan educada-
ción?
mente, se ponen hechos una fiera. (…) No sé, eso,
para mí… yo me siento maltratada de esa forma Pero sigamos presentando otras violen-
(Ana María, 25 años, Rumanía). cias. Muchas de las mujeres entrevistadas
hablan también del chantaje sexual. Ana Ma-
El abuso verbal se produce generalmente ría nos explica esta otra situación en la que
mientras se está desarrollando el servicio, o se siente maltratada: cuando los clientes le
una vez que el cliente ha recibido el servicio ofrecen más dinero para que ella realice ser-
pero no está satisfecho. Como veremos, vicios que no desea realizar:
puede derivar en agresión sexual, aunque no
ocurre así frecuentemente. En todo caso, y Es como un chantaje, no? (…) Por ejemplo, cobras
como se puede observar en el anexo 1, ex- un masaje 50 euros una hora, y te dice, mira, te
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134 Un análisis interseccional sobre malos tratos y violencia laboral en mujeres que ejercen la prostitución
doy 50 euros más, me dejas que te haga un grie- sale un poquito el animal que lleva dentro y te
go, un francés, penetración, te propone de todo, quiere manosear, meterte mano y todo eso, y con
guarrerías, guarrerías grandes, con perdón, que, una mano le estás masturbando y con la otra
una lluvia dorada, que es orinarte encima de él, y mano tienes que empujarlo (Ana María, 25 años,
hacer muchas cosas, que para mí eso es maltratar Rumanía).
a una mujer, ponerla en situaciones muy límites,
en situaciones que no lo habrías hecho ni si te Y es que las dos manos de Ana María
murieses de hambre y cuando ves el dinero, lo están haciendo cosas diferentes: una intenta
haces, ¿no? Y eso, yo pienso que es maltratar una realizar el servicio que se ha pactado, y la
mujer (Ana María, 25 años, Rumanía). otra, detener a un agresor. Para Ana María la
violencia empieza cuando el cliente fuerza la
El chantaje sobreviene también cuando situación: «en ese momento, pues tira de ti,
las mujeres se ven forzadas a trabajar sin y ya no lo hace de buena manera, ahí ya es
preservativos para poder sobrevivir. Este violencia, porque te tira y lo quiere hacer a la
caso lo describe muy bien Russ. Russ es de fuerza» (Ana María, 25 años, Rumanía). En la
Nigeria, tiene 45 años y cinco hijos. Para po- carretera, Dora nos cuenta que, efectiva-
der trabajar tiene que aceptar el chantaje de
mente, le ha ocurrido en ocasiones: «Subirte
los clientes que quieren un servicio sexual
en un coche y que te cojan fuerte, que te
sin preservativos. Nada más empezar la en-
empujen, que te dejen moretones, me han
trevista, cuando le estamos preguntando su
dejado moretones, que no respeten y te tra-
opinión sobre la violencia, Russ contesta se-
ten como un trasto» (Dora, 30 años, España).
ñalando que la situación que vive la gente de
Nigeria en Almería es de extrema pobreza. El último tipo de violencia que han expe-
Después de eso afirma: «si tú quieres ganar rimentado nuestras entrevistadas es el inten-
dinero también debes aceptar esto: sin con- to de violación o violación. Nora sufrió una
dones» (Russ, 45 años, Nigeria). En el curso violación: «Un hombre me cogió en el coche
de la entrevista, Russ nos explica que la en las Marinas, desde las 7 a la noche hasta
edad, en su caso, hace que ella no pueda mañana a la 1, yo estaba quieta, me quitó la
plantear cómo quiere realizar los servicios ropa, todo, yo sin ropa, ni pantalón, ¡nada!
sexuales. Los clientes la chantajean porque Bebía mucha cerveza. Lo denuncié a la poli-
tienen el dinero. Y, si ella no acepta, busca- cía, a la guardia civil» (Nora, 42 años, Ma-
rán chicas más jóvenes. rruecos). Ana María también nos describe un
Las situaciones de abuso verbal o chan- intento de violación. Nos cuenta que estaba
taje pueden derivar —o no— en agresión en un club con una amiga, a las 5 de la ma-
sexual, cuando el cliente intenta forzar física- ñana, y el dueño del club quería que ella le
mente a la mujer. Podemos definir la agre- realizara un servicio sin condón. Se negó y él
sión sexual como una conducta violenta que la intentó forzar: «a mí ese hombre me quiso
intenta provocar una respuesta sexual, inde- violar, porque yo no me quise acostar con él.
seada por parte de la víctima. Ana María nos Me rompió la camisa, me tiró de la ropa, y yo
explica cómo tiene lugar la agresión sexual (…). Y me quería violar en el baño, y yo he
en el caso de los masajes: dicho que no, que yo sin goma no, que yo no
quiero nada, y él que no, que te vienes pa
Uf, pues muchas cosas, (risas) cuando termina el acá, que no sé qué… y me tiró de la ropa…
masaje, ¿no? Y tienes que masturbar al cliente, Y esa fue una experiencia muy mala» (Ana
ahí no me gusta, lo paso mal, porque muchas ve- María, 25 años, Rumanía). Ana María no de-
ces te dice, ay mira, que quiero que…, te dice de nunció la situación. Afirma que todavía sien-
la forma que quiere que lo hagas, ¿no? Y, pues ahí te una sensación de vacío en el estómago.
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Pilar Rodríguez Martínez 135
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136 Un análisis interseccional sobre malos tratos y violencia laboral en mujeres que ejercen la prostitución
Reis. Rev.Esp.Investig.Sociol. ISSN-L: 0210-5233. Nº 151, Julio - Septiembre 2015, pp. 123-140
Pilar Rodríguez Martínez 137
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nológico, 95: 1-4. cial Scientific Work on Sex Work: A Review of
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Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of lence, Sexual Assault and Stalking: Findings from
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RECEPCIÓN: 29/11/2013
REVISIÓN: 01/06/2014
APROBACIÓN: 25/09/2014
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138
ANEXOS
Agentes
Nombre Lugar donde Tipo de violencia
Naciona- Nivel de Ocupación en violencia
para la Edad Estado civil Hijos se ejerce la ejerciendo
lidad estudios origen ejerciendo
entrevista prostitución prostitución
prostitución
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Agresión sexual
Nora 42 Marruecos Básicos/Sin Viuda 1 Cocinera, pa- Cortijo Abuso verbal Clientes
estudios nadera Agresión sexual
Violación
agricultora
Ana Maria 25 Rumanía Medios Soltera 0 Masajista, Club, Abuso verbal Clientes
tipógrafa, em- apartamento Agresión sexual Jefe club
pleada en fábri- Chantaje
ca de aceite Intento violación
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139
doi:10.5477/cis/reis.151.123
Citation
Rodríguez Martínez, Pilar (2015). “An Intersectional Analysis of Intimate Partner Violence and
Workplace Violence among Women Working in Prostitution”. Revista Española de Investigaciones
Sociológicas, 151: 123-138.
(http://dx.doi.org/10.5477/cis/reis.151.123)
Reis. Rev.Esp.Investig.Sociol. ISSN-L: 0210-5233. Nº 151, July - September 2015, pp. 123-138
124 An Intersectional Analysis of Intimate Partner Violence and Workplace Violence among Women Working in Prostitution
Reis. Rev.Esp.Investig.Sociol. ISSN-L: 0210-5233. Nº 151, July - September 2015, pp. 123-138
Pilar Rodríguez Martínez 125
that women from low socioeconomic levels VIOLENCE AT WORK AND INTIMATE
are more likely to experience physical vio- PARTNER VIOLENCE AMONG WOMEN
lence from their partners or ex-partners WHO WORK AS PROSTITUTES
(Resko, 2007; Walby and Allen, 2004).
Analysis of the results of a recent survey of It has been shown that women who work in
the European Union Agency for Fundamen- prostitution in our current societies suffer
more violence than other women. Evidence
tal Rights (2014) on the prevalence of vio-
of this can be seen in the fact that they are
lence against women, based on 42,000 in-
disproportionately represented among wo-
terviews with women from all 28 EU
men who have been murdered, as revealed
countries, confirms that there are statistica-
in Lowman’s study based in Canada, for the
lly significant differences regarding the pre-
years 1992 to 1998 (Lowman, 2000), and in
valence of physical and sexual violence Potterat, Brewer et al., for the case of Colo-
among European women. These differences rado Springs in the United States for the
are found to be related to sexual orientation, years 1967 to 1999 (Potterat, Brewer et al.,
disability, age, education level, income, in- 2004); the same has been found in other ci-
tegration in the labour market and occupa- ties and countries.
tion, while little relationship is found with
Studies show that women who work in
being of migrant or autochthonous status, prostitution suffer physical and psychological
confirming the results of earlier studies (Ro- violence, rape and murder. For example, in
dríguez, 2014). Farley and Barkan’s study in San Francisco,
In this study we also use a concept of 82% of the adult population of women who
violence that takes into account micro and worked in prostitution in the sample (130 wo-
macro-structural elements, and which allows men) had been physically assaulted, 83% had
us to understand inequalities implicit in social been threatened with a weapon, and 68% had
understandings of types of violence and ty- been raped (Farley and Barkan, 1998). In
pes of women. Violent behaviour must be Spain, studies have found similar results. For
analysed within the framework of a web of example, of the 24 prostitutes making up
violence (Kurtz and Turpin, 1997), as there Barberet’s sample, 16 had suffered rape, phy-
are specific groups of women who, because sical and psychological abuse, theft and being
of determined personal and social condi- cheated by customers (Barberet, 1996:3).
tions, are more likely to suffer violence (Lom- Studies which look at the places where
bardo, 2009, Sokoloff and Dupont, 2005: 41) prostitution is conducted have shown that
women who work on the street suffer more
As is customary in intersectional analy-
physical violence; the majority of them have
ses (Choo and Ferree, 2010), we have taken
been raped or attacked at some time (Miller
as our subject of study women from the
and Schwartz, 1995; Lalor, 2000; Barnard,
margins of society to discover the limits of 1993; Penfold et al., 2004). Those who work
dominant conceptions regarding discrimi- inside do not suffer physical violence on as
nation, which lead to conceptualising the many occasions as those who work the
subordination and social disadvantage of streets (Church et al., 2001). Violence against
women based on only a single social cate- women in prostitution often comes from
gory. Moreover, studies – and policies – on pimps, traffickers, club owners, drug dealers,
intimate partner violence are usually focu- bystanders, or even police, but studies agree
sed on women who are either housewives that most often it comes from customers
or have jobs that do not question the tradi- (Lowman, 2000; Church et al., 2001; Bar-
tional role of women. nard, 1993; Kurtz, 2004; Monto, 2004).
Reis. Rev.Esp.Investig.Sociol. ISSN-L: 0210-5233. Nº 151, July - September 2015, pp. 123-138
126 An Intersectional Analysis of Intimate Partner Violence and Workplace Violence among Women Working in Prostitution
Thus, women who work in prostitution su- nish women, applying intersectional analysis
ffer more violence than the average for wo- as well as multi-level analysis (Winker and De-
men in society today. Researchers explain this lege, 2011) and focusing on the perspectives
difference referring to social stigma (Van- of groups that experience multiple marginali-
wesenbeeck, 2001: 267-268). Social stigma zation (Choo and Feree, 2010). Our approach
divides women into two groups: decent wo- is innovative in two ways. First, we carry out a
men and whores. At one extreme are decent qualitative analysis of the discourses on vio-
women, who only have sex within the context lence of women who work as prostitutes and
of marriage. At the other extreme are whores, who have suffered intimate partner violence.
women who have sex in exchange for money. This analysis, based on their discussion of
This “undesirable difference” (Goffman, 2006: their social practices, allows us to reconstruct
15) means that women who work as prostitu- their identities, as well as broader structures
tes have a hard time demonstrating that they and social norms regarding intimate partner
have suffered sexual abuse or even that they violence and workplace violence. Secondly,
have been raped (Petherson, 2000:101-103). our study presents an analysis of both forms
According to Juliano, stigma also “increases of violence, allowing us to explore the extent
the customers’ power in their dealings with of workplace violence among prostitutes in
sexual workers and guarantees their impunity comparison to intimate partner violence.
in case of conflict” (Juliano, 2004: 129). Specifically, using multilevel intersectional
However, few studies have attempted to analysis, the questions guiding this research
investigate whether or not women who work are the following: What category of woman do
in prostitution have suffered abuse at the the women who work as prostitutes and who
hands of a partner or ex-partner at some have experienced intimate partner violence
time. We have only found one recent study identify with? What norms, principles and in-
that addressed both types of violence. terpretative patterns related to violence
Through semi-structured interviews with 76 against women – domestic and workplace –
migrant women and 7 Spanish women in affect them? What type of workplace violence
do they experience? What are the structural
Marbella, Quiles found that 45% had suffe-
contexts of reference in their interpretation of
red “lack of respect” because of their work
the violence they experience?
as prostitutes, 32.5% had suffered physical
and psychological violence in their places of Following the theoretical and methodolo-
work, and 20.5% had experienced violence gical approach of Crenshaw (1989), Choo and
in their private life (Quiles, 2007:4). This data Ferree (2010) and Winker and Delege (2011),
demonstrates that women who work as we have explored the discourses of the wo-
prostitutes are a clear example of ‘multiple men at three levels of analysis. The first level
victims’, characterised, as Barberet pointed deconstructs the category of ‘woman’ (white,
out, by “having a greater likelihood of being heterosexual and middle class) that underlies
the victim of a greater number of crimes of dominant feminist discourses (anti-categori-
different types” (Barberet, 1996: 2). cal complexity); the second aims to document
the unequal relations between social groups
based on sex-gender, social class and race
OBJECTIVES (inter-categorical complexity); and the third
understands the changing forms of complexi-
The objective of this study is to understand the ty focusing on the paths of those who cross
experience of intimate partner violence and the boundaries of constructed categories (in-
workplace violence in a theoretical sample of tra-categorical complexity). In our case, the
migrant (African and East European) and Spa- first level of analysis (anti-categorical comple-
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Pilar Rodríguez Martínez 127
xity) refers to how we define these “multiple NGOs work with women who work in low-
victims” with respect to the hegemonic cate- paid prostitution, the women in our sample
gory of the “decent woman”. The second level have experience in this type of work. Only
of analysis examines the possible interactions one of them offers her services through the
between violence in the domestic sphere and internet. In the Appendix we present the so-
the workplace depending on the paths of the cio-demographic characteristics of the wo-
women (intra-categorical complexity). The men interviewed.
third level of analysis looks at the type of We used the semi-structured interview as
workplace violence, taking into account the our research technique. The interviews las-
groups the women belong to and the social ted from one to one and a half hours, and the
understanding of prostitution (inter-categori- women addressed questions related to three
cal complexity). main dimensions: perceptions of violence;
violence at work and intimate partner violen-
ce, and resources to deal with violence. The
RESEARCH DESIGN interviews were in Spanish and were trans-
cribed and coded using N-Vivo software.
We have a sample composed of twelve wo-
This software allowed us to initially select
men who have suffered violence in their work
texts, categorised into “nodes” correspon-
as prostitutes and who have also suffered
ding to the development of the interview
intimate partner violence. To construct this
script. For our analysis, we chose to work
sample, we have used various criteria to se-
with the following nodes: “opinion about
lect the participants. The first is nationality of
prostitution”, “dreams and expectations”,
origin. We have distinguished between Spa-
“beginnings in prostitution”, “comparison of
nish women (4), women migrants from Africa
domestic and workplace violence” and “vio-
(4) and women from Eastern Europe (4). We
lence suffered during work in prostitution”.
have also taken into account education level,
Clearly, the nodes that we have worked with
marital status, age and number of children.
most closely do not represent all of the cate-
Keeping in mind the results of the previously
gories that arose from the text of the inter-
cited studies (European Union Agency for
views. Both the selection of nodes as well as
Fundamental Rights, 2014; Resko, 2007;
their analysis are the result of a process in
Walby and Allen, 2004), our expectation is
which it was necessary to reconstruct the
that women with higher education levels, wo-
trajectories described in the interviews in or-
men who are single, young women and wo-
der to better understand the women’s initia-
men without children will have experienced
tion into prostitution, at times returning to the
less violence in their work. original interviews to better categorise the
The actual search for participants was types of violence.
carried out by contacting NGOs that offer In this way, and based on the women’s
some type of service to women working as discourses, we have classified the agents
prostitutes (distribution of condoms, offering and types of violence. We have identified the
apartments to women who decide to leave following agents: customers, co-workers,
prostitution, providing legal advice, support club owners, pimps and the police. The
for trafficked women, etc.3). Given that the agents who are most often involved are the
customers. Violence among co-workers is
also quite frequent, with violence from club
3 The NGOs were Proyecto Encuentro, Asociación de owners and pimps much less frequent. The
Derechos Humanos, Servicio de Asistencia a Víctimas
de Andalucía, and the Asociación para la Atención de police are the least mentioned agent. The ty-
Mujeres en Riesgo social. pes of violence related to work that came up
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128 An Intersectional Analysis of Intimate Partner Violence and Workplace Violence among Women Working in Prostitution
in the interviews are: verbal abuse, sexual to work in prostitution “voluntarily”, if this is
blackmail, sexual assault and rape. As can understood to mean “not forced to physica-
be seen in the Appendix, the women with lly”. As Carmen, 45 years old and Spanish,
higher education levels suffered fewer types pointed out, “I thought of it like a film, like a
of violence than those who have basic and trailer, the moment when the sex happened,
secondary education levels. I did it, I faked it...I also don’t think of it as
something forced, because I wasn’t forced to
do it; I did it because I wanted to. No one
FINDINGS made me do it.” (Carmen, 45 year old Spa-
nish woman).
In this section we present the results of our
Working in prostitution is also not a ratio-
research. For the reader to more easily fo-
nal alternative to other types of work. It is not
llow, table 1 presents the levels of analysis,
a ‘legitimate’ alternative because it goes
the object of analysis and the main findings
against societal norms regarding the work
obtained.
and roles that ‘decent’ women carry out in
society. In fact, if we look at the Appendix,
we find that our interviewees had worked in
ANTI-CATEGORICAL COMPLEXITY other jobs, such as shop assistant, secretary,
To begin with, it should be noted that all the receptionist, cook, baker, waitress, clothing
women grew up in societies that value con- factory worker, masseuse and pastry cook,
sensus over conflict, in which there are femi- among others. These are occupations of ‘de-
nised jobs, and which view heterosexual ma- cent’ women. Working in prostitution is not a
rriage and maternity as central to women’s ‘viable’ work alternative. It is the result of a
identity. Regarding paid work, although they conflict (sometimes, a violent one) in a social
are working in prostitution, none of them feel context in which they had been carrying out
like they are “sex workers”. Indeed, they do the role of a ‘decent’ woman.
not think of themselves as “prostitutes”. In In practice, working in prostitution is pre-
addition, none of the interviewees considers sented as an “escape” from a series of
working in prostitution to be in itself a form of events that have affected both a woman’s
violence against women. All of them began public world of work and her private life. The-
Anticategorical level Effects of violence in relation to the he- Distant from the hegemonic category of
gemonic category of woman. the “decent woman”, leading them to
modify it.
Intracategorical level Interactions between types of violence The paths and contexts indicate different
(domestic and workplace) in relation to webs of violence, which lead to interpret-
initiation into working in prostitution. ing intimate partner violence in different
ways.
Intercategorical level Difference between women in types of Social stigma, age, and education level
workplace violence experienced and the are closely related to perceptions the
degree of violence. women have about the work they do and
to the possibility of experiencing violence
in their work.
Source: By author
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Pilar Rodríguez Martínez 129
se events are a result of “life being very hard”, mony within a family, with their children and
as suggested by the Nigerian woman, Russ. their husband). But for these women it has a
The decision to work in prostitution occurs, special meaning: a life without violence.
as the Spanish woman Julia says, “without
realising it”, or according to the Romanian,
Mirela, because “you have a bad life...and it INTRA-CATEGORICAL COMPLEXITY
just pops into your head”. The context of vul-
nerability, the difficulty of understanding the The domestic and workplace violence these
cause of one’s own problems and the ability women have experienced may not have
of individuals to find solutions to difficulties taken place during the same period in their
intersect in the experiences of the inter- lives, as in principle, the role of ‘decent’ wo-
viewees. In these chains of events, the Spa- man and that of ‘whore, are in opposition;
nish women emphasise conflicts associated thus, we might find the abuse they experien-
with intimate partner abuse and drugs; the ced with their partners occurred when the
African women, the lack of economic resou- women were carrying out the role of a ‘de-
rces and not having work permits, and the cent woman’, and the workplace violence
women from Eastern Europe, the lack of free- when they were carrying out the role of ‘who-
dom and wanting to have more money. re’. But this is not what we have always found
among our respondents. We will look more
This difference in the factors they empha-
closely at this issue by examining some spe-
sise to explain why they stopped carrying out
the role of ‘decent’ women and became cific cases.
‘whores’ reveals the different contexts in In the case of the Spanish women, Julia,
which these women have operated, as the 43 years old and with two children, suffered
intersectional focus notes. But these women physical and psychological abuse from her
do not feel proud of having worked in prosti- husband for 15 years. She was working as a
tution, which leads them to modify the hege- cleaner in a town hall, but she had to leave
monic category of women into which they her job because of her husband’s violence
were socialised. Thus, as they say, they came toward her. Julia pressed charges against
to carry out the role of “whores” as a way of him, got custody of her children, and was li-
resolving conflicts that occurred when they ving in a home for victims of intimate partner
were leading the life of ‘decent’ women. The violence in Almeria. Afterwards, she went to
justifications for why they began to work in Granada, but she did not have enough mo-
prostitution must be understood in the con- ney to take care of her children. She worked
text of social desirability, as these social ac- as a waitress, and during a period when she
tors realise that they are doing something was unemployed a friend suggested that she
that society disapproves of. As a result, they try prostitution. When we asked her why she
emphasise the aspects that society – and began to work in prostitution, she said that it
hegemonic societal norms – would approve was “Because of him; it’s all because of him.”
of: that a woman is a mother first and fore- Julia, like Carmen, came to carry out the role
most, that she takes care of her children, that of “whore” because of the abuse of her hus-
she supports her family and even, that she band, which prevented her from carrying out
defends her freedom. the role of a ‘decent’ woman. The two other
This re-signifying is also found in their re- Spanish women (30 and 28 years old) went
ferences to the future. The adjective they use through a similar process, which was preci-
the most to define themselves is ‘peaceful’. pitated by drug use. For these women, vio-
The peace they dream of refers to work (ha- lence in the domestic sphere preceded the
ving a stable job) and to personal life (har- violence in the workplace, and as they said,
Reis. Rev.Esp.Investig.Sociol. ISSN-L: 0210-5233. Nº 151, July - September 2015, pp. 123-138
130 An Intersectional Analysis of Intimate Partner Violence and Workplace Violence among Women Working in Prostitution
the intimate partner violence was the reason prostitution after migrating, primarily due to
they began to work in prostitution. economic need. The abuse Russ experienced
Unlike the Spanish women, the migrant did not cause her to enter into prostitution, nor
women in their discourses do not relate their did this motivate her to migrate. It began with
beginnings working as prostitutes to intimate a former customer, and according to her tes-
partner violence. This can be seen in the timony, it began when he became her “boy-
case of Ana Maria, a 25 year old Romanian friend”. This case indicates that a situation of
woman without children. She arrived in Spain abuse in the home requires the existence of a
at the age of 19, already having suffered the relationship between a woman and her attac-
psychological abuse of a boyfriend in Bucha- ker, a situation that does not exist between the
rest. For her, that relationship contrasted woman and her customers.
greatly with the world that opened up to her Thus, Spanish, African and Eastern Euro-
when she discovered the greater economic pean women do not grant the same meaning
opportunities that existed in Spain. Ana Ma- to intimate partner violence in relation to the
ria had a sister in Almeria, who she went to violence they have suffered in their work. The
visit. She fell in love with a young man who Spanish women emphasise the fact that do-
treated her well, and she decided not to re- mestic abuse occurs in the private, personal
turn to her country. After a period without sphere and that it is difficult to report. For the
work, she began to work in a club, and later migrant women from Eastern Europe,
on, she started working in a business giving whether the abuse occurs in the private
erotic massages, and then she began wor- sphere or whether it is difficult to report does
king for herself. Referring to her Romanian not seem to be so important. They emphasi-
boyfriend she said: “I left my country becau- se more the effect abuse has had in the path
se of him,...”. Ana Maria makes a clear con- they have taken and how it has affected their
nection between the abuse she suffered and self-esteem as women. Maria focuses on
the decision to migrate. In her case, the abu- what she has lost in material and economic
se she suffered occurred simultaneously with terms: “Yes, I lost everything I had” (she
her entry into prostitution, but did not moti- laughs nervously). I had so much. I lost it all.
vate it. It was the abuse of her boyfriend that It’s in my bones; imagine the relationship”
may have caused her to migrate. (Maria, Russian, 37 years old). Maria esca-
Among the African women we also did not ped from a trafficking network she had repor-
observe a causal relationship between intima- ted. The abuse she suffered prevented her
te partner violence and their initiation into from successfully fulfilling her migration
work in prostitution. Russ, the 45 year old Ni- goals. Ana Maria emphasises the conse-
gerian woman and mother of five children, quences of the abuse she experienced in
said that she suffered abuse for several relation to her self-esteem.
months after beginning to work as a prostitu- Unlike the Spanish and East European
te in Almeria. In her account she said she had women, the African women think that do-
had a Moroccan customer who began to help mestic partner violence is not as important
her out economically in exchange for sexual as other forms of violence. Nora, who is to-
services. As the months passed, they became day a widow, suffered the abuse of her hus-
romantically involved, and then the violent band for years in both Morocco and in Spain.
episodes began. She said “he felt he had the However, she thinks that abuse is a “normal”
right” to abuse her. In one of these situations, form of violence because it takes place within
he beat her up badly. She did not report it, but marriage, whereas with customers, violence
she ended the relationship. In fact, all the Afri- “is bad” because it takes place when you are
can women interviewed started working in carrying out an illegal activity. The Nigerian
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Pilar Rodríguez Martínez 131
woman, Russ, goes beyond that; when we Violence at work is infrequent; it is not as emo-
asked her to compare violence in the domes- tionally involving, and there is a greater possi-
tic sphere and in the workplace, she said: bility of avoiding it or resolving “the problem”.
“I’m an adult...I went through a lot to get As the 30 year old Spanish woman, Dora, ex-
here, you know?” (Russ, 45 years old, Nige- plained, “No, it’s not the same; the customer
rian). Russ is referring to the violence she wants what he wants. He pays for what he
experienced on the journey in the boat cros- wants. If he goes beyond it, we have the pos-
sing the sea in which she saw people die. As sibility of going to the police.” But Dora’s su-
a result, at the beginning of the interview ggestion is not always possible, as in many
when we asked her if she had suffered some situations that option is limited, especially in
form of violence, she omitted the violence the case of undocumented immigrants. Mo-
she suffered with her partner and the violen- reover, the violence these women suffer wor-
ce she experienced working as a prostitute, king in prostitution adds to the social stigma
replying that the only violence she had expe- they feel, so that they are unable to develop a
rienced was in her journey to Spain: positive image of themselves as women. It is
a reminder to them that they are “whores” and
A: “I only suffered while trying to get to Europe” that they are excluded from society.
(Russ, 45 years old, Nigeria) Social stigma has consequences in the
way these women perceive the work they do
Russ’s response is very interesting. and in the attitude expressed by their aggres-
Although during the course of the interview sors. Their socialisation in the role of a “de-
she did talk about other experiences of vio- cent woman” contrasts with the work they
lence, what she went through in getting to do, so they feel bad about themselves as
Spain paralyses her discourse about violen- women. Dora says that “it’s not an easy job;
ce. She does not add up the different forms it is really hard for me get into a car, because
of violence she has endured, as suggested it really messes me up psychologically”
by the additive approach, but rather the (Dora, 30 years old, Spain). The feeling of dis-
strongest form of violence experienced eclip- honour they have affects their dignity and
ses all the others. pride as women; it makes them feel that they
However, all of the women dream about a have “no worth” because they are doing a
peaceful future, without violence, as we poin- job that has “no value”.
ted out in the previous section. This implies Regarding the attitude of their aggres-
that the intimate partner violence they have sors, it must be noted that offering sexual
experienced in the domestic sphere (and services in exchange for money can be con-
which has had the greatest impact on the sidered a kind of emotion work if we unders-
Spanish and East European women) is un- tand that the woman who works as a prosti-
derstood to be an exception and not an es- tute is carrying out the art of trying to change
sential part of institutional marriage. As we in degree or quality an emotion or feeling in
will explain in the next section, this is not the the customer (Hochschild, 1979). But in
case with violence in the workplace. addition, as Vanwesenbeeck has noted, sex
work consists of fake behaviour and feelings
that aim to please customers, as the women
INTER-CATEGORICAL COMPLEXITY “play the whore”; they are “on the game”
For the majority of our interviewees, the vio- (2001: 270).
lence related to work in prostitution has less However, our interviewees are very expli-
importance than intimate partner violence. cit in their discourses about feeling violated
Reis. Rev.Esp.Investig.Sociol. ISSN-L: 0210-5233. Nº 151, July - September 2015, pp. 123-138
132 An Intersectional Analysis of Intimate Partner Violence and Workplace Violence among Women Working in Prostitution
and attacked when the customers do not don’t like you. You can’t do that because if I
respect the role play involved in carrying out said that, I would offend them” (Elisa, 30 years
the agreed on sexual service. Elisa, from Ro- old, Romanian).
mania, says that not doing so constitutes a As is well-known, in prostitution, before
lack of respect toward her, and for her this is providing the service, the women reach an
a form of aggression: agreement with the customer regarding pri-
ce, the type of service the customer will re-
“This is what hurts me the most, really. They all ceive and how long the interaction will last.
come to have a good time, right? Or to escape Among our interviewees, Ana Maria is the
from the monotony (…) but what really hurts me, a one who talked the most about where service
lot, a lot, is that they aren’t respectful. Like one of ends and verbal violence begins. As she ex-
them said to me: “you smell like a cheap whore”. plains, sometimes when customers are re-
You know, that hurt me a lot. I said, “why did you ceiving the service they hired her for, they
say that? Have I done anything to hurt you?” “No... suddenly decide they want another type of
you’re all the same...I don’t know why” He spoke service she is not willing to provide. It is then
really badly to me. I said to him, what if I take this that some customers become verbally abu-
ashtray and break your head with it? What do you sive, and as a result, she feels abused.
think about that? I can also be crazy! Not just you,
right?” (Elisa, 30 years old, Romania). “Yes, a lot of them are not respectful. It’s happe-
ned to me many times; they don’t respect me. For
If we analyse the discourse of Elisa, the example, I say, look, the massage can be done
problem is not that working in prostitution is topless or naked, right? And they want to touch
in itself violence. The violence, for her, has to me. I told them on the telephone when I explained
do with the fact that there are customers who to them what the massage is like and the service
do not respect the rules of the “game”. The I offer...then they want to touch me, and I tell them,
attitude of these customers reminds the wo- look, only this, no more. And lot of them get vio-
men that they belong to a social group of lent. They don’t hit me, but they act violent with
“undesirable” women. me. They make me feel like, sorry, but they make
Verbal abuse is a type of persistent beha- me feel like shit, you understand? They curse at
viour using words or word games to instil dou- me a lot, call me whore, they call me all kinds of
bt, and through which the abuser attempts to things, you understand what I’m talking about?
generate a sense of domination and control Sorry! And they don’t speak politely to me , they
over his victim. In the case described by Elisa, act like animals (…) I don’t know, this for me...It
the term “cheap whore” allows the aggressor makes me feel abused” (Ana Maria, 25 years old,
– a customer in a club – to create a feeling of Romania).
dominance over her, as, through his insult, he
does not follow the rules of the game, but ins- The verbal abuse generally happens whi-
tead sets himself up as a representative of le the service is being provided or once the
“society” with the right to judge her. She is not customer has received the service but is not
a ‘woman’, but a cheap woman who ‘smells’. satisfied. As we will see, this can turn into
Elisa asks him if she has done anything to hurt sexual assault, although this does not hap-
him to justify such aggression. And she su- pen frequently. In any case, and as can be
ggests she could also use violence against seen in the Appendix, all of the women, with
him. Thus, she isn’t a whore, but a woman the exception of Lorena (a 28 year old Spa-
playing the role of whore. And this framework nish woman, with a higher education level
of theatre must be respected: “I can’t say to and no children) have experienced verbal
someone: look, you’re really ugly, you stink, I abuse.
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Pilar Rodríguez Martínez 133
As most of the women offer services that do it, right? And that, I think, is abusing a woman”
end with ejaculation, verbal abuse occurs (Ana Maria, 25 years old, Romania).
when the customers cannot ejaculate. Filo-
mena says that although she sets a price and Blackmail also occurs when the women
an amount of time for the service, sometimes are forced to work without condoms in order
customers verbally abuse her. She also ex- to survive. Russ describes this situation very
plains why she thinks some customers do well. Russ is a 45 year old Nigerian woman
this, and how she usually responds to the with five children. To be able to get work, she
abuse: “maybe they have a bad heart. I open has to accept the blackmail of customers
the door, leave and OK,....when this hap- who want to have sexual services without
pens, the people calling me whore, I feel it, I condoms. As soon as the interview begins,
cry, my friend comes and says: ‘I’m sorry for and we are asking her opinion about violen-
you...’ (That’s) life” (Filomena, 33 years old, ce, Russ responds that the situation of peo-
Nigeria). Thus, verbal abuse hurts these wo- ple from Nigeria living in Almeria is one of
men; they feel as if they have been violated. extreme poverty. Then she goes on to say: “If
you want to earn money, you also have to
It is worth noting that these women do
accept this: no condoms” (Russ, 45 years
not suffer verbal abuse every day. The fre-
old, Nigeria). In the course of the interview,
quency varies from once every six months to
Russ explains to us that because of her age
more often. But what is important is not how
she cannot think about how she is going to
often it happens, but that it is something that
carry out sexual services. The customers can
one has to deal with when working in prosti- blackmail her because they have the money.
tution: “This doesn’t happen all the time, you And if she does not accept it, they will look
know? You have to expect it...these things go for younger girls.
with prostitution...you have to accept it (Vi-
Situations of verbal abuse and blackmail
viana, 22 years old, Nigeria). Such verbal
may lead to a sexual assault, in which the
abuse is not reported to the police. How can
customer tries to force himself physically on
you tell the police that a customer attacked
the woman. Sexual assault can be defined as
you by calling you “whore” when you are
violent behaviour aimed at forcing sexual
working in prostitution?
contact without consent of the victim. Ana
But there are other forms of violence. Maria explains how sexual assault takes pla-
Many of the women interviewed talk about ce in the case of massages:
sexual blackmail. Ana Maria explains another
situation in which she feels abused: when the
Whew, well lots of things (laughing) when the mas-
customers offer her more money to provide
sage is over, right? And you have to masturbate
services she does not want to provide: the customer, I don’t like that, I feel really bad,
because lots of time they say to you, hey look, I
“It’s like blackmail, you know? (…) For example, want you to..., they tell you how they want you to
you charge 50 euros an hour for a massage, and do it, right? And, then, a little bit of the animal in-
he says to you, look, I’ll give you 50 more if we can side them comes out, and they want to fondle you,
have anal sex, oral sex, penetration; they ask for put their hands on you, and all that, and so with
all kinds of things, disgusting things, really disgus- one hand you’re masturbating them and with the
ting things, sorry, a golden shower, which is to pee other, you have to push them away” (Ana Maria,
on him, and a lot of things, that for me is abusing 25 years old, Romanian).
a woman, putting you in very extreme situations,
in situations that you wouldn’t do even if you were Thus, Ana Maria is doing different things
dying of hunger, but when you see the money, you with each of her hands: one is trying to carry
Reis. Rev.Esp.Investig.Sociol. ISSN-L: 0210-5233. Nº 151, July - September 2015, pp. 123-138
134 An Intersectional Analysis of Intimate Partner Violence and Workplace Violence among Women Working in Prostitution
out the agreed upon service while the other representation based on the idea of the “de-
tries to stop the aggressor. For Ana Maria the cent” woman. Women who work in prostitu-
violence begins when the customer forces the tion reformulate it to provide it with a meaning
situation: “in that moment, well, he grabs you, that includes at least some of their practices.
and he doesn’t do it in a nice way, that’s vio- According to them, what makes a woman
lence, because he’s grabbing you and he “decent” is taking care of her children, hel-
wants to force you” (Ana Maria, 25 years old, ping her family and pursuing freedom. Mo-
Romania). Dora tells us that this has indeed reover, given that they have suffered multiple
happened to her on occasions on the highway: forms of violence, they dream about “peace-
“You get in the car, and they grab you really ful” lives.
hard, they push you, they leave you with brui- On the level of intra-categorical analysis,
ses; they’ve left me with bruises, they don’t we have emphasised that intimate partner
respect you, they treat you like a piece of gar- violence and the violence experienced wor-
bage (Dora, 30 years old, Spanish). king as prostitutes interact. When we exa-
The final type of violence experienced by mine how Spanish and migrant women
women in our sample is attempted rape or came to play the role of “whores”, we find
rape. Nora was raped once: “A man picked that there are social trajectories that lead
me up in his car in ‘las Marinas’; from 7 at them to the position of “whore”, rooted in
night til 1 in the morning, I was quiet, he took problematic situations related to their situa-
off my clothes, everything: I didn’t have an- tion as decent (but abused) women or to
ything on, no pants, nothing! He was drinking other social conditions (drug abuse, lack of
a lot of beer. I reported him to the police, the economic resources, lack of legal documen-
guardia civil” (Nora, 42 years old, Morocco). tation, the desire to be free and to have
Ana Maria describes an attempted rape. She more money). These trajectories differ in the
told us that she was in a club with a friend at cases of Spanish and migrant women so
5 in the morning, and the owner of the club that the intersections between both types of
wanted her to perform a sexual service violence do not occur in the same way. As a
without a condom. She refused to do it, and result, for the Spanish and East European
he tried to force her: “That man wanted to migrant women, intimate partner violence is
rape me because I didn’t want to sleep with the worst form of violence they have expe-
him. He ripped my shirt, he was pulling off my rienced, although they focus on different
clothes, and I (…). He wanted to rape me in aspects in their discourses: the Spanish wo-
the bathroom, and I said no, that I, without a men emphasise the difficulty in reporting it,
condom, no, that I don’t want anything, and since it occurs in the private sphere. The
he says no, that you come here, I don’t East European women focus on the impact
know... and he was pulling off my clothes... on their self-esteem and in carrying out their
This was really a terrible experience” (Ana migration plans. For the African women, in-
Maria, 25 years old, Romania). Anna María timate partner violence is not considered
did not report the situation to the police. She the most significant form of violence they
says that she still has an empty feeling in her have experienced. Thus, we can say that
domestic abuse has to be understood in the
stomach.
context of a broader web of forms of vio-
lence and inequality that women may be
subject to. In the case of the migrant women
CONCLUSIONS AND DISCUSSION
in our study, more forms of violence inter-
Anti-categorical analysis reveals that the he- sect – and greater inequality – than in the
gemonic category of woman is a symbolic lives of the Spanish women.
Reis. Rev.Esp.Investig.Sociol. ISSN-L: 0210-5233. Nº 151, July - September 2015, pp. 123-138
Pilar Rodríguez Martínez 135
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Institutions in the Study of Inequalities”. Socio-
and education level – are related to the in-
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tensity of violence suffered by the women.
Church, S.; Henderson, M.; Barnard, M. and Hart, G.
Our analysis corroborates the results obtai-
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Crenshaw, Kimberlé W. (1989). “Demarginalising the
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APPENDIX
APPENDIX I: Socio-demographic profiles of the women interviewed and the type of violence experienced
Agent of
Previous
Name for Place where Type of violence violence
Education Marital occupation in
Pilar Rodríguez Martínez
Nora 42 Moroccan No education/ widow 1 Cook, Baker Brothel Verbal abuse Customers
Primary Sexual assault
Rape
Reis. Rev.Esp.Investig.Sociol. ISSN-L: 0210-5233. Nº 151, July - September 2015, pp. 123-138
137
APPENDIX I: Socio-demographic profiles of the women interviewed and the type of violence experienced (continuation)
138
Agent of
Previous
Name for Place where Type of violence violence
Education Marital occupation in
the Age Nationality Children they work in experienced working experienced
level status country of
interview prostitution in prostitution working in
origin
prostitution
Maria 37 Russian Secondary divorced 1 clerk in shop, Club Verbal abuse Customers
Secretary Sexual assault Traffickers
Attempted rape
Trafficking women
Ana Maria 25 Romanian Secondary single 0 Masseuse, Club Verbal abuse Customers
Typesetter Sexual assault Club manager
factory worker Apartment Blackmail
in oil factory Attempted rape
Elisa 30 Romanian Higher single 1 Pastry chef Club Verbal abuse Customers
Sexual assault Club manager
Reis. Rev.Esp.Investig.Sociol. ISSN-L: 0210-5233. Nº 151, July - September 2015, pp. 123-138
Exploitation Pimp
Source: By author
An Intersectional Analysis of Intimate Partner Violence and Workplace Violence among Women Working in Prostitution