Merged
Merged
Merged
Facultad de Odontología
Universidad de Sevilla
Tesis Doctoral
Facultad de Odontología
Universidad de Sevilla
Los directores
INFORMAN
que Don Mario David Cordero Morales, graduado en Nutrición Humana y Dietética
por la Universidad Pablo de Olavide, ha realizado bajo su dirección el trabajo titulado
“Implicación de la mitocondria y del complejo NLRP3-inflamasoma en la fisiopatología
de la fibromialgia” y que a su juicio reúne los méritos suficientes para optar al grado de
Doctor.
Y al final……lo conseguí
AGRADECIMIENTOS
Dicen que podemos ser y hacer todo aquello que nos propongamos, la cuestión es cómo
y cuándo. El tiempo pasa y la vida nos pone obstáculos que vamos superando con mayor
o menor éxito. Mi padre siempre decía que confiaba en esta cabecita loca y que podría
hacer todo lo que me propusiera, pero tenía que luchar por ello y trabajar con constancia.
Y ahora, por fin después de muchas cosas en la vida, ha llegado el final, el doctorado. El
final y el principio, por supuesto. Y son muchas las personas que han pasado por este
periodo de mi vida. Mi profesor, Juan Gonzáles, del Instituto Vicente Aleixandre, quién
me dejaba ir al laboratorio de prácticas en el BUP porque supo ver la vocación científica
en mí.
Un día apareció en mi vida otra persona, Pedro Bullón, mi otro codirector y también
amigo por siempre. Contigo aprendí que el trabajo no pesa cuando realmente te enamora
y hay pasión, y supiste ver en mí alguien por quien aportar y confiar, y eso llega muy
adentro, créeme.
A mi maestro de artes marciales Kim, quién forjó un luchador incansable por aquello en
lo que creo, por mis ideales de vida y creencias y por inculcarme que, como él decía, un
cinturón negro es un guerrero y puede conseguirlo todo en la vida.
A mis amigos de Triana, de mi infancia, por hacerme pasar una vida llena de diversión,
risas y aventuras y dadme un motivo para estar orgulloso de la amistad, Juanma (con
quién crecí y me dio siempre lo mejor de la amistad), Juaki (mi pareja de hecho, y de
aventuras), Iván (y esa paciencia y lealtad a su grupo), Ale (que no dejaba de bajar de la
academia para estar con su gente), Pichi (quién siempre sabe animarnos), Viejo (nuestro
árbitro), Rafa (el animal que a pesar de ser tan bruto eres un amigo fiel), Camas (siempre
estás presente donde quiera que estés), Casau (que nunca dejó pasar un minuto sin
sentarse con nosotros), Cacereño (siempre tienes una historia para alegrarnos la vida),
Carlitos (mi compi del nocturno), Jorge (siempre te acuerdas de mí, donde quiera que
estemos), Barat (nunca dejé de divertirme a tu lado), Navarro (cada día veo más la gran
persona que eres) y los que se fueron incorporando y aportando esa riqueza que siempre
nos ha caracterizado como Raulito, Isra y Mon que me habéis dado motivos para
alegrarme cada día de conoceros. Y las niñas (Reyes, Mirian, Mª Ángeles, Esther, Vicki)
por supuesto, no os pongáis celosas!!!!!
Aquellos amigos que en un momento dado entraron en mi vida, y vivieron conmigo esta
carrera de fondo: Anabel y Guille (lo hemos pasado bien ehh!!), Maurizio y Pepe Quiles,
gracias a esa comida un día de navidad di el salto de carrera y aquí estamos, gracias por
esa gran idea, y ese apoyo incondicional. A Lucía y su sonrisa y mi equipo, Lourdes,
Fabiola, Diego, Lucho, Rafa, y Ángel, que cada día comparten el amor a la ciencia.
A mi Triana, mi barrio, que siempre te llevo por bandera, vaya donde vaya, esté donde
esté, tú me haces ser lo que soy y sentirme orgulloso.
Y llega el momento, mi familia, mi madre, mis hermanas Mari Carmen y Mari Luz,
siempre me apoyasteis y sentisteis orgullosas de mí, gracias por estar ahí siempre. Mi
cuñado, Juan Carlos, que me vistes crecer y me acompañaste en cada una de las
situaciones por las que esta familia pasó, buenas y malas. Mis niñas, Débora y Ana, jamás
podréis cuantificar cuanto os quiero y significáis para mí. Siempre estaré ahí, para
vosotros, siempre. Mi nuevo cuñado, le diste a mi hermana una ilusión, y ya eres parte de
mi familia. Mi otra familia, Manolo y Ani, mis suegros, José Y Mª José, Paco y Anabel
mis cuñados y mis sobrinos Gabi, Aitor e Izan, por confiar en mí y sentiros orgullosos día
tras día.
Pero, hay alguien importante en mi vida que me ha motivado día a día y merecen una
especial atención: mi padre, que no solo fuiste mi referente como persona, y confiaste en
mi hasta tu marcha, sino que precisamente tu marcha y enfermedad fueron las que me
motivaron a trabajar duramente por la gente que sufre. Cada idea que surge en mí, la
inspiras tú.
Y por último, Ely, mi mujer. Cariño, eres la luz que alumbra mi vida, mi pasión, mi
compañera en la vida y en la ciencia y mi refugio. Todo esto, absolutamente todo, te lo
debo a ti, porque me supiste animar, inspirar, apoyar y querer con todos mis defectos.
Hemos pasado de todo en esta vida, pero nunca hemos dejado de luchar juntos, como un
equipo, sin miedo, y así seguiremos, y lo conseguiremos, cada uno de nuestros proyectos
porque a tu lado me hago el hombre más fuerte y feliz del mundo. Te quiero mi amor.
ÍNDICE
Resumen
Abreviaturas-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------1
1. Introducción-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------7
1.1. La mitocondria-------------------------------------------------------------------------------7
1.2. Mitocondria y estrés oxidativo-----------------------------------------------------------13
1.3. Enfermedades mitocondriales------------------------------------------------------------14
1.4. Inflamación e inflamasoma---------------------------------------------------------------18
1.5. La fibromialgia------------------------------------------------------------------------------22
1.5.1. Disfunción mitocondrial en la fibromialgia----------------------------------------23
2. Objetivos--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------31
3. Material y métodos--------------------------------------------------------------------------35
3.1. Pacientes--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------35
3.2. Reactivos-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------36
3.3. Cultivos de Fibroblastos-------------------------------------------------------------------37
3.4. Líneas celulares-----------------------------------------------------------------------------37
3.4.1. Líneas de fibroblastos de fibromialgia------------------------------------------------37
3.4.2. Líneas de fibroblastos de enfermedades mitocondriales--------------------------37
3.5. Muestras de sangre-------------------------------------------------------------------------38
3.6. Aislamiento de PBMC mediante Ficoll-PaqueTM PLUS----------------------------38
3.7. Obtención de muestras biológicas-------------------------------------------------------39
3.8. Generación de cíbridos trans-mitocondriales-----------------------------------------40
3.9. Extracción de CoQ de muestras biológicas--------------------------------------------41
3.10. Extracción de ADN------------------------------------------------------------------------42
3.11. Determinación de los niveles de CoQ por HPLC------------------------------------43
3.12. Análisis enzimático de la Cadena respiratoria mitocondrial (CRM)------------43
3.12.1. Preparación de fibroblastos para determinación de la CRM-------------------43
3.12.2. Análisis enzimático de la CRM a partir de homogenados de fibroblastos---44
3.12.3. Citrato sintasa---------------------------------------------------------------------------44
3.12.4. Complejo I: NADH CoQ Oxidorreductasa----------------------------------------45
3.12.5. Complejo II: Succinato deshidrogenasa--------------------------------------------45
3.12.6. Complejo III: DBH2-Citocromo C Oxidorreductasa----------------------------46
3.12.7. Complejo I+III: NADH-Citocromo C reductasa---------------------------------47
3.12.8. Complejo II+III: Succinato-Citocromo C- reductasa---------------------------48
3.12.9. Complejo IV: Citocromo C oxidasa-------------------------------------------------48
3.13. Análisis de proteínas mediante Western Blot----------------------------------------49
3.13.1. Cuantificación de proteínas por el método Bradford----------------------------49
3.13.2. SDS-Page y Western Blot--------------------------------------------------------------49
3.13.3. Inmunodetección con anticuerpos y electrotransferencia-----------------------50
3.14. Amplificación por PCR y secuenciación ---------------------------------------------50
3.15. Niveles de IL-1β e IL-18------------------------------------------------------------------51
3.16. Niveles de ATP-----------------------------------------------------------------------------52
3.17. Cuantificación de ADNmt---------------------------------------------------------------53
3.18. Genotipado de la mutación en pacientes y cíbridos --------------------------------53
3.19. Producción mitocondrial de ROS------------------------------------------------------54
3.20. Determinación de la peroxidación lipídica-------------------------------------------54
3.21. Cuantificación de la tasa de proliferación celular----------------------------------55
3.22. Determinación de los niveles de daño oxidativo del ADN
por 8-hidroxideoxiguanosina-----------------------------------------------------------55
3.23. Tasa de consumo de oxígeno (OCR)---------------------------------------------------56
3.24. Análisis de la estructura y la secuencia de conservación--------------------------57
3.25. Análisis estadístico------------------------------------------------------------------------57
4. Resultados--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------61
LA ACTIVACIÓN DEL COMPLEJO NLRP3-INFLAMASOMA ES INDUCIDA
POR LA DISFUNCIÓN MITOCONDRIAL EN LAS CÉLULAS
MONONUCLEARES DE LOS PACIENTES CON FM.
4.1. Disfunción mitocondrial en PBMC de pacientes con FM---------------------------62
4.2. Estrés oxidativo en PBMC de los pacientes con FM---------------------------------66
4.3. Activación del complejo inflamasoma por el estrés
oxidativo involucrados en el dolor de la FM------------------------------------------------66
4.4. La inducción de deficiencia de CoQ10 produce la activación
del inflamasoma----------------------------------------------------------------------------------74
FISIOPATOLOGÍA DE LA DISFUNCIÓN MITOCONDRIAL EN
FIBROBLASTOS DE FIBROMIALGIA
4.5. Metabolismo mitocondrial en fibroblastos de pacientes con FM------------------77
4.6. Niveles de estrés oxidativo en los fibroblastos de pacientes con FM--------------85
UNA MUTACIÓN EN EL GEN CITOCROMO B DEL ADN MITOCONDRIAL
EN UNA FAMILIA CON FIBROMIALGIA SE ASOCIA CON LA ACTIVACIÓN
NLRP3 – INFLAMASOMA
4.7. Análisis de ADNmt de pacientes con FM-----------------------------------------------91
4.8. Análisis molecular de la mutación encontrada---------------------------------------94
4.9. Análisis de la estructura y secuencia de aminoácidos-------------------------------97
4.10. Estudios fisiopatológicos---------------------------------------------------------------99
4.11. Activación del complejo NLRP3-inflamasoma----------------------------------103
5. Discusión--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------117
6. Conclusiones----------------------------------------------------------------------------------131
7. Bibliografía-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------135
8. Producción------------------------------------------------------------------------------------151
ANEXOS-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------153
RESUMEN
mitocondrial y el estrés oxidativo han mostrado una gran implicación. Nuestro estudio ha
vitro utilizado para el estudio de las patologías mitocondriales. Para ello, hemos usado
fibroblastos de piel mediante los cuales, hemos descrito una deficiencia de la actividad
Por otro lado, muchos de los síntomas asociados con las enfermedades mitocondriales,
como intolerancia al ejercicio, fatiga, miopatía están presentes en muchos pacientes con
Tras la secuenciación de ADNmt de varios pacientes con FM, encontramos una mutación
por vía materna, que aparece en todos miembros de la familia con el diagnóstico de FM.
del complejo NLRP3-inflamasoma así como una mejora del metabolismo celular tras la
inhibición del complejo inflamasoma o la suplementación con CoQ10. Los cíbridos trans-
mitocondriales que portaban la mutación m.15804T> C mostraron las alteraciones
(MELAS), Epilepsia mioclónica con fibras rojas rasgadas (MERRF) y Neuropatía óptica
hereditaria de Leber (LHON). En este trabajo mostramos por primera vez una mutación
inflamasoma asociado con una familia con diagnóstico de FM. Sobre la base de nuestros
ABREVIATURAS
8-oxo-G: 8-hidroxideoxiguanosina
FM: Fibromialgia
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Mario David Cordero Morales
LPS: Lipopolisacárido
cerebrovascular
O2: Oxígeno
ONOO-: Peroxinitrito
2
Abreviaturas
PABA: 4-aminobenzoato
PCr: Fosfocreatina
PEG: Polietilenglicol
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4
Introducción
INTRODUCCIÓN
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6
Introducción
1. INTRODUCCIÓN
1.1. La mitocondria
codificadas tanto por el ADN nuclear (ADNn) como el ADN mitocondrial (ADNmt)
(Haas et al., 2008; De Greaves et al., 2012) (Figura 1). Por otra parte, las mitocondrias
actividad bioenergética y respiratoria que tiene lugar en las mitocondrias hacen de esta
un entorno con alta producción de especies reactivas de oxígeno (ROS) que son
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Mario David Cordero Morales
de ADN así como la localización donde se lleva a cabo la fosforilación oxidativa o cadena respiratoria
mitocondrial a partir de los sustratos derivados del metabolismo del piruvato y los ácidos grasos.
similar a las bacterias y presentan su propio sistema genético en una molécula circular de
ADN, con todos los genes necesarios para replicar, transcribir y traducir la información
genética que contiene (Wallace, 2005). El resto de material genético de la bacteria original
8
Introducción
De ese modo, la mayoría de las proteínas mitocondriales son codificadas por genes
por 16,569 pares de bases, y contiene información para 37 genes de los cuales 13
2).
16569 pares de
bases
37 genes
http://haygenealogy.com/dankenbring/genome.html.
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Mario David Cordero Morales
Las 13 proteínas que hemos mencionado son componentes de cuatro de los cinco
(Complejo III); 3 subunidades (COX I, II y III) del citocromo c oxidasa (Complejo IV);
sustratos orgánicos como el piruvato y los ácidos grasos en la matriz mitocondrial (Figura
3), al oxígeno molecular que actuará como último aceptor de electrones. La energía
gran cantidad de estos ROS debido al flujo de electrones entre los complejos y a la
Schon, 2014).
10
Introducción
Figura 3. Cadena respiratoria mitocondrial. Los complejos multiprotéicos se sitúan en la membrana interna
mitocondrial donde se realiza el transporte de electrones que generará un gradiente de protones a lo largo
transfiriéndolos de los complejos I y II al complejo III, que a su vez los cede al citocromo c. El complejo
IV cede los electrones del citocromo C al O2 para formar H2O2. Al mismo tiempo se desarrolla un flujo de
protones desde la matriz mitocondrial al espacio intermembrana que produce un gradiente electroquímico
que permite la síntesis de ATP mediante la formación de un enlace de alta energía entre ADP y fosfato.
isoprenoide constituido por un anillo bencénico hidroxilado que posibilita la función del
membrana. La cola isoprenoide está compuesta por una serie de repeticiones de moléculas
isopreno es característico de cada especie y, aunque suele haber una forma predominante,
muchas especies tienen distintas isoformas de CoQ. Por tanto, en humanos el CoQ se
igual forma, los mamíferos de mayor tamaño (caballos, conejos, cerdos) poseen también
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Mario David Cordero Morales
CoQ10, en el caso de los roedores encontramos que sintetizan CoQ9 y CoQ10 (Turunen et
al., 2002).
El CoQ está presente en todos los tejidos, sin embargo, las cantidades suelen ser variables
con gran dependencia al tipo de tejido. Así, esta concentración de CoQ en un organismo
varía de un órgano a otro y entre las distintas regiones de un mismo órgano o tejido,
aunque hay que tener en cuenta que la dieta influye considerablemente en las
Los tejidos más ricos en CoQ son el tejido cardíaco, hepático, muscular y cerebral. Dentro
de un mismo tejido, las zonas con más abundancia de CoQ son las membranas externa e
interna mitocondrial, los lisosomas y las vesículas de Golgi (Turunen et al., 2004).
Se han descrito diversas funciones sobre el CoQ entre las cuales, la principal es la de
2008).
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Introducción
por la catalasa, glutation peroxidasa (GPX) o peroxidroxin III (IIIPRX). Sin embargo,
cuando estas enzimas no pueden convertir ROS como el radical superóxido a agua lo
el H2O2 se encuentra con un metal de transición reducido, o se mezcla con O2-, el H2O2
puede reducirse aún más a radical hidroxilo (OH•) que es el agente oxidante más potente
entre los ROS. De forma adicional, el óxido nítrico (NO) se produce dentro de las
(ONOO-). Estos dos radicales junto con otros, pueden ocasionar un gran daño a la
transferidos a O2 para generar O2-. Una producción excesiva de ROS mitocondrial puede
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Mario David Cordero Morales
mitocondrial. Fuente: modificado de Turrens JF, 2003. cit c3 -: citocromo c3; CuZnSOD: cobre-zinc
superóxido dismutasa; H2O2: peróxido de hidrógeno; MnSOD: manganeso superóxido dismutasa; O2:
En 1962, el Dr. Rolf Luft describe por primera vez una enfermedad asociada a la
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Introducción
alteraciones en los genes que codifican las reacciones metabólicas que tienen lugar en la
o las glándulas endocrinas, siendo sobre todo el músculo y el sistema nervioso los más
vulnerables debido a su alta demanda energética, por lo que son los principales tejidos
estas afecciones son muy variadas, incluyendo deterioro de las funciones mentales,
Debemos tener en cuenta que las patologías mitocondriales no solo son aquellas que se
producen por alteraciones en los genes del ADNmt dado que para su función, la
mitocondria cuenta tanto con los genes codificados por su propio ADN, como por genes
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Mario David Cordero Morales
(Haas et al., 2008). El grado de afectación en este tipo de alteraciones dependerá del grado
2014), por lo que la expresión clínica de una mutación puntual vendrá determinada por la
relación entre copias sanas y mutadas en los diferentes tejidos (Haas et al., 2008; Dowling,
2014).
respiratoria mitocondrial son de herencia materna (Figura 5), ya que se dan en los genes
del ADN mitocondrial, y tienen carácter multistémico. Sin embargo, se presentan también
casos de mutaciones esporádicas y específicas de tejido (Andreu, et al., 2004). Entre estas
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Introducción
Afectados
No afectados
Figura 5. Esquema del perfil de herencia materna característica de las enfermedades mitocondriales
http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/handbook/illustrations.
El ADNn codifica multitud de proteínas (se estima que cerca de 3000 genes) que son
causadas por mutaciones en genes nucleares en cuyo caso se presentan con herencia de
tipo mendeliana. Estos genes codifican para cada una de las funciones relacionadas con
la mitocondria como:
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Mario David Cordero Morales
Fisión-fusión.
En este sentido, existen patologías asociadas a fallos en cada uno de estos genes y por
tanto rutas metabólicas. Algunos ejemplos importantes en este grupo son las mutaciones
o los genes relacionados con la síntesis de CoQ10 que se asocian a fallos en los complejos
mutaciones en los genes: SURF1, SCO1 y SCO2, COS10 asociadas al síndrome de Leigh
actualmente dado su complejidad. Sin embargo, actualmente las terapias de este conjunto
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equilibrio entre las citoquinas anti-inflamatorias tales como IL-4, IL-5, IL-10 o TGF-β y
pro-inflamatorias como IL-1β, IL-18 o TNFα entre otras, mediadas en su mayoría por la
los últimos años, las citoquinas IL-1β, IL-18 han adquirido un papel protagonista en
numerosos procesos patológicos no solo por su papel proinflamatorio, sino por ser las
IL-1β e IL-18 (Figura 6). Los NLR son receptores citosólicos que regulan la inflamación
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Mario David Cordero Morales
terminal contiene una secuencia repetitiva rica en leucinas o LRR (leucine rich region),
con la que se une a ligandos específicos. La familia de NLR está constituida por una gran
A B
Figura 6. Estructura del complejo inflamasoma. A. Hélice formada por la unión de una proteína NLR, el
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Introducción
De todos los NLRs, NLRP3 es el más estudiado y se activa por una amplia gama de
(Zhou et al., 2011; Shimada et al., 2014). A este respecto, el estado del ADNmt adquiere
una gran relevancia puesto que suele estar relacionado con la aparición de alteraciones
incremento del estrés oxidativo y una considerable disfunción mitocondrial que dificulta
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Mario David Cordero Morales
1.5. La fibromialgia.
síntomas como, disminución del umbral del dolor, fatiga muscular, intolerancia al
ejercicio, dolor de cabeza, trastornos del sueño y la depresión. Es una condición crónica
de rutina no suelen ser de utilidad puesto que dan resultados normales (Yunus et al.,
la población (que afecta a por lo menos 5 millones de personas en los Estados Unidos y
et el ., 2008). Su alta prevalencia hace que la FM sea un problema importante en los países
con un alto coste de utilización de servicios médicos así como una alta tasa de invalidez.
Por otra parte, el uso de medicamentos y necesidades médicas aumenta notablemente una
vez confirmado el diagnóstico por lo que se estima que el coste de los servicios anuales
de salud de los pacientes con FM es del doble que la de los pacientes con otras patologías
de dolor crónico y pacientes sin dolor. Además, el hecho de que sus criterios diagnósticos
trastornos inmunológicos y del estrés oxidativo que pueden, entre otros factores,
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Introducción
(Russell et al., 1994; Crofford et al., 1996; Neeck, 2002). Los síntomas del paciente
pueden derivar de una mala modulación del estrés, una sensibilización de las neuronas
nociceptoras específicas y por tanto, disminución del umbral del dolor en respuesta a
como incremento de anticuerpos han sido asociados con la FM, como anticuerpos contra
los anticuerpos contra la serotonina (Klein et al., 1992; Werle et al., 2001). También se
y la sustancia P (Staud y Spaeth, 2008; Alnigenis y Barland, 2001; Schwarz et al., 2002).
Por otra parte, la homeostasis de las citoquinas inflamatorias han sido consideradas en la
patogénesis de FM (Wallace, 2001; Wallace et al., 2006). Por otro lado, varios estudios
oxidativo en pacientes con FM, lo que sugiere que este proceso puede contribuir a la
asociados a los músculos, se han estudiado las biopsias musculares, sobre todo de trapecio
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Mario David Cordero Morales
fibras de tipo I. Los hallazgos en microscopía electrónica eran más llamativos, mostrando
1986), además de bajo número de mitocondrias (Sprott et al., 2004) y falta de membrana
interna mitocondrial (Henriksson et al., 1982), fibras rojas rasgadas (Bengtsson et al.,
A B
C
D
rojo rasgadas. B. Fibras Cox negativas. C. Ausencia de mitocondrias en biopsia muscular (imagen derecha)
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Introducción
comparada con músculo sano (imagen izquierda). D. Acúmulos subsarcolémicos que dan la impresión de
fibras rasgadas. Fuente: Yunus et al., 1986; Pongratz and Späth, 1998; Sprott et al., 2004.
2008).
consistentes con los síntomas clínicos de debilidad y fatiga en pacientes con FM (Park et
al., 1998). Los estudios con RMN mostraron reducidas concentraciones de fosfocreatina
(PCr) y ATP en los músculos de los pacientes con FM de un 15% por debajo de los valores
normales durante el reposo y el ejercicio. Los niveles reducidos de PCr y ATP en los
músculos de los pacientes se correlacionan con las observaciones clínicas con respecto a
debilidad y dolor durante el ejercicio. En este estudio, Park también mostró que el dolor
se correlacionó inversamente con ATP y los niveles de PCr. La reducción de los niveles
de ATP también se han observado en los eritrocitos de los pacientes de FM, lo que sugiere
que esto puede ser un fenómeno más sistémico de lo que se suponía anteriormente
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Mario David Cordero Morales
plaquetas de los pacientes con FM (Bazzichi et al., 2008). Las plaquetas representan un
FM. Las plaquetas poseen un gran número de mitocondrias así como todo el conjunto de
y, en consecuencia, son muy activas en la producción de ATP (Niu et al., 1996). Por otra
serotoninérgicos (Marazziti et al., 1999; Martini et al., 2004), lo que permite el estudio de
patogénesis de la FM de una forma evidente (Bagis et al., 2005; Ozgocmen et al., 2006;
Cordero et al., 2010). En apoyo de esta hipótesis existen nuevas referencias en pacientes
con FM; en células de pacientes con FM se han observado reducidos niveles de masa
bioenergética celular (Bazzichi et al., 2008; Cordero et al., 2010; Gerdle et al., 2013;
Miyamae et al., 2013; Cordero et al., 2013a). Además, se ha propuesto que la inflamación
a nivel sistémico también está involucrada en la FM, y así, se han observado altos niveles
2007; Ross et al., 2010; Cordero et al., 2013b). Las citoquinas pro-inflamatorias podrían
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Introducción
terapéuticas.
mitocondria hasta tal punto, que han llegado a generar subgrupos patológicos
caracterizado por las alteraciones de esta organela (Zuo et al., 2013; Choo-Kang et al.,
ADNmt, etc. Además, en todas estas patologías existen nexos de unión con la
inflamación.
Tal y como hemos descrito, la FM es una patología con claros antecedentes de afectación
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Mario David Cordero Morales
producción de ROS mitocondriales. Por otro lado, evaluaremos el papel del CoQ10 como
28
Objetivos
OBJETIVOS
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30
Objetivos
2. OBJETIVOS
con FM.
mioclónica con fibras rojas rasgadas) con la mutación m.8344A> G en el gen MT-
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32
Material y Métodos
MATERIAL Y MÉTODOS
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34
Material y Métodos
3. MATERIAL Y MÉTODOS
estudio.
3.1. Pacientes
diagnóstico del American College of Rheumatology 1990 para FM. Estos criterios
izquierdo del cuerpo, así como por encima y por debajo de la cintura, con una duración
(puntos dolorosos), con sensibilidad moderada o más grave a la palpación digital. Los
estupefacientes, así como embarazo o lactancia actual. Todos los pacientes tenían un
estilo de vida sedentario. Los datos clínicos se obtuvieron a partir de un examen físico, y
35
Mario David Cordero Morales
3.2. Reactivos.
comercial Sigma Chemical Co. (St. Louis, MO). El anticuerpo anti- GAPDH anticuerpo
(subunidad 39 kDa), complejo II (30 kDa subunidad I), Complejo III (subunidad Core 1)
(Cambridge, Reino Unido). Los anticuerpos para catalasa y MnSOD fueron adquiridos
adquirió en PharMingen (BD Bioscience, San Jose, California). Los anticuerpos anti-
anticuerpo anti - NLRP3 de Adipogen (San Diego, EE.UU.) y anti -IL - 1β (p17) de Santa
de Boehringer Mannheim (Indianapolis, IN). El kit de sustrato Immun estrella HRP era
36
Material y Métodos
Los fibroblastos derivados de los pacientes y controles se obtuvieron de acuerdo con las
suplementado con 10% de suero fetal bovino (FBS) (Gibco, Invitrogen, Eugene, Oregón,
EE.UU.) y antibióticos (Sigma Chemical Co., St. Louis, MO, EE.UU.). Las células se
En este proyecto hemos trabajado con líneas de fibroblastos de piel aislados de tres
con punch de 4mm. Las pacientes fueron tres mujeres de 40, 42 y 42 años de edad. Los
baja estatura, diabetes mellitus, sordera, demencia y ataxia. El nivel de heteroplasmia fue
describen en las referencias Cotán et al., 2011. Las células fueron cedidas por la Dra.
Sandra Jackson del Hospital Universitario Carl Gustav Carus, Dresden (Alemania).
37
Mario David Cordero Morales
en las referencias de la Mata et al., 2012. Las células fueron cedidas por la Dra. Sandra
m.11778G >A. Los fibroblastos LHON no habían sido caracterizados antes de este
trabajo. Las células fueron cedidas por la Dra. Sandra Jackson del Hospital Universitario
este protocolo usamos entre 2,5 - 3 ml de sangre heparinizada y mezclada con 1,5 ml de
solución salina equilibrada (BSS, Balanced Salt Solution), solución salina con glucosa
que mantenía la viabilidad de las células sanguíneas. Para cada 2 ml de sangre con BSS,
38
Material y Métodos
se centrifuga a 900 g con una centrífuga basculante durante 40 min. Tras la centrifugación
plasma, seguida de una interfase que contenía los monocitos y linfocitos (PBMC) situada
encima del Ficoll y, finalmente, un precipitado formado por plaquetas, eritrocitos y demás
fragmentos celulares. Recogimos la interfase formada por monocitos y linfocitos con una
pipeta Pasteur, y se pasaba a un nuevo tubo Corning, donde por cada mililitro de células
Las muestras de, orina, biopsia de piel y saliva se obtuvieron de la paciente en la que se
insoluble se lavó dos veces usando tampón de PBS enfriado con hielo y se almacenó a -
80 ºC hasta su análisis. La biopsia de piel fue tomada de la misma forma que para obtener
los fibroblastos.
39
Mario David Cordero Morales
célula Rho-0, células que contienen mitocondrias pero que carecen de ADNmt,
que son transferidos a tubos de 50 mL. A continuación, se añade una novena parte de
suero fisiológico salino, se mezclan por agitación y centrifugan a 200 g durante 20 min a
12ºC. De este producto final se recogen tres cuartas partes del sobrenadante que contiene
días del sembrado, el medio se cambia por medio selectivo sin uridina y con BrdU, el
40
Material y Métodos
cual es cambiado cada tres días. A partir de los 12 días, se han formado colonias que
pueden ser sembradas a frascos. El mantenimiento de las células se realiza con medio
Las células se recogieron con tripsina (0,25% Trypsin-EDTA Solution, Sigma), para
en hielo 5 minutos para después añadir 500μl de SDS 2% y agitar con un vórtex durante
durante 5 minutos a 4°C para separar la fase orgánica (que contiene los lípidos) de la fase
de 25ml, volviéndose a repetir la extracción con hexano dos veces más. El hexano de las
con un una potencia de rotor del 50%. El residuo seco se reconstituye en 333μl de etanol
(calidad HPLC) y se pasa a un tubo eppendorf limpio, repitiendo el lavado dos veces más.
El etanol se evapora por vacío (SPD121P, Savant SpeedVac) durante 2-3 horas a 50°C.
41
Mario David Cordero Morales
Tras este proceso, El residuo seco es guardado a -20°C, para ser reconstituido finalmente,
La extracción del ADN total se realizó de diferentes tejidos: biopsia de piel, sangre, saliva,
orina y fibroblastos. Para la extracción del ADN de la biopsia de piel se siguió el método
descrito (Sambrook J & Russell D, 2000), con modificaciones. Se partió de una porción
para separar las fases. Se recogió el sobrenadante y lavó dos veces con 1 mL de éter
dietílico. Tras evaporarse el éter, se añadieron 1,5 mL de etanol al 98%, que provoca el
HCl 10 mM, EDTA 1 mM, pH=7,4). La solución de ADN se conservó a -20 °C.
Para extraer el ADN de los fibroblastos o cíbridos éstos se tripsinizaron y lavaron 2 veces
con PBS y se procedió a su extracción con el kit QIAamp® DNA Mini siguiendo las
42
Material y Métodos
sangre, células de la orina o saliva se siguieron las instrucciones del fabricante del sistema
un HPLC Shimadzu UFLC, equipado con una columna sílica de fase reversa 15-cm
Kromasil C-18, con un horno a 40ºC, flujo de 1ml/min en una fase móvil compuesta de
el HPLC tras realizar una línea de base de fase móvil, así como los estándares necesarios.
Respiratoria Mitocondrial
Las células crecidas en monocapa se lavan con PBS 1X pH 7,4, se recogen con tripsina
pellet se lava con PBS 1X pH 7,4, se resuspenden por vórtex y se repiten los lavado 2
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Mario David Cordero Morales
frío. El pellet se resuspende por agitación con vórtex en 500μl de Tampón B (MOPS
20mM, Sacarosa 0,25M, EDTA 1mM) y se deja reposar de nuevo en hielo durante 5
minutos, tras los cuales se centrifuga a 10000g durante 3 minutos en frío. Desechado el
con célula Peltier acoplada (PCB 150, Water Peltier System, Thermo Spectronic).
- Homogenado 5μl
44
Material y Métodos
Agitar, incubar 30 segundos a 30ºC y leer 2 minutos a una longitud de onda de 412nm a
30ºC.
- BSA-EDTA 1% 100 μl
- Homogenado 40μl
Agitar e incubar 8 minutos a 30ºC, para después leer la línea base a λ=340nm a 30ºC. Una
- CoQ1 10mM 10 μl
- Rotenona 0,25mM 20 μl 5 μl
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Mario David Cordero Morales
- Homogenado 20μl
Agitar, incubar 30 segundos a 30ºC y leer 2 minutos a λ=600nm, para luego añadir:
Cálculos: *ɛ = 19 mM-1cm-1
- BSA-EDTA 1% 100μl
46
Material y Métodos
- Homogenado 10μl
- KCN 30μl
- Homogenado 10μl
Agitar y leer la línea base durante 2 minutos a 30ºC y λ=550nm, para después añadir
iniciadores de la actividad:
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Mario David Cordero Morales
- KCN 30μl
- Homogenado 30μl
Agitar y leer la línea base durante 2 minutos a 30ºC y λ=550nm, para después añadir
iniciadores de la actividad:
48
Material y Métodos
Citocromo C reducido
Para determinar la cantidad de proteínas para los ensayos de Western-Blot se usó una
500 (Thermo Spectronic). La cantidad de proteína fue determinada mediante una recta
El análisis de las proteínas que estaban presentes en los lisados celulares se llevó a cabo
acuerdo a las necesidades del peso molecular de las proteínas a estudiar y al 4% el gel
Blot, SD, Semi-Dry Transfer Cell con fuente de alimentación Bio-Rad Power Pac 1000)
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Mario David Cordero Morales
Ponceau al 0.5% en ácido acético al 1%. Después de desteñir el rojo Ponceau con ácido
acético 1%, las membranas fueron bloqueadas con TTBS (Tris 20mM pH 7.6, NaCl 150
Las membranas, una vez bloqueadas se incubaron con los anticuerpos primarios durante
toda la noches a 4ºC en TTBS (TBS, Tween-20 al 0.05%, agua destilada y leche en polvo).
A continuación, lavamos las membranas tres veces durante 5 minutos cada lavado en
TTBS (TBS, Tween-20 al 0.05%, agua destilada). Posteriormente, las membranas fueron
peroxidasas de rábano HRP para catalizar la oxidación del luminol en presencia del
(www.mitomap.org/mitoseq.html).
50
Material y Métodos
realizó usando el paquete Staden (Bonfield et al., 1995). Para este propósito se utilizó la
España).
Los niveles de IL-1β (Genway, San Diego CA, EE.UU.) e IL-18 en suero (Biosensis,
Australia) se analizaron por duplicado por los kits ELISA comerciales. Brevemente, el
dejó incubar durante una hora a temperatura ambiente. Tras esta incubación y los lavados
durante otra hora. Buscar qué es esto. Durante la primera incubación, el antígeno IL-1β
y del lavado para eliminar toda la enzima no unida, se añadió una solución de sustrato,
que actúa sobre la enzima unida para producir color. Finalmente las muestras fueron
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Mario David Cordero Morales
Para la determinación de los niveles de IL-18 presente en el suero de los sujetos, se utilizó
fabricante. Se añadieron 100 µl de cada muestra en una placa que estaba revestida de un
anticuerpo monoclonal específico para IL-18 y se incubaron durante una hora. Durante
esta primera incubación, IL-18 es capturado e inmovilizado sobre la placa. Después del
pipeteó en los pocillos, y se incubó durante una hora. La unión del anticuerpo conjugado
HRP a los pocillos completa el sándwich de tres miembros. Tras el lavado, la actividad
minutos. La incubación del reactivo de sustrato dentro de los pocillos produce un color
de incubación, la reacción se paró añadiendo a cada pocillo una solución que termina la
reacción catalizada por HRP y estabiliza el color formado. La absorbancia de cada pocillo
acuerdo con las instrucciones del fabricante. Este kit se basa en el requerimiento de ATP
por parte de la luciferasa para la producción de luz, de manera que a mayor contenido de
ATP de la muestra, mayor emisión de luz. De esta forma, en los ensayos se mezclaron
52
Material y Métodos
TL Plus (Thermos Lab Systems) a una longitud de onda de 560nm. Para la cuantificación
final, se realizó una recta de calibrado con muestras de ATP de concentración conocida.
El ADN se extrajo por lisis celular estándar. Los cebadores utilizados fueron: para el
Una vez que se extrajo el ADN, la amplificación por PCR del fragmento de mtCYB que
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Mario David Cordero Morales
ADNmt: fragmento de 300 pb, y el ADNmt mutante: 181 y 119 fragmentos bp).
MitoSOXTM rojo durante 30 min a 37°C, se lavó dos veces con PBS, se resuspendieron
DMEM-4500mg/L Glucosa más 10% FBS se incubaron con MitoSOX™ Red durante 30
durante 0,5-1 h a temperatura ambiente, y se lavaron dos veces con PBS. Después de eso,
54
Material y Métodos
Glucosa más 10% FBS. Una vez alcanzada la densidad deseada, se añadió al medio C11-
Bodipy 1μM (BODIPY® 581/591 C11, Molecular Probes) y se incubó el cultivo durante
los cubres sobre los portas con Mounting medium for fluorescente (Vector Laboratories,
Se cultivaron 100.000 fibroblastos durante 72 horas. Tras desechar las células muertas
retirando el medio de cultivo y reemplazándolo por medio fresco, las células fueron
hidroxideoxiguanosina.
oxo-dGuo-EIA-BIOTECH (OXIS Health Products, Inc. 6040 N Cutter Circle, Suite 317
Portland, OR 97217-3935 U.S.A.), tal como sigue: a una placa en la cual está fijada la 8-
oxo-dGuo en la muestra o estándar compite con el 8-oxo-G unido a la placa por los sitios
de unión del anticuerpo monoclonal de 8-oxo-G. Los anticuerpos que se han unido a la
8-oxo-dGuo de la muestra son lavados, mientras que aquellos que se han unido a la 8-
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Mario David Cordero Morales
XF-24 (Seahorse Bioscience, North Billerica, MA, EE.UU.) de acuerdo con el protocolo
del fabricante. Las células (5 x104 / pocillo) se sembraron durante 16 horas en la placa de
XF-24 antes del experimento en un medio DMEM al 10% de suero. Para determinar el
número de células, se realizó un recuento de las células mediante el citómetro Tali® base-
Imagen | Life Technologies. Las células se sembraron el día antes del experimento
de células por cada pocillo fue confirmada por observación directa de cada pocillo
celular en los pocillos. Debido a que durante los tiempos de incubación, las células
experimento, se realizó un segundo recuento de células para cada pocillo. Las células se
final de células. Antes de comenzar las mediciones, las células se colocaron en un medio
DMEM (suplementado con glucosa 25 mM, glutamina 2 mM, piruvato de sodio 1 mM, y
56
Material y Métodos
consumido por minuto normalizada a 1000 células (pMol O2 / 1000 células / min).
Para obtener la estructura tanto para CYB y proteínas COXIII, se utilizó el servidor de
Swiss- Model (Biasini et al., 2014) con los parámetros por defecto y se visualizaron con
el programa RasMol. Logo diagramas fueron creados usando Skylign para mostrar la
2014).
Los datos en cifras se ofrecen como media ± desviación estándar. Los datos entre los
diferentes grupos fueron analizados estadísticamente utilizando ANOVA sobre los rangos
con Sigma Plot y software estadístico Sigma Stat (SPSS para Windows, 19, 2010, SPSS
57
Mario David Cordero Morales
de Pearson. Para los estudios de cultivo celular, se utilizó la prueba t de Student para
58
Resultados
RESULTADOS
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Mario David Cordero Morales
60
Resultados
4. RESULTADOS
Para esta parte del proyecto se seleccionaron un conjunto de pacientes para la obtención
de muestras sanguíneas. Todos los pacientes mostraron síntomas de dolor, así como otros
parámetros tenidos en cuenta fueron similares entre el grupo control como el grupo FM;
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Mario David Cordero Morales
IMC, Índice de masa corporal; FIQ, Cuestionario de impacto de la Fibromialgia; VAS, Escala Visual
Por otro lado, una de las principales características de esta enfermedad desde el punto de
(Tabla 2)
Tabla 2. Parámetros de bioquímica sérica en pacientes con FM. n=20 para controles y
Las alteraciones de la cadena respiratoria mitocondrial son uno de los marcadores más
62
Resultados
pacientes con FM. n = 20 y 30 para el grupo control y grupo de FM, respectivamente. Actividades
llevó a cabo por análisis espectrofotométrico según se describe en Materiales y Métodos. Los resultados se
expresan en U/CS (unidades por citrato sintasa), y representan la media±DS de tres experimentos
independientes. * P < 0,001 y ** P < 0,01 entre los pacientes de control y FM.
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Mario David Cordero Morales
correspondientes a los complejos I y el complejo III (Figura 10A y 1B) apoyando los
Figura 10. Expresión de proteínas de la cadena respiratoria mitocondrial. A. Niveles de expresión de las
proteína de los complejo mitocondriales I (subunidad 39 kDa), complejo III (Subunidad Core I), y
oxoguanina-glicosilasa 8 (OGG - 1, una enzima ADN glicosilasa responsable de la escisión de 7,8 -dihidro-
8 -oxoguanine (8 - oxo G). B. Los niveles de las proteína se determinaron por análisis densitométrico (IOD,
intensidad óptica integrada) de tres Western blots diferentes y normalizados respecto la señal de GADPH,
utilizando PBMC a partir de cuatro pacientes con FM representativos, en comparación con un grupo de 5
que las deficiencias de este transportador de electrones están asociadas con la disfunción
pacientes hemos podido observar una considerable reducción de los niveles de CoQ10
(46%) respecto del valor medio de las células control en las PBMC de los pacientes con
FM (Figura 11A). Por otra parte, para determinar el efecto de la disfunción mitocondrial
64
Resultados
controles y pacientes con FM. Tras la determinación, pudimos observar que los niveles
de ATP se mostraban reducidos al 76% respecto a los controles (p <0,001) (Figura 11B).
Figura 11. Disfunción bioenergética y estrés oxidativo en PBMC de controles y pacientes con FM. A.
Niveles de CoQ10 en células de control y FM determinadas mediante extracción con hexano y separación
por HPLC como se describe en Material y Métodos. B. Los niveles de ATP en control y FM BMC se
por citometría de flujo y el kit de EIA como se describe en Material y Métodos. Los datos representan la
media ± SD de tres experimentos separados. * P < 0,001, ** P < 0,01 entre las células del grupo control y
FM.
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Mario David Cordero Morales
Está bien establecido que la disfunción mitocondrial está asociada con la inducción de la
significativa con los síntomas clínicos. A fin de evaluar el estrés oxidativo en FM, se
pacientes con FM respecto a los controles (p <0,001) (Figura 11C). Además, como
como resultado de la exposición del ADN a los ROS, y los niveles de 8-oxo-G en PBMC
significativamente más altos niveles de OGG1 (Figura 10A) y 8-oxo-G en las PBMC de
los pacientes con FM (Figura 11D). Estos datos muestran un intenso daño oxidativo del
ADN como consecuencia del alto nivel de ROS que observamos en las células de los
dolor de la FM
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Resultados
inflamasoma (Zhou et al., 2011). Dado que nuestros pacientes mostraron una considerable
sugiere la activación del inflamasoma (Figura 12A y 12B). Dado que la activación de la
caspasa-1 está también relacionada con la apoptosis o muerte celular, comparamos esta
activación con la de otra caspasa relacionada con la muerte celular pero no con la
apoptosis.
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Mario David Cordero Morales
Figura 12. Activación del complejo NLRP3-inflamasoma en PBMCs de pacientes con FM respecto a
controles. Los niveles de proteína NLRP3 y de la activación de caspasa 1 se analizaron por Western blot.
Los niveles de proteína se determinaron mediante análisis densitométrico (IOD, intensidad óptica
integrada) de tres Western blots diferentes y normalizadas respecto a GADPH, utilizando PBMC a partir
de cuatro pacientes con FM representativos, en comparación con un conjunto de 5 sujetos control de igual
edad y sexo. PBMC de individuos sanos fueron tratados con lipopolisacárido (LPS) de Escherichia coli
Figura 13. Activación del complejo NLRP3-inflamasoma en PBMCs de pacientes con FM respecto a
controles determinada por expresión a tiempo real. A. Niveles de expresión de B. Los niveles de las
proteína se determinaron por análisis densitométrico (IOD, intensidad óptica integrada) de tres Western
blots diferentes y normalizados respecto la señal de GADPH, utilizando PBMC a partir de cuatro pacientes
con FM representativos, en comparación con un grupo de 5 saludable sujetos de control por edad y sexo.
de NLRP3 y B. Caspasa 1 determinados por Real time RT-PCR cuantitativa. n = 20 para el control y n =
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Resultados
30 para el grupo de FM, respectivamente. Los datos representan la media ± SD de tres experimentos
separados. * P < 0,05 entre los pacientes del grupo control y FM.
forma activa de las IL-1β e IL-18 como una forma de inflamación sistémica. En ese
Figura 14. Niveles de IL-1β (A) e IL-18 (B) en suero de los pacientes con FM en comparación con los
controles sanos. La determinación se hizo mediante ELISA tal y como se describe en el Material y métodos.
n = 20 para el control y n = 30 para el grupo de FM, respectivamente. Los datos representan la media ± SD
de tres experimentos separados. P < 0,001 entre el control y los pacientes con FM.
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Mario David Cordero Morales
los niveles de proteína IL- 1β en su forma activa (p17) en las PBMC (Figura 15A). Dado
que nuestros datos parecen mostrar que la activación del complejo inflamasoma en
oxidativo, las PBMC de pacientes con FM fueron aisladas y cultivadas con CoQ10 para
después de 24 h las células mostraron una importante reducción de la caspasa-1 activa así
Figura 15. Efecto del tratamiento con CoQ10 en la activación del complejo inflamasoma en células de
pacientes con FM. A. Niveles de proteína IL-1β en la forma activa p17 en PBMC de varios pacientes
comparados con PBMC de controles sanos y la IL- 1β. B. Efectos del tratamiento con CoQ10 30µM en los
niveles de proteína IL- 1β p17 tras 24h de incubación. C. Niveles proteicos de caspasa-1 activa en PBMC
de los pacientes antes y después del tratamiento CoQ10 30µM. Los datos representan la media ± SD de tres
experimentos separados. * P < 0,001 entre el control y los pacientes con FM.
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Resultados
Por otro lado, y dado que nuestros resultados mostraron que el tratamiento con un
realizamos una correlación mediante Pearson entre los niveles séricos de IL-1β y los
como los niveles de ROS mitocondriales. Los niveles séricos de IL-1β en pacientes con
FM mostraron una correlación negativa significativa (P<0.05) con los niveles de CoQ10
y una correlación positiva significativa (p<0,001) con los niveles de ROS mitocondriales
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Mario David Cordero Morales
Figura 16. Correlación de los niveles de CoQ10 en PBMC (panel A) con los niveles séricos de IL-1β de
los pacientes con FM. Niveles de ROS mitocondriales (Panel B) en PBMC de los pacientes con FM
correlacionados con los niveles de IL-1β séricos. n = 30. La correlación fue establecida mediante el cálculo
72
Resultados
Además, los niveles séricos de IL-1β mostraron una alta correlación positiva con las
puntuaciones de la escala de dolor de los pacientes con FM (Figura 17). Estos datos
sugieren que los altos niveles de IL1-β y los niveles de IL-18 pueden tener un papel en la
fisiopatología de la FM. En esta línea, es interesante destacar que las IL1-β e IL-18 se han
sensoriales, lo que significa que causan directamente o al menos modular el dolor (Verri
Figura 17. Asociación de niveles séricos de IL-1β y las puntuaciones de dolor en pacientes con FM. n =
30 para los grupos de fibromialgia. La fuerza de la asociación fue establecida mediante el cálculo de
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Mario David Cordero Morales
efecto notable sobre la bioenergética celular, induciendo una disminución del 57% de los
niveles de ATP intracelulares, que fueron restaurados después del tratamiento con 10μM
CoQ10 (Figura 18B). Esta deficiencia de CoQ10 en PBMC también indujo un aumento de
aumento de los niveles de expresión de NLRP3 y la caspasa-1 activa (Figura 18C y 18D),
cultivo (Figura 18E y 18F). Curiosamente, la suplementación con CoQ10 indujo una
de IL-1β y IL-18 en el medio de cultivo de las PBMC deficientes de CoQ10 (Figura 18C
a 18F).
74
Resultados
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Mario David Cordero Morales
sanos. C. Niveles de expresión de proteínas de OGG -1 y NLRP3 así como la inducción de la activación de
caspasa-1 analizado por Western Blot en una homogenado de células de PBMC de 5 controles. D. Los
niveles de expresión de proteínas se determinaron por análisis densitométrico (IOD, la intensidad óptica
Niveles IL- 1β e IL -18 en los medios de cultivo de PBMC incubadas con PABA durante 24 horas y
analizadas por ELISA como se describe en Material y Métodos. Los datos representan la media ± SD de
tres experimentos separados. * P < 0,001 entre el control y PABA, y entre PABA y CoQ 10.
76
Resultados
FIBROBLASTOS DE FIBROMIALGIA
Dado que existe una clara disfunción mitocondrial en nuestros pacientes, nos propusimos
estudiar el efecto de esta disfunción en el metabolismo celular. Para ello, el modelo más
utilizado son los fibroblastos de piel aislados mediante biopsia dérmica de los pacientes.
Este modelo permite una línea primaria en cultivo con las características moleculares del
piel y se aislaron fibroblastos de tres pacientes y dos sujetos sanos de igual sexo y edad a
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Mario David Cordero Morales
Edad (años) 42 41 40 42 42
78
Resultados
Figura 19. La actividad enzimática de los complejos de la cadena respiratoria mitocondrial en los
fibroblastos de la piel de los pacientes con FM. Las actividades enzimáticas mitocondriales se determinaron
como se describe en Materiales y Métodos. Resultados (media ± DE) se expresan en U / CS (unidades por
citrato sintasa). * P < 0,001 ; ** P < 0,01 entre los pacientes de control y FM.
De igual forma que en los resultados observados en las PBMC de los pacientes con FM,
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Mario David Cordero Morales
Figura 20. Los niveles de expresión de las proteínas de las subunidades de los complejos I, II, III y IV
mitocondriales determinados mediante western blot. Los niveles de proteína se determinaron mediante
análisis densitométrico (IOD, la intensidad óptica integrada) de tres transferencias de Western diferentes y
se normalizó con respecto a GADPH, utilizando fibroblastos a partir de tres pacientes con FM, en
comparación con un grupo de fibroblastos de 5 por edad y sexo sano sujetos de control. * P < 0,001; ** P
< 0,01; *** P < 0,05 entre los pacientes de control y FM.
Dado que los fibroblastos mostraron una clara disfunción mitocondrial, cabría esperar un
80
Resultados
basal y podría ser utilizado como un indicador de lo cerca que una célula está funcionando
disminución significativa de SRC en comparación con las células control (Figura 21C).
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Mario David Cordero Morales
Figura 21. Tasa de consumo de oxígeno (OCR) en las células de los pacientes del grupo control y FM. A.
El nivel de OCR se determinó usando el Seahorse XF- 24 extracelular Flux Analyzer con la inyección
secuencial de oligomicina (1 mg / mL), 2,4- DNP (100 mM), rotenona (1 M) en el punto de tiempo indicado.
B. El OCR basal se observa marcadamente afectado en las células de FM en comparación con el control.
C. La capacidad respiratoria de repuesto (SRC) de los fibroblastos FM mostró una disminución significativa
con respecto al control fibroblastos. Los datos representan la media ± SD de tres experimentos separados.
Esta reducida capacidad respiratoria por parte de las células mostró consecuencias desde
el punto de vista bioenergético en las células de los pacientes, observándose bajos niveles
9
8
7
proteína)
6
5
**
4
3
* *
2
1
0
Control 1 Control 2 Control 3 FM1 FM2 FM3
Figura 22. Bioenergética de fibroblastos de pacientes con FM determinados por luminiscencia tal y como
se describe en el apartado de material y métodos. Los datos representan la media ± SD de tres experimentos
separados. * P < 0,001; ** P < 0,01 entre los pacientes de control y FM.
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Resultados
comparación con los valores de fibroblastos control. Nuestros resultados mostraron que
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Mario David Cordero Morales
Figura 23. A. Los niveles de CoQ10 en células de control y FM determinados mediante HPLC. B. Número
de copias de ADNmt que se midió mediante RT- PCR como se describe en Material y Métodos. C y D.
Imágenes del ADNmt mediante tinción PicoGreen y cuantificación de puntos de PicoGreen en los
fibroblastos de control y FM. Los datos representan la media ± SD de tres experimentos separados. Bar =
15 micras * P < 0,001; ** P < 0,01 entre los pacientes de control y FM.
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Resultados
cadena respiratoria mitocondrial se pierden en forma de radicales libres. Por tanto, parece
lógico pensar que el trastorno en la actividad de los complejos mitocondriales pueda llevar
aparejada una alteración en la producción de dichas ROS (Cotán et al., 2011). Con el fin
de FM en comparación con los controles (p <0,001) (Figura 24A). Estos ROS producidas
por la mitocondria son compuestos altamente reactivos, que atacan a las proteínas, lípidos
los tejidos al dañar los componentes estructurales básicos de las células. Para comprobar
FM usando C11-Bodipy, un análogo de los ácidos grasos de las membranas celulares con
oxidación producida por las ROS, la fluorescencia del C11-Bodipi pasa del rango del rojo
GP, et al, 2001). Nuestros datos confirmaron que los fibroblastos de FM sufrían un alto
(Figura 24B).
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Mario David Cordero Morales
A
*
120
*
Fluorescence (a.u.)
Producción ROS
100
Mitocondriales
80
60 a
40
20
0
Control 1 Control 2 Control 3 FM1 FM2 FM3
B
80
70 a a a
Arbitrary units (a.u.)
Lipid Peroxidarion
60
50
Reduced
40
Oxidated
30
*
20 * *
10
0
Control 1 Control 2 Control 3 FM1 FM2 FM3
Figura 24. Estrés oxidativo en fibroblastos de pacientes con FM. A. Producción de ROS mitocondrial
analizada en fibroblastos de los pacientes control y FM por citometría de flujo como se describe en Material
y Métodos. B. Cuantificación de la peroxidación lipídica en los fibroblastos de control y FM. Los datos
representan la proporción de lípido reducido /oxidado. Los datos representan la media ± SD de tres
experimentos separados. * P < 0,001, a P < 0,01 entre los pacientes del grupo control y FM.
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Resultados
Figura 25. Estrés oxidativo en fibroblastos de pacientes con FM por microscopía de fluorescencia. A.
fluorescente C11-Bodipy 581/59 se inserta en las membranas lipídicas y permite la evaluación cuantitativa
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Mario David Cordero Morales
Para confirmar estos resultados, se determinó los niveles de expresión de OGG1, una
mutagénica que se produce como resultado de la exposición del ADN a los ROS, en las
células de los pacientes. Como muestra la figura, los pacientes con FM mostraron
significativamente más altos niveles de OGG1 (Figura 26A). Estos datos muestran un
intenso daño oxidativo del ADN como consecuencia del alto nivel de ROS que
Figura 26. Expresión de proteínas de oxoguanina-glicosilasa 8 (OGG - 1, una enzima ADN glicosilasa
responsable de la escisión de 7,8 -dihidro- 8 -oxoguanine (8–oxo-G). Los niveles de las proteína se
determinaron por análisis densitométrico (IOD, intensidad óptica integrada) de tres Western blots diferentes
Dentro de un entorno altamente oxidativo, las células tienden a activar todo un sistema
como consecuencia el agravamiento del estrés oxidativo. Por ello, estudiamos la actividad
FM (Figura 27A y 27B). Esta reducción de los niveles proteicos de ambos antioxidantes
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Resultados
eran acompañados de una baja actividad de los mismos (Figura 27C y 27D) demostrando
que permite el exceso de ROS y de daño en lípidos y ADN que el sistema antioxidante
no es capaz de controlar.
A B 250000
Unidades Arbitrarias (u.a.)
CTL FM1 FM2 FM3 200000
MnSOD
150000
Catalasa MnSOD
*
100000 Catalasa
GAPDH
50000
0
Control FM1 FM2 FM3
C 25
D
70
20 60
Actividad SOD (U/mg
50
proteína/min)
15 *
proteína/min)
40
*
* 30
10 * *
* 20
5
10
0 0
Control FM1 FM2 FM3 Control FM1 FM2 FM3
Figura 27. Actividad antioxidante en fibroblastos de pacientes con FM. A. Niveles de expresión de las
proteínas MnSOD y catalasa en fibroblastos de pacientes con FM comparados con FM. Los niveles de
proteína se determinaron mediante análisis densitométrico (IOD, la intensidad óptica integrada) de tres
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Mario David Cordero Morales
Western diferentes y normalizados a la señal de GADPH. * P < 0,001 entre el control y los pacientes con
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Resultados
NLRP3 - INFLAMASOMA
Para evaluar si las mutaciones en los genes mitocondriales se asocian con la FM, se
media de los síntomas fue de 6,2 ± 1,7 años. La media de los puntos de dolor fue 15,1 ±
2,2 puntos, y los pacientes tenían niveles significativamente de dolor (VAS) (6,8 ± 0,8),
y de alto impacto global de FM (FIQ) (60 ± 3,4) así como de las subescalas FIQ de dolor
(6 ± 1,5), fatiga (7,6 ± 1,1), cansancio matutino (6 ± 1,8), rigidez (7,6 ± 1,6), ansiedad
(6,4 ± 2,8) y la depresión (4,8 ± 2,5) (Tabla 4). Acerca de manifestaciones típicas de la
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Mario David Cordero Morales
Tabla 4. Parámetros sintomáticos de los pacientes con FM. IMC, Índice de masa corporal; FIQ, Cuestionario de impacto de la fibromialgia;
VAS, Escala analógica visual.
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Resultados
A1438G A1438G
A2706G A2706G
T4216C T4216C
A4917G A4917G
T5105C T5105C
MT-TW
MT-CO2 A8014G
A8701G A8701G
A8860G A8860G
MT-CO3
G11719A G11719A
G13368A G13368A
A15326G A15326G
C15452A C15452A
A15607G A15607G
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A73G A73G
A263G A263G
302insCC 302insCC
310insC 310insC
514inCA 514inCA
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Resultados
BbvI que nos permitió diseñar un ensayo de PCR para el diagnóstico de la mutación
edad, mostró que la mutación 15804 fue homoplásmica en las células de sangre, orina y
Orina
Saliva
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Mario David Cordero Morales
la paciente 3 en el gen mtCYB. El m15.804 transición C → T genera un nuevo sitio de restricción (GCAGC)
para la enzima BbvI. La amplificación por PCR de muestras de ADN y la digestión con restricción BbvI
permite identificar los diferentes haplotipos por patrón específico de bandas de ADN en la electroforesis
en gel de agarosa. B. el análisis molecular en la paciente 3 mostró que la mutación estaba en homoplasmia
en las células de la orina, muestras de saliva y biopsia de piel. C. el análisis del pedigrí de la familia de la
paciente 3 a lo largo de tres generaciones. Símbolos blancos y negros denotan las personas con o sin
con mutación refieren una pérdida auditiva moderada en sus antecedentes clínicos.
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Resultados
estructura. Sin embargo, este mismo cambio ha sido encontrado previamente en otra
los residuos del cambio y su conservación, se observa que hay una alta similitud en esa
misma región en ambas proteínas (Figura 29). En ambas proteínas el residuo valina
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Mario David Cordero Morales
hidrofóbicos con características similares. Este análisis nos muestra que ambos cambios
Figura 29. Conservación y estructura de similitud de la mutación Val- Ala entre CYB y COXIII. A.
conservación, imagen-muestra de la región circundante (6 residuos en cada lado) para la mutación en las
información), y la altura de cada letra se relaciona en la frecuencia de esa letra en esa posición. La ocupación
dependen de insertos putativos en la alineación. La mutación aparece en diferentes dominios Pfam de las
dos proteínas: b citocromo C-terminal para CYB, y citocromo c oxidasa subunidad III para COXIII. B.
posición de la mutación ampliada que muestra la probabilidad de residuos. C, estructura de la región de las
dos proteínas, que corresponde a parte de una hélice transmembrana. El residuo valina se resalta en rojo.
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Resultados
En consonancia con el hecho de que la nueva mutación se detectó en una proteína del
complejo III, los fibroblastos de la piel de la paciente 3 e hijo mostraron una reducción
de los niveles de la actividad del complejo III (Figura 30A) asociada con la deficiencia
de CoQ10 (Figura 30B), la reducción de los niveles de ATP, los niveles altos de
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Mario David Cordero Morales
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Resultados
reducido contenido de ADNmt en fibroblastos de los pacientes de FM en comparación con los controles
sanos. Los datos representan la media ± SD de tres experimentos separados. * P <0,001; ** P <0,005 entre
Control
Paciente 3
Hijo
Figura 31. Crecimiento de las células determinadas en fibroblastos de ambos pacientes comparados con
controles.
paciente 3, tales como las células de la sangre, la orina, las muestras de saliva y plaquetas
(Tabla 7).
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(p<0,05) más bajo que los controles (Figura 32A y B). La SRC de las células se obtuvo
DNP menos la respiración basal, y se puede utilizar como un indicador de cómo de cerca
a su límite bioenergético está funcionando una célula. El SRC en las células FM fue
significativamente baja (5 veces, p<0,05) en comparación con las células control (Figure
32C).
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Resultados
B
A
* *
* *
Figura 32. A. OCR se determinó a través de Seahorse XF-24 extracelular Flux Analyzer con la inyección
tiempo indicado en cada pocillo, después de la medición del nivel basal. B. El OCR basal estaba
considerablemente afectado en las células de los pacientes. C. La capacidad respiratoria de repuesto (SRC)
en fibroblastos de FM mostró una disminución significativa. Los datos representan la media ± SD de tres
experimentos separados. * P <0,001 entre los controles y los pacientes con FM.
En condiciones de estrés oxidativo, las mitocondrias pueden ser dañados y a su vez, dañar
(Cordero et al., 2013b). De esta forma, la inhibición del complejo I o III de la cadena
ROS y la activación inflamasoma NLRP3 (Zhou et al., 2011; Shimada et al., 2012; Ding
et al., 2014) En este sentido, hemos analizado la activación de proteínas relacionadas con
NLRP3, caspasa 1 p20, e IL-1β (p17) en los fibroblastos de la paciente 3 (Figura 33A)
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Mario David Cordero Morales
(Figura 33B).
Figura 33. Activación del inflamasoma en los fibroblastos de la paciente y niveles de IL-1β en el suero de
la paciente 3 con FM. A. niveles de proteína NLRP3, caspasa 1 p20 y IL-1β (p17) se analizaron por
Western. Los niveles de proteína se determinaron por análisis densitométrico (IOD, intensidad óptica
con un grupo de 5 sujetos control emparejados por sexo y edad. B. niveles en suero de IL-1β de paciente
con FM y control determinados por ELISA. Los datos representan la media ± SD de tres experimentos
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Resultados
*
* *
**
Figura 34. Los niveles de IL-1β (p17) en BMC se determinaron en varios miembros de tres generaciones
de la familia de la paciente 3. El pedigree muestra a los miembros afectados de la familia con la mutación.
Cuadros: hombre, círculos: mujer. Los datos representan la media ± SD de tres experimentos separados. *
indujo un aumento del crecimiento celular en fibroblastos del paciente (Figura 35), lo
que podría interpretarse como una mejora en el metabolismo de la célula lo que indicaría
de su fisiopatología.
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Mario David Cordero Morales
Figura 34. Evaluación del efecto de la inhibición de NLRP3 en el crecimiento celular mediante co-
solo por sus diferentes manifestaciones clínicas, sino también por su origen diverso
puesto que cada diagnóstico genético es establecido por la presencia de una mutación
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Resultados
Figura 35. Niveles de expresión proteica de NLRP3 y IL-1β (p17) analizados en fibroblastos de MELAS,
MERRF y LHON por Western Blot. Los niveles de proteína se determinaron por análisis densitométrico
(IOD, intensidad óptica integrada) de tres transferencias de Western diferentes y se normalizó a la señal de
GADPH en comparación con un grupo de 5 sujetos control emparejados por sexo y edad. Los datos
representan la media ± SD de tres experimentos separados. * P <0,001; ** P <0,005 entre los controles y
cíbridos) utilizando la línea de osteosarcoma 143B206 rho0 celular (King y Attardi, 1989)
Figura 36. Genotipado de cíbridos. Análisis molecular de cíbridos generados a partir de osteosarcoma
143B206 línea celular rho0 (C), con el fondo nuclear común, y las plaquetas de la paciente 3 (cy 1 y 2). La
mutación m15.804 no se introdujo en células Cy2. Por tanto se usó el clon Cy1.
reducción en la actividad del complejo III (Figura 37). Además, los niveles de ATP en
los cíbridos mutantes fueron menores que en los cíbridos control (Figura 38A). Los
más altos que en los cíbridos control (Figura 38B). Interesantemente, los niveles de
(Figura 38C). Estos resultados sugieren fuertemente que el ADNmt mutado es, de hecho,
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Resultados
responsable de las alteraciones bioquímicas que ocurren en las células del paciente así
Figura 37. Actividad mitocondrial del complejo III. Los datos representan la media±SD de tres
experimentos separados. * p < 0.001 entre los controles y los pacientes con FM.
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Mario David Cordero Morales
Figura 38. A. Niveles bioenergéticos de cíbridos mutantes evaluados mediante la determinación de ATP.
B. la producción de ROS mitocondriales fue analizado en cíbridos por citometría de flujo. C. Caspasa 1p20
y IL- 1β (p17) se analizaron mediante inmunotransferencia de tipo Western.. Los datos representan la media
± SD de tres experimentos separados. * p < 0.001 entre los controles y los pacientes con FM.
que la mutación (rojo) se localizó en una zona opuesta del sitio de unión ubiquinona
(verde) (Figura 39). Por tanto, se prevé una buena respuesta de las células al tratamiento
con CoQ10.
Figura 39. Estructura tridimensional del mtCYB mostrando la mutación (rojo) localizada en la zona
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Resultados
tasa OCR así como de la capacidad respiratoria de repuesto lo que demostró una
(Figura 40).
Figura 40. Fisiopatología de fibroblastos mutantes de paciente con mutación después del tratamiento
con CoQ10 30 µM. La OCR se controló a través Seahorse XF-24 extracelular Flux Analyzer con la
inyección secuencial de oligomicina (1 mg / mL), 2,4-DNP (100 mM), rotenona (1 M) en el punto de tiempo
indicado en cada pocillo, después de la medición del ritmo basal. La OCR basal fue marcadamente afectada
en las células de paciente, y mejoró con CoQ10. Además, la capacidad respiratoria de repuesto (SRC) en
fibroblastos FM mostró una disminución significativa que fue mejorada por CoQ 10. Los datos representan
la media - SD de tres experimentos separados. * p <0,001; ** p <0,005 entre los controles y los pacientes
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Mario David Cordero Morales
Quinzii et al., 2010; Hargreaves, 2014; Chen et al., 2015). Teniendo en cuenta que
mejora clínica en pacientes con FM (Cordero et al., 2012, 2013a), todos los pacientes con
los pacientes mostraron una mejora significativa en los síntomas clínicos asociados con
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Resultados
Tabla 8. Cambios clínicos y bioquímicos en la paciente 3 (probando) y los miembros de la familia portadores de la mutación (identificados según
Parámetros Pre Post Pre Post Pre Post Pre Post Pre Post Pre Post
Puntos dolorosos 12 6 14 7 11 7 13 5 11 4 13 3
FIQ, rango 0-80 66 21 69 20 64 22 67 20 57 18 51 16
Dolor 8 3 8 4 8 2 9 4 7 2 7 2
Fatiga 7 3 8 2 8 4 8 1 8 1 8 3
Fatiga matutina 5 2 5 2 6 2 6 1 6 1 5 2
Rigidez 9 2 7 3 8 2 7 2 6 3 4 2
Ansiedad 6 3 7 3 7 2 8 3 7 2 5 1
Depresion 7 2 6 3 8 2 8 4 5 2 4 1
VAS dolor, rango 0-10 8 3 9 3 7 3 9 4 7 3 8 1
VAS Fatiga, rango 0-10 7 3 7 3 8 2 8 2 8 1 7 2
Citrate sintasa (Actividad específica) 4.7 18.3 3.7 15.6 4.1 15.9 3.8 16.6 8.1 21.3 6.3 19.1
Niveles deATP (nMol/mgProteína) 5.2 20.4 4.1 19.4 5.8 17.4 3.9 22.1 5.4 26.4 3.7 23.4
IL-1β (pg/ml) 24.3 5.4 26.1 6.1 21.3 7.1 26.3 4.8 25.2 4.4 27.1 3.4
mtDNA copy number(nDNA/mtDNA) 0.4 0.9 0.5 0.8 0.6 0.9 0.3 0.7 0.3 1 0.3 0.9
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Mario David Cordero Morales
114
Discusión
DISCUSIÓN
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Mario David Cordero Morales
116
Discusión
5. DISCUSIÓN
moleculares que competen a una población de pacientes de esta patología, o más bien, lo
que podríamos definir como un subgrupo. Para definir este conjunto de pacientes, hemos
estudiado tres importantes bloques. Por un lado la inflamación, donde se han realizado
numerosas contribuciones que sugieren que las citoquinas pueden desempeñar un papel
importante en la FM (Salemi et al., 2003; Ross et al., 2010; Wang et al., 2008; Bazzichi
et al., 2007; Nakamura et al., 2010; Togo et al., 2009) e incluso se ha observado una
Maes et al., 1999). Sin embargo, hay resultados discrepantes en cuanto a la implicación
incremento de las dos citoquinas implicadas con el complejo inflamasoma. Además, estos
complejo NLRP3-inflamasoma (Zhou et al., 2009). En este sentido, nuestros datos en las
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Mario David Cordero Morales
El inflamasoma ha surgido en los últimos años como un sensor del estrés metabólico y
Vince, 2011). Es por ello que en los últimos años las investigaciones se han centrado que
la identificación de nuevas patologías en las que este complejo tenga una implicación
e IL-1β en las PBMC y el aumento de los niveles séricos de citoquinas como IL-1β e IL-
activada por el estrés oxidativo, las células activan sus mecanismos de defensa
antioxidante (Pagano et al., 2014). Sin embargo, se ha descrito que los mecanismos de
pacientes de FM, lo que conduce a un continuo incremento del estrés oxidativo que
(Altindag et al., 2006; Bagis et al., 2005; Ozgocmen et al., 2006) y, por tanto, una
publicaciones previas que señalan el papel patológico de los niveles séricos de IL-1β en
la FM (Salemi et al., 2003; Ross et al., 2010). Además, Feng y colaboradores han
118
Discusión
demostrado la implicación del gen MEFV que codifica para la pirina, un importante
tanto, la liberación de IL-1β (Feng et al., 2009). Estos datos preliminares de Feng et al.,
están de acuerdo con nuestros resultados. Por otro lado, según nuestros resultados, la
correlación negativa entre los niveles de IL-1β e IL-18 y niveles de CoQ10 y la correlación
positiva con los niveles de ROS mitocondriales y puntuaciones de la escala de dolor son
mitocondrial. Para demostrar esto, realizamos un ensayo in vitro de inhibición del CoQ10
del complejo inflamasoma. Estos datos sugieren que en FM, la activación del
del complejo II + III, el complejo III y complejo IV, una reducción de la expresión de las
mitocondrias disfuncionales, y una reducción del crecimiento celular (Quinzii et al., 2008;
Rodríguez-Hernández et al., 2009). Dado que en las PBMC de pacientes con FM hemos
usado en el estudio de las enfermedades mitocondriales, como son los fibroblastos de piel.
mitocondrial en los fibroblastos derivados de los pacientes con FM. Alteraciones como
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Mario David Cordero Morales
Dado que existe una alteración en la cadena de transportes de electrones y por tanto, un
en la generación de ROS (Rustin P, et al, 2004). Sin embargo, nuestros datos demuestran
libres aumenta de forma considerable cuando la cadena respiratoria sufre algún tipo de
lo largo de la cadena, por lo que muchos de estos electrones podrían escapar como
radicales libres. Por tanto nuestros datos concuerdan con los de otros autores en los que
ROS (Cotán et al., 2011; De la Mata et al., 2012). Por otro lado, la deficiente actividad
defensiva. En este sentido, nuestros datos concuerdan con datos previos sobre la reducida
al., 2006; Bagis et al., 2005; Ozgocmen et al., 2006). La MnSOD es la subunidad de la
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Discusión
que el descenso observado por nosotros en fibroblastos podría ser consecuencia de la baja
variabilidad de los síntomas, con una variada afectación de órganos, y un curso clínico
audición (Bayazit et al., 2002; Watson et al., 2009; Wolfe et al., 2012).
Por otro lado, las enfermedades mitocondriales están asociadas con la herencia materna
(Haas et al., 2008). En este mismo sentido, en los pacientes con FM, aunque el factor de
al., 2004). En este sentido, Buskila y colaboradores han observado una alta prevalencia
conclusiones, en nuestro estudio se muestra por primera vez la aparición de una mutación
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Mario David Cordero Morales
en el ADNmt en una familia con varios miembros diagnosticados de FM. Como era de
esperar, la mutación fue transmitida por vía materna y estuvo presente en todos los
mitocondrial en las células del paciente. La mutación estuvo ausente en los otros pacientes
más individuos para confirmar estos resultados, nuestros datos podrían estar sugiriendo
al., 2013).
mutaciones o deleciones que pudieran justificar los defectos mitocondriales. Por lo tanto,
es razonable postular que las alteraciones del ADN mitocondrial sólo pueden ser
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Discusión
Las enfermedades mitocondriales presentan una prevalencia reducida (5,7 por 100.000
en la población mayor de 14 años de edad) (Arpa et al., 2003), y los síntomas pueden ser
síndrome fatiga crónica (van de Glind et al., 2007). En este sentido, Villanova y
colaboradores reportaron en 1999 el caso de una mujer de 45 años de edad con FM y una
1999). En este sentido, nuestros datos confirman este informe anterior en un nuevo caso
de la familia que presentamos. En nuestros pacientes podría ser interesante estudiar una
biopsia muscular, sin embargo, los pacientes no aceptaron esta intervención por ser muy
invasiva. A pesar de esto, mientras que el músculo esquelético es el tejido más utilizado
pacientes han sido reportados con defectos enzimáticos detectables en diferentes tejidos,
Acerca de esto, cualquiera que sea el órgano afectado, se recomienda realizar una biopsia
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MT-TK así como en nuestra nueva mutación. Por lo tanto, NLRP3-inflamasoma podría
ser inducida por diferentes mutaciones mitocondriales en las que el estrés oxidativo esté
implicado (Haas et al., 2008; Hayashi y Cortopassi, 2015). Otro resultado interesante
que el incremento del crecimiento celular de los fibroblastos de la paciente 3 indica una
mitocondrial (Cherry et al., 2015), una inhibición de varias citoquinas podría prevenir el
daño mitocondrial y la muerte celular. De acuerdo con esto, la inhibición del inflamasoma
Tenemos que tener en cuenta, que la mutación encontrada 15804T> C es una rara variante
Sin embargo, comparamos nuestra mutación con otras mutaciones que se han mostrado
Rebai et al., 2011 y este también es una variante identificada en 13/29 867 secuencias en
124
Discusión
como factores de susceptibilidad, pero podrían tener también un pequeño efecto sobre la
fisiopatología. Debido a que los efectos de estos cambios serían altamente dependiente
disponible para estudiar este contexto, el cual implica el uso de lo que se conoce como
inflamasoma.
ROS. En este sentido, la inhibición del inflamasoma puede representar una nueva opción
cuenta que los ROS sirven como importantes inductores de la activación del inflamasoma,
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Mario David Cordero Morales
por lo que el tratamiento con antioxidantes también podría ser eficaz en estas
ROS mitocondriales puede ser inhibida selectivamente por los antioxidantes del tipo
inflamasoma en PBMC así como una significativa mejora de la respiración celular en los
fibroblastos y una mejora clínica y molecular en los pacientes de la familia tratada con
2008; Quinzii et al., 2010; Hargreaves, 2014), aquí mostramos otro posible mecanismo
puede ocurrir por numerosos factores entre los que destacan la aparición de mutaciones
análisis de secuencias de ADNmt podría estar indicado en pacientes con FM con una clara
pacientes con FM que podrían beneficiarse de tener un diagnóstico genético por análisis
de secuencias del ADNmt y ser candidatos para el tratamiento con compuestos orientados
a la mitocondria. Por otra parte, la implicación del complejo inflamasoma como un sensor
126
Discusión
de estrés podría ser inductor del daño en los tejidos y agravar los síntomas en estas
enfermedades.
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Mario David Cordero Morales
128
Conclusiones
CONCLUSIONES
129
Mario David Cordero Morales
130
Conclusiones
6. CONCLUSIONES
Nuestro estudio aporta las siguientes conclusiones en base a los resultados obtenidos en
nuestro proyecto:
de daño oxidativo.
2. Los pacientes con FM que presentan herencia materna así como síntomas tales
genético mitocondrial.
7. La inhibición del inflamasoma podría ser una terapia prometedora para los
de la enfermedad.
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132
Bibliografía
BIBLIOGRAFÍA
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134
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Producción
8. PRODUCCIÓN
Artículos:
Patente:
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Producción
ANEXOS
153
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154
ANTIOXIDANTS & REDOX SIGNALING
Volume 20, Number 8, 2014
ª Mary Ann Liebert, Inc.
DOI: 10.1089/ars.2013.5198
Abstract
Aims: Fibromyalgia (FM) is a prevalent chronic pain syndrome characterized by generalized hyperalgesia as-
sociated with a wide spectrum of symptoms such as fatigue and joint stiffness. Diagnosis of FM is difficult due to
the lack of reliable diagnostic biomarkers, while treatment is largely inadequate. We have investigated the role of
coenzyme Q10 (CoQ10) deficiency and mitochondrial dysfunction in inflammasome activation in blood cells from
FM patients, and in vitro and in vivo CoQ10 deficiency models. Results: Mitochondrial dysfunction was ac-
companied by increased protein expression of interleukin (IL)-1b, NLRP3 (NOD-like receptor family, pyrin
domain containing 3) and caspase-1 activation, and an increase of serum levels of proinflammatory cytokines
(IL-1b and IL-18). CoQ10 deficiency induced by p-aminobenzoate treatment in blood mononuclear cells and mice
showed NLRP3 inflammasome activation with marked algesia. A placebo-controlled trial of CoQ10 in FM
patients has shown a reduced NLRP3 inflammasome activation and IL-1b and IL-18 serum levels. Innovation:
These results show an important role for the NLRP3 inflammasome in the pathogenesis of FM, and the capacity
of CoQ10 in the control of inflammasome. Conclusion: These findings provide new insights into the patho-
genesis of FM and suggest that NLRP3 inflammasome inhibition represents a new therapeutic intervention for
the disease. Antioxid. Redox Signal. 20, 1169–1180.
Introduction
Innovation
1
Dpto. Citologı́a e Histologı́a Normal y Patológica, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Sevilla, Sevilla, Spain.
2
Faculty of Pharmacy and Biochemistry, University of Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia.
3
División de Neurociencias, Universidad Pablo de Olavide de Sevilla, Sevilla, Spain.
4
Dept. de Periodontologı́a, Facultad de Odontologı́a, Universidad de Sevilla, Sevilla, Spain.
5
Dipartimento di Scienze Cliniche Specialistiche ed Odontostomatologiche–Sez. Biochimica, Università Politecnica delle Marche, Ancona,
Italy.
6
Centro Andaluz de Biologı́a del Desarrollo (CABD), Universidad Pablo de Olavide-CSIC-Junta de Andalucı́a and Centro de Investigación
Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Raras (CIBERER), ISCIII, Sevilla, Spain.
*These authors contributed equally to this work.
1169
1170 CORDERO ET AL.
9, 18), indicating that mitochondrial dysfunction may be as- Inflammasome activation by oxidative
sociated with this syndrome. Furthermore, there are some stress involved in pain of FM
hypotheses suggesting that cytokines may play a role in FM
The postinflammatory induction of mitochondrial bio-
(4, 22, 24). Indeed, a decrease in mitochondrial mass and co-
genesis supports metabolic function and cell viability while
enzyme Q10 (CoQ10) levels, as well as increased production of
helping to control inflammation (19). Because mitochon-
mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (ROS), have been de-
drial biogenesis genes were downregulated in BMCs from
tected in blood mononuclear cells (BMCs) from FM patients
FM patients, we analyzed the activation of inflammasome-
(7, 9). On the other hand, ROS have also been shown to be an
related proteins. We found increased NLRP3 and caspase-1
important activator of inflammasome-mediated inflamma-
gene expression, increased NLRP3 protein expression lev-
tion (31). The NLRP3 (NOD-like receptor family, pyrin do-
els, and caspase-1 cleavage suggesting inflammosome ac-
main containing 3) inflammasome is a molecular platform
tivation (Fig. 3A, B). We have not found activation of
activated upon signs of cellular danger to trigger innate im-
caspase 3, so caspase-1 activation was not secondary to
mune defenses through the maturation of proinflammatory
activation of cell death pathways in their cell populations.
cytokines such as interleukin (IL)-1b and IL-18 (30). To in-
BMCs treated with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) from Escher-
vestigate a possible implication of mitochondria dysfunction
ichia coli were used as a positive control of caspase-1
in inflammasome activation in FM, we studied both patho-
cleavage. Interestingly, it has been described that oxidized
logical mechanisms in BMCs from FM patients and in two
mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) is a potent activator of the
models, in vitro and in vivo, of CoQ10 deficiency (20, 21).
NLRP3 inflammasome (25). Furthermore, other proteins
involved in inflammasome and inflammation activation, as
Results IL-1b and IL-18, were increased in serum from FM patients
(Fig. 3D, E). BMCs isolated and cultured from FM patients
Mitochondrial characteristic in BMCs from FM patients
shown increased levels of the IL-1b protein showing that
BMCs from FM patients showed a significant down- these cells are actively producing the cytokines, and inter-
regulation of several genes related to mitochondrial biogen- estingly, BMCs cultured with CoQ10 30 lM showed after
esis (PGC-1a, TFAM, NRF1) (Fig. 1A). In parallel, BMCs 24 h an important reduction of IL-1b and caspase 1 protein
showed a reduction of mitochondrial complex protein ex- levels (Fig. 3F). IL-1b serum levels in FM patients showed a
pression levels (complex I, complex III, and cytochrome c) significant negative correlation ( p < 0.05) with CoQ10 levels
(Fig. 1B, C) accompanied by reduced activities of the mito- and a significant positive correlation ( p < 0.001) with mito-
chondrial chain complex between 50%–60% patients com- chondrial ROS levels (Fig. 4A, B). The incubation of BMCs
pared with control (Fig. 2). CoQ10 is a key component of the isolated from patients with CoQ10 induced a reduction of
mitochondrial respiratory chain transferring reducing equiv- the IL-1b protein. Furthermore, IL-1b serum levels showed
alents from complexes I and II to complex III, and deficiencies a high positive correlation with pain scale scores of FM
of this electron and proton carrier are associated with mito- patients (Fig. 5A). These data suggest that high IL1-b and
chondrial dysfunction in a variety of human disorders (3). IL-18 levels may have a role in the pathophysiology of FM.
According to this, CoQ10 levels were reduced to 46% of Interestingly, IL1-b and IL-18 have been described to be
the average control value in BMCs from FM patients (Fig. involved in the increased sensibility of the sensory recep-
1D). Moreover, to determine the effect of mitochondrial tors, which means they directly cause or at least modulate
dysfunction on cellular bioenergetics, we measured intracel- pain (12, 28).
lular ATP levels in BMCs from control and FM patients.
ATP levels were reduced to 76% respect to controls ( p < 0.001) CoQ10 deficiency induce inflammasome
(Fig. 1E). activation in FM
To verify the role of CoQ10 in the inflammatory process in
Oxidative stress in BMCs from FM patients
FM, we induced CoQ10 deficiency in BMCs from five healthy
It is well established that mitochondrial dysfunction is as- controls by inhibiting endogenous CoQ10 biosynthesis with
sociated with induction of ROS production in mitochondria. 1 mM p-aminobenzoate (PABA) for 24 h. CoQ10 deficiency
Furthermore, oxidative stress has been proposed as a relevant was also induced in mice by the subchronic treatment with
event in the pathogenesis of FM showing a significant positive PABA (twice daily doses of 20 mg/kg/day). The inhibition of
correlation with clinical symptoms (5). To assess oxidative CoQ10 (Fig. 6A) in BMCs had a remarkable effect on cellular
stress in FM, we determined mitochondrial ROS production bioenergetics, inducing a decrease of 57% of intracellular ATP
in BMCs from control and FM patients by using MitoSOX, a levels, which were restored after 10 lM CoQ10 treatment (Fig.
mitochondrial superoxide indicator. Mitochondrial superox- 6B). CoQ10 deficiency in BMCs also induced increased DNA
ide production was significantly increased in BMCs from FM oxidation (OGG1) and inflammasome activation demon-
patients respect to controls ( p < 0.001) (Fig. 1F). Additionally, strated by increased expression levels of NLRP3 and caspase-
as an oxidative stress marker, we determined the expression 1 cleavage (Fig. 6C, D), associated with a significant increase
levels of 8-oxoguanine glycosylase (OGG1), a DNA glycosy- of IL-1b and IL-18 levels in the culture medium (Fig. 6E, F).
lase enzyme responsible for the excision of 7,8-dihydro-8-ox- Interestingly, 10 lM of CoQ10 supplementation induced a
oguanine (8-oxoG), a mutagenic base byproduct that occurs as significant reduction in DNA oxidation, inflammosome acti-
a result of exposure of DNA to ROS, and 8-oxoG levels in vation, and IL-1b and IL-18 levels in the culture medium of
BMCs from patients. On average, FM patients significantly CoQ10-deficient BMCs (Fig. 3C–F).
showed higher levels of OGG1 and 8-oxoG in BMCs from FM In mice, when compared with vehicle-treated controls,
patients (Fig. 1B, G). PABA treatment reduced CoQ9 and CoQ10 levels in BMCs by
NLRP3 INFLAMMASOME ACTIVATION IN FIBROMYALGIA 1171
FIG. 1. Mitochondrial dysfunction and oxidative stress in fibromyalgia blood mononuclear cells (BMCs). n = 20 and 30
for control and fibromyalgia groups, respectively. (A) Relative expression of mitocondrial biogenesis genes (mean – SE)
determined by quantitative PCR in BMCs from fibromyalgia (FM) patients. (B) Protein expression levels of mitochondrial
complex I (39 kDa Subunit), complex III (Core I Subunit), cytochrome c, and 8-oxoguanine glycosylase (OGG-1, a DNA
glycosylase enzyme responsible for the excision of 7,8-dihydro-8-oxoguanine (8-oxoG). (C) Protein levels were determined by
densitometric analysis (IOD, integrated optical intensity) of three different western blots and normalized to the GADPH
signal, using BMCs from four representative FM patients, compared with a pool of five healthy age- and sex-matched control
subjects. (D) Coenzyme Q10 (CoQ10) levels in control and FM cells were determined by hexane extraction and high-per-
formance liquid chromatography (HPLC) separation as described in Material and Methods section. (E) ATP levels in control
and FM BMCs were analyzed by bioluminescence as described in Material and Methods section. (F, G) Mitochondrial
reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and 8-oxoG were analyzed in BMCs from control and FM patients by flow
cytometry and EIA kit as described in Material and Methods section. Data represent the mean – SD of three separate
experiments. *p < 0.001, **p < 0.01 between control and FM patients.
30% and 49%, respectively, p < 0.001 (Fig. 7A). This effect was the hot plate test when thermal stimuli were up of 45C (hot
accompanied by increased expression levels of NLRP3, in- plate test: for 50C, latencies were 12.06 – 1.64 and 6.67 – 0.61 s
duction of caspase-1 cleavage in BMCs (Fig. 7B), and in- for vehicle- and PABA-injected mice, respectively [p = 0.013];
creased IL-1b and IL-18 levels in serum (Fig. 7C, D). Single for 52.5C, latencies were 5.2 – 0.88 and 3.03 – 0.23 s for vehi-
injections of PABA in mice did not evoke any differential ef- cle- and PABA-injected mice, respectively [p = 0.041]), and for
fect between vehicle- and drug-injected mice regarding ther- tail flick (latencies were 5.95 – 0.13 and 3.64 – 0.26 s for vehicle-
mal pain (data not shown). However, PABA administration and PABA-injected mice, respectively [p < 0.001]) (Fig. 7E).
during five consecutive days produced a marked algesia in Interestingly, IL-1b serum levels showed high positive
1172 CORDERO ET AL.
correlations with pain scale scores in mice (Fig. 5B), similar to compensatory activation of mitochondrial biogenesis genes
those observed in FM patients. Routine serum biochemical was impaired in BMCs from FM patients. In response to mi-
parameters were not affected by the subchronic administra- tochondrial dysfunction and inflammation, cells remove
tion of PABA in mice (data not shown). damaged mitochondria by autophagy and, as a compensatory
mechanism, induce mitochondrial biogenesis and upregulate
Oral CoQ10 supplementation in FM patients reduces antioxidant and counter-inflammatory defense genes (19).
inflammasome activation Mitophagy in FM patients has been reported (9). However, it
has been described that compensatory mechanisms are im-
A key obstacle to the successful treatment of FM is the
paired in BMCs from FM patients that leads to reduced mi-
limited effectiveness of the currently available pharmacolog-
tochondrial mass, reduced antioxidants levels (1, 2, 18), and
ical therapies. About half of all treated patients experienced
an inflammatory damage predisposition. Inflammation has
only a mild reduction in their symptoms, indicating that
been shown to be associated with FM symptoms by high
many FM patients are in need of alternative therapies (26). In
positive correlations between IL-1b and IL-18 serum levels
several cases, CoQ10 has shown to be effective in the treatment
and pain scores suggesting an inflammatory component in
of FM (6). Identification of pathophysiological mechanisms
the induction of pain. Despite this, there are discrepancies
targeted by CoQ10 treatment in FM is a key research goal. In
regarding the pathological role of IL-1b serum levels in FM (4,
this respect, we conducted a placebo-controlled, double-
22, 24, 29). Feng and coworkers have shown the implication of
blinded trial with 20 patients, to evaluate the effect of CoQ10 in
MEFV, which encodes pyrin, a major regulator of the in-
inflammasome gene expression and inflammasome serum
flammasome platform controlling caspase-1 activation and
markers of FM patients. After CoQ10 supplementation,
IL- 1b (10); so, this preliminary data from Feng et al., are
NLRP3 and IL-1b gene were downregulated. CoQ10 levels
according to our results. Respect to inflammatory cytokine
from BMCs were restored after CoQ10 treatment (data not
involvement in FM pathogenesis, we have recently demon-
shown). According to this, IL-1b and IL-18 serum levels were
strated a mitochondrial dysfunction-dependent increase of
significantly reduced respect to placebo. (Fig. 8A–E).
tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha serum levels in FM pa-
tients, which was reduced by CoQ10 treatment (8).
Discussion
According to our results, the negative correlation between
Inhibition of complex I or III of the mitochondrial respira- IL-1b and IL-18 levels and CoQ10 levels and positive correla-
tory chain has been shown to induce ROS production and tion with mitochondrial ROS levels and pain scale scores
NLRP3 inflammasome activation (31). In BMCs from FM supports the hypothesis that inflammation in FM is depen-
patients, we detected mitochondrial respiratory chain dys- dent on mitochondrial dysfunction. To our knowledge, this is
function, CoQ10 deficiency, and increased mitochondrial ROS the first report describing inflammasome activation and its
production and OGG-1 expression levels (a marker of oxi- association with increased levels of proinflammatory cyto-
dized DNA), both activators of inflammasome and inflam- kines in FM patients. Furthermore, this study has nominated
mation (14, 31). Inflammasome has emerged recently as an several new parameters that could be used as diagnostic
unexpected sensor for metabolic danger and stress. Indeed, it biomarkers in FM. Their further validation (alone or in com-
has been implicated in the development of major diseases bination) could help in creating objective diagnostic testing in
such as gout, type 2 diabetes, and obesity-induced insulin FM. However, despite our results about inflammasome in
resistance. Moreover, the NLRP3 inflammasome is increas- FM, we think that inflammasome contributes in the patho-
ingly suspected of playing a major role in other human pa- physiology of this disease accompanied by other inflamma-
thologies such as cancer, asbestosis, and Alzheimer’s disease some nondependent inflammatory events, such as IL-6, IL-8,
(15). FM patients have shown increased activation of in- or TNF-alpha (4, 22, 24). These inflammatory parameters have
flammasome in BMCs and increased serum levels of proin- been associated through NF-kappaB. Immunohistochemical
flammatory cytokines, such as IL-1b and IL-18. Interestingly, studies in FM tissues revealed a stronger expression of
NLRP3 INFLAMMASOME ACTIVATION IN FIBROMYALGIA 1173
FIG. 3. Inflammasome activation in BMCs and proinflammatory cytokines in serum from FM patients. (A) NLRP3
protein levels, caspase 1 cleavage, and caspase 3 cleavage were analyzed by western blotting. We include a positive control of
caspase 1 and 3 activation using lipopolysaccharides. Protein levels were determined by densitometric analysis (IOD, inte-
grated optical intensity) of three different western blots and normalized to the GADPH signal, using BMCs from four
representative FM patients, compared with a pool of five healthy age- and sex-matched control subjects. (B, C) NLRP3 and
caspase 1 cleavage transcript expression levels were determined by real-time quantitative RT-PCR. n = 20 for control
and n = 30 for FM groups, respectively. Data represent the mean – SD of three separate experiments.*p < 0.05 between control
and FM patients. (D, E) IL-1b and IL-18 levels in serum from control and FM patients were determined by ELISA as described
in Material and Methods section. n = 20 for control and n = 30 for FM groups, respectively. (F) IL-1b protein levels in several
patients and IL-1b and caspase 1 activation in patients before and after CoQ10 treatment in BMCs isolated from FM patients
and cultured. Data represent the mean – SD of three separate experiments. *p < 0.001 between control and FM patients.
NF-kappaB in muscle, and IL-6, IL-8, and TNF-alpha are cytokines. Since pathological processes can be reversed by
NF-kappaB-dependent proinflammatory cytokines (8). CoQ10 supplementation, we propose that CoQ10 could be a
In summary, we have shown (in vitro and in vivo) the in- suitable therapy for FM patients. Larger controlled clinical tri-
volvement of CoQ10 deficiency in the pathological process of als are needed to provide data on the effectiveness of CoQ10
inflammasome activation and release of proinflammatory in FM.
1174 CORDERO ET AL.
FIG. 6. CoQ10 deficiency induction activates inflammasome complex in BMCs. (A, B) CoQ10 deficiency and decreased
ATP levels induced by 1 mM p-aminobenzoate (PABA) treatment for 24 h in BMCs from five healthy volunteers. (C) Protein
expression levels of OGG-1 and NLRP3 and induction of caspase 1 cleavage analyzed by western blotting in a homogenate
cell pool of BMCs from five controls. (D) Protein expression levels were determined by densitometric analysis (IOD, inte-
grated optical intensity) of three different western blots and normalized to the GADPH signal. (E, F) IL-1b and IL-18 levels in
the culture media of BMCs incubated with PABA for 24 h and analyzed by ELISA as described in Material and Methods
section. Data represent the mean – SD of three separate experiments. *p < 0.001 between control and PABA, and between
PABA and CoQ10.
double-blinded trial with 20 patients, to evaluate the effect of national Conference on Harmonisation Good Clinical Prac-
CoQ10 in inflammasome gene expressions of FM patients tice Guidelines.
and inflammasome serum markers. The study protocol was
registered (ISRCTN 21164124) and reviewed and approved
Intervention
by the Ethics Committee of the University of Sevilla. All
study participants provided written informed consent be- Subjects who met the enrolment criteria were randomized in
fore initiation of the study. This study was conducted in a double-blind fashion, according to a 1:1 ratio, to one of the
compliance with the Declaration of Helsinki, and all Inter- two treatment groups (CoQ10 or placebo). All subjects receiving
1176 CORDERO ET AL.
FIG. 7. Inflammasome activation induced by CoQ10 deficiency induction in mice. (A). CoQ levels were measured in
BMCs isolated from mice treated with vehicle or PABA for 15 days (n = 5 per group). *p < 0.05; between vehicle and PABA-
treated mice. (B) NLRP3 protein expression levels and caspase 1 cleavage were analyzed by western blotting. Protein levels
were determined by densitometric analysis (IOD, integrated optical intensity) of three different western blots and nor-
malized to GADPH signal, using BMCs isolated from mice treated with the vehicle or PABA. (C, D) IL-1b and IL-18 in
serum levels from mice treated with the vehicle or PABA-treated were determined by ELISA as described in Material and
Methods section. *p < 0.001 between vehicle and PABA-treated mice. (E) Pain sensitivity in vehicle- and PABA-treated mice
was evaluated in the hot plate test (1) at 45C–52.5C – 0.5C and with the tail flick test (2) at 45C – 0.5C. *p < 0.05;
a
p < 0.001.
CoQ10 (purchased from Pharma Nord) were given, in soft gel A positive control of activated caspase 1 was induced in
capsules for 40 days (300 mg/day CoQ10 divided into three BMC control by LPS 1 lg/ml LPS for 2 h.
doses), and all subjects receiving placebo were given a match- Partial CoQ10 deficiency was induced by inhibiting en-
ing placebo. The duration of the treatment and dose of CoQ10 dogenous biosynthesis in control BMCs by treatment with
were selected accordingly to the preliminary studies (6, 8). PABA (Sigma), a competitive inhibitor of polyprenyl-4-
hydroxybenzoate transferase (27). To achieve this, cells were
cultured for 24 h in the presence of 1 mM PABA and
Isolation of BMCs
PABA + 10 lM CoQ10.
Peripheral BMCs (lymphocytes and monocytes) from all
patients were purified from heparinized blood by isopycnic IL-1b and IL-18 levels
centrifugation using Histopaque-1119 and Histopaque-1077
IL-1b (GenWay) and IL-18 (Biosensis) levels in serum or
(Sigma Chemical Co.). BMCs were cultured at 37C in a 5%
culture media were assayed in duplicates by commercial
CO2 atmosphere in the RPMI-1640 medium supplemented
ELISA kits.
with L-glutamine, an antibiotic/antimycotic solution (Sigma
Chemical Co.), and 10% fetal bovine serum. The number and
Mitochondrial enzyme activities
subgroup distribution of BMCs (monocytes and lymphocytes)
in FM patients were in the normal range (data not shown). We Activities of NADH:coenzyme Q1 oxidoreductase (com-
use in all experiments, BMCs from all patients except in plex I), succinate deshydrogenase (complex II), cytochrome c
western blot where we use BMCs from several representative oxidase (complex IV), ubiquinol:cytochrome c oxidoreductase
patients. In several experiments, BMCs from FM patients (complex III), succinate:cytochrome c reductase (complex
were cultured with CoQ10 30 lM during 24 h. II + complex III), and citrate synthase (CS) were determined in
NLRP3 INFLAMMASOME ACTIVATION IN FIBROMYALGIA 1177
Age (years) 45.5 – 6.1 46.1 – 8 Western blotting was performed using standard methods.
Tender points — 14.5 – 1.8 After protein transfer, the membrane was incubated with
Disease duration (years) — 8.1 – 3.3
Sex (male/female) 5y15 5y25 Table 2. Serum Biochemical Parameters
BMI (kg/m2) 23.2 – 2.5 22.9 – 1.2 in Fibromyalgia Patients
FIQ total score, range 0–80 2.7 – 1.5 56.6 – 8.3a
Pain 0.6 – 0.2 6.9 – 2.1b Biochemical parameter Control FM patients
Fatigue 1.2 – 0.5 7.1 – 1.2a
Morning tiredness 1 – 0.3 5.5 – 1b Glucose (mg/dL) 93.8 – 15.2 98.1 – 12.2
Stiffness 0.4 – 0.1 6.2 – 2.2b Uric acid (mg/dL) 3.9 – 1.5 3.1 – 1.6
Anxiety 1 – 0.5 5.8 – 1.2b Aspartate aminotransferase 21.9 – 8.8 25.2 – 7.3
Depression 0.2 – 0.6 5.6 – 1.2a (mU/ml)
VAS pain total score 0–10 0.7 – 0.2 7.5 – 2.1a Alanine aminotransferase 23.5 – 5.1 24.6 – 6.1
(mU/ml)
n = 20 and 30 for control and fibromyalgia groups, respectively. Creatine kinase (IU/L) 671.1 – 42.3 623.5 – 34.4
a
p < 0.001. Cholesterol (mg/dl) 179.9 – 53.4 176.9 – 59.1
b
p < 0.01. Triglycerides (mg/dl) 157.5 – 60.1 144.9 – 52.3
BMI, body mass index; FIQ, fibromyalgia impact questionnaire;
VAS, visual analogical scale. n = 20 for controls and n = 30 for FM patients, respectively.
1178 CORDERO ET AL.
various primary antibodies diluted 1:1000, and then with the 48C – 0.5C and the latency of the tail reflex measured, with a
corresponding secondary antibody coupled to horseradish cutoff for responses of 15 s.
peroxidase at a 1:10000 dilution. Specific protein complexes
were identified using the Immun Star HRP substrate kit Serum markers
(Biorad Laboratories, Inc.).
Biochemical parameters were determined in serum (glu-
Quantification of CoQ levels cose, triglyceride, cholesterol, uric acid, aspartate amino-
transferase, alanine aminotransferase, and creatine kinase)
The CoQ content in BMCs was analyzed by high- using commercial kits from Randox Laboratories.
performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) (Beckmann
166–126 HPLC) with ultraviolet detection (275 nm), as de- Lipid peroxidation
scribed previously (15).
Lipid peroxidation in cells was determined by analyzing
Reagents the accumulation of lipoperoxides using a commercial kit
from Cayman Chemical. TBARS are expressed in terms of
PABA and LPS were purchased from Sigma Chemical Co. malondialdehyde (MDA) levels. In these assays, an MDA
Monoclonal antibodies specific for oxidative phosphoryla- standard is used to construct a standard curve against which
tion, complex I (39 kDa subunit), and complex III (core 1 unknown samples can be plotted.
subunit) were purchased from Invitrogen/Molecular Probes.
The anti-GAPDH monoclonal antibody from Calbiochem-
Merck Chemicals Ltd. The anti-NLRP3 antibody from Real-time quantitative PCR
Adipogen. Anti-active caspase-1 was obtained from Cell The expression of NLRP3 and caspase 1 gene was analyzed
Signaling Technology. A cocktail of protease inhibitors by SYBR Green quantitative PCR using mRNA extracts of
(complete cocktail) was purchased from Boehringer Man- BMCs from patients and controls. The thermal cycling condi-
nheim. The Immun Star HRP substrate kit was from Bio-Rad tions used were denaturation at 95C for 20 s, alignment at 54C
Laboratories, Inc. for 20 s, and elongation at 72C for 20 s, for 40 cycles. NLRP3
primers were 5¢- GGAGAGACCTTTATGAGAAAGCAA -3¢
Animals and drug administration (forward) and 5¢- GCTGTCTTCCTGGCATATCACA -3¢ (re-
verse), caspase 1 were 5¢- CCGAAGGTGATCATCATCCA -3¢
Eight-week-old male Swiss mice weighing 25–30 g were
(forward) and 5¢- ATAGCATCATCCTCAAACTCTTCTG -3¢
maintained on a 12-h light/12-h dark cycle. Behavioral stud-
(reverse), and IL-1b were 5¢- TTACAGTGGCAATGAGGA
ies were performed in accordance with the European Union
TGAC -3¢ (forward) and 5¢- GTCGGAGATTCGTAGCTGGAT-
guidelines (86/609/EU) and Spanish regulations for the use
3¢ (reverse). We used a second pair of beta-actin primers as an
of laboratory animals in chronic experiments (BOE 67/8509-
internal control: forward, 5¢- CCA GAT CAT GTT TGA GAC
12, 1988). All experiments were approved by the local
C-3¢ and reverse, 5¢- ATG TCA CGC ACG ATT TCC C-3¢. All
institutional animal care committee. PABA, a competitive in-
reactions were performed in duplicate. Reaction mixtures,
hibitor of polyprenyl-4-hydroxybenzoate transferase (Coq2p),
without RNA, were used as negative controls in each run.
an essential enzyme in CoQ10 biosynthesis mediating the
conjugation of 4-hydroxybenzoate with the completed poly-
prenyl side chain (26), was dissolved in saline (vehicle) and Statistical analysis
intraperitoneally administered at a dose of 20 mg/Kg/day for Statistical analyses were performed using the SPSS package
15 days. Behavioral tests were performed 5 days after the first for Windows (SPSS). Unless otherwise indicated, data repre-
drug administration. After testing, mice were anesthetized sent the mean – SEM. The unpaired Student’s t test was used
with CO2 and sacrificed by decapitation. Blood samples were to evaluate the significance of differences between groups,
collected for immediate biochemical analysis and BMCs were accepting p < 0.05 as the level of significance. Statistical ana-
isolated. Serum samples were frozen at - 80C for further lyses included Pearson’s correlations between IL-1b and IL-18
analyses. respect to VAS, CoQ10, and mitochondrial ROS. Two-way
analysis of variance was used to compare the behavioral re-
Behavioral assays sults from animals treated with vehicle alone or with PABA.
Behavioral analyses were performed in a testing room with Chi-squared tests were used for statistical analysis in cases in
homogeneous noise and light levels. The testing apparatus which qualitative variables were compared.
was cleaned with 70% ethanol (Panreac Quı́mica S.A.U) be-
tween trials to eliminate any influence of animal odor on the Acknowledgments
exploratory behavior.
This work has been supported by the FIS PI10/00543 grant,
Fondo Europeo de Desarrollo Regional (FEDER-Unión Eur-
Pain assay
opea), SAS 111242 grant, Servicio Andaluz de Salud-Junta de
For the hot plate test, a glass cylinder (16 cm high, 16 cm in Andalucı́a, Proyecto de Investigación de Excelencia de la
diameter) was used to constrain the mice to the heated surface Junta de Andalucı́a CTS-5725, Federación Andaluza de Fi-
of the plate. The plate surface was maintained at 45C– bromialgia y Fatiga Crónica (ALBA Andalucı́a), and FOICAM
52.5C – 0.5C and the latency to commence paw licking was (Spanish research association). We thank Dr. Jaime Carvajal
measured, with a cutoff of 30 s. For the tail flick test, a ther- (CABD-CSIC-Universidad Pablo de Olavide) for critical
mostatic water bath was maintained at a temperature of reading and editing of the manuscript.
NLRP3 INFLAMMASOME ACTIVATION IN FIBROMYALGIA 1179
Author Disclosure Statement 14. Mabley JG, Pacher P, Deb A, Wallace R, Elder RH, and
Szabó C. Potential role for 8-oxoguanine DNA glycosylase in
All the authors declare that no conflicts of interest exist for regulating inflammation. FASEB J 19: 290–292, 2005.
any of them. 15. Menu P and Vince JE. The NLRP3 inflammasome in health
and disease: the good, the bad and the ugly. Clin Exp Im-
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a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t
Article history: Impaired AMPK is associated with a wide spectrum of clinical and pathological conditions, ranging from obesity,
Received 20 December 2014 altered responses to exercise or metabolic syndrome, to inflammation, disturbed mitochondrial biogenesis and
Received in revised form 4 March 2015 defective response to energy stress. Fibromyalgia (FM) is a world-wide diffused musculoskeletal chronic pain
Accepted 7 March 2015
condition that affects up to 5% of the general population and comprises all the above mentioned pathophysiolog-
Available online 14 March 2015
ical states. Here, we tested the involvement of AMPK activation in fibroblasts derived from FM patients. AMPK
Keywords:
was not phosphorylated in fibroblasts from FM patients and was associated with decreased mitochondrial
Fibromyalgia biogenesis, reduced oxygen consumption, decreased antioxidant enzymes expression levels and mitochondrial
AMPK dysfunction. However, mtDNA sequencing analysis did not show any important alterations which could justify
Mitochondria the mitochondrial defects. AMPK activation in FM fibroblast was impaired in response to moderate oxidative
Oxidative stress stress. In contrast, AMPK activation by metformin or incubation with serum from caloric restricted mice
Metformin improved the response to moderate oxidative stress and mitochondrial metabolism in FM fibroblasts. These re-
Caloric restriction sults suggest that AMPK plays an essential role in FM pathophysiology and could represent the basis for a valuable
new therapeutic target/strategy. Furthermore, both metformin and caloric restriction could be an interesting
therapeutic approach in FM.
© 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction effect mediated by ROS themselves on the same organelles [2]. In eu-
karyotic cells, mitochondrial biogenesis is triggered through modula-
Mitochondria are essential organelles present in virtually all eukary- tion of the ATP/ADP ratio, activation of adenosine monophosphate
otic cells. One of the primary functions of mitochondria is ATP produc- activated protein kinase (AMPK) and the subsequent expression of per-
tion via the oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) pathway. Moreover, oxisomal proliferator activator receptor γ co-activator 1α (PGC-1α) and
they play crucial roles in many other metabolic, regulatory and develop- nuclear respiratory factor-1 (NRF1) transcription factors. The AMPK cas-
mental processes [1]. The involvement of mitochondria in a variety of cade is one of the intracellular pathways that have evolved to ensure
pathological mechanisms has been partially ascribed to their central that energy homoeostasis is maintained even under pathological condi-
role in reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and to the damaging tions or stress [3]. AMPK has also been involved in the cellular defense
against oxidative stress damage induced by mitochondrial ROS through
the increase of MnSOD and catalase expression levels [4].
⁎ Corresponding author at: Research Laboratory, Oral Medicine Department.
Universidad de Sevilla, C/Avicena s/n, 41009 Sevilla, Spain. Tel.: + 34 954 481120;
Fibromyalgia (FM) is a common chronic pain syndrome accompa-
fax: +34 954 486784. nied by other symptoms such as fatigue, headache, sleep disturbances,
E-mail address: mdcormor@us.es (M.D. Cordero). and depression. Despite the fact that it affects up to 5% of the general
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bbadis.2015.03.005
0925-4439/© 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
1258 E. Alcocer-Gómez et al. / Biochimica et Biophysica Acta 1852 (2015) 1257–1267
2.1. Ethical statements For all experiments, only male mice were used. Eight-week-old male
C57/BL6/J mice weighing 25–30 g were maintained on a 12 h light/dark
The approval of the ethical committee of the University of Seville cycle. All studies were performed in accordance with the European
was obtained, according to the principles of the Declaration of Helsinki Union guidelines (86/609/EU) and Spanish regulations for the use of
and all the International Conferences on Harmonization and Good laboratory animals in chronic experiments (BOE 67/8509-12, 1988).
Clinical Practice Guidelines. All participants in the study gave their All experiments were approved by the local institutional animal care
written informed consent before initiating it. committee. Calorie restriction (CR) regimen was progressively imple-
mented: it was initiated with 10% restriction diet during the first
week, followed by 20 and 30% during the second and third weeks,
2.2. Patients respectively, and maintained at 30% until the end of treatment. After
testing, mice were sacrificed by decapitation. Blood samples were
The inclusion criterion was Fibromyalgia, based on current ACR diag- collected frozen at − 80 °C. In several experiments, fibroblasts were
nostic criteria [9], and diagnosed 2 to 3 years previously. The clinical cultured using 10% mice serum fed ad libitum (AL) or CR. Cells were
characteristics of each group are shown in Supplementary Table 1. incubated at 37 °C in a 5% CO2 atmosphere. Serum was heat activated
Exclusion criteria were: acute infectious disease within the previous for 30 min at 55 °C.
3 weeks; past or present neurological, psychiatric, metabolic, autoim-
mune, allergy-related, dermal or chronic inflammatory disease; unde-
sired habits (e.g., smoking and alcohol); medical conditions that 2.5. Behavioral assays
required glucocorticoid treatment, analgesics or antidepressant drugs;
past or current substance abuse or dependence; pregnancy or current Behavioral analyses were performed in a testing room with homoge-
breastfeeding. Three FM female patients and two healthy female volun- neous noise and light levels. The testing apparatus was cleaned with
teers matched for age range, gender, ethnicity and demographic 70% ethanol (Panreac Química S.A.U.) between trials to eliminate any
features (completion of at least 9 years of education and member of influence of animal odor on the exploratory behavior.
the middle socioeconomic class), were included in the study. Healthy
controls had no signs or symptoms of FM and had not taken any medi-
cation for at least 3 weeks prior to commencing the study. None of the 2.6. Pain assay
patients or controls had taken any drug or vitamin/nutritional supple-
ments during the 3 weeks prior to blood sample collection. All patients For the hot-plate test, a glass cylinder (16 cm high, 16 cm in diame-
and controls followed a standard balanced diet (carbohydrate 50–60%, ter) was used to constrain the mice to the heated surface of the plate.
protein 10–20% and fat 20–30%) for 3 weeks prior to blood collection, The plate surface was maintained at 50–55 ± 0.5 °C and the latency to
as established by a diet program. Clinical data were obtained from a paw-licking was measured, with a cut-off of 30 s.
physical examination and subjects were evaluated using the Fibromyal-
gia Impact Questionnaire (FIQ), the visual analogues scale (VAS) and
depression with the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI). Tender points 2.7. Fibroblast cultures
were identified by digital pressure at the 18 locations recommended
by ACR which included a minimum of 11 out of 18. Coagulated blood Control fibroblasts were human primary fibroblasts from healthy
samples were collected from patients and controls after 12 h fasting, volunteers. Samples from patients and controls were obtained accord-
centrifuged at 3800 ×g for 5 min, and the serum was stored at −80 °C ing to the Helsinki Declarations of 1964, as revised in 2001. Fibroblasts
until testing. Serum biochemical parameters were assayed by routine were cultured in DMEM media (4500 mg/L glucose, L-glutamine,
analytical methods. Routine laboratory test yielded normal results piruvate), (Gibco, Invitrogen, Eugene, OR, USA) supplemented with
for glucose, uric acid, creatine kinase, aspartate aminotransferase, ala- 10% fetal bovine serum (FBS) (Gibco, Invitrogen, Eugene, OR, USA)
nine aminotransferase, cholesterol, and triglycerides (Supplementary and antibiotics (Sigma Chemical Co., St. Louis, MO, USA). Cells were
Table 2). incubated at 37 °C in a 5% CO2 atmosphere.
E. Alcocer-Gómez et al. / Biochimica et Biophysica Acta 1852 (2015) 1257–1267 1259
2 mM metformin (Sigma Aldrich) and/or 100 μM of H2O2 at 48 h Mitochondrial ROS generation in BMCs and fibroblasts were
were used for in vitro experiments. assessed by MitoSOX™ Red, a red mitochondrial superoxide indicator.
MitoSOX Red is a novel fluorogenic dye recently developed and validat-
ed for highly selective detection of superoxide in the mitochondria of
2.9. Mitochondrial respiratory chain enzyme activities
live cells. MitoSOX™ Red reagent is live-cell permeant and is rapidly
and selectively targeted to the mitochondria. Once in the mitochondria,
Activities of NADH:coenzyme Q1 oxidoreductase (complex I),
MitoSOX™ Red reagent is oxidized by superoxide and exhibits red
succinate deshydrogenase (complex II), ubiquinol:cytochrome c oxidore-
fluorescence.
ductase (complex III), cytochrome c oxidase (complex IV), NADH: cyto-
chrome c reductase (complex I + III), succinate:cytochrome c reductase
(complex II + complex III) and citrate synthase (CS) were determined 2.14.1. Fluorescence microscopy
in sonicated-permeabilized fibroblasts using spectrophotometric Cells grown on microscope slides in 6-well plates for 24 h were incu-
methods. Results are expressed as Units/CS (mean ± SD). Proteins of bated with MitoSOX™ Red for 30 min at 37 °C, washed twice in PBS,
fibroblast homogenates were analyzed by the Lowry procedure. fixed with 4% paraformaldehyde in PBS for 0.5–1 h at room tempera-
ture, and washed twice with PBS. After that, cells were incubated for
10 min at 37 °C with anti-cytochrome c antibody (Invitrogen, Barcelona,
2.10. Western blotting Spain) to label mitochondria. Slides were analyzed by immunofluores-
cence microscopy.
Whole cellular lysate from fibroblasts was prepared by gentle shak-
ing with a buffer containing 0.9% NaCl, 20 mMTris-ClH, pH 7.6, 0.1% tri- 2.14.2. Flow cytometry
ton X-100, 1 mM phenylmethylsulfonylfluoride and 0.01% leupeptine. Approximately 1 × 106 cells were incubated with 1 μM MitoSOXTM
Electrophoresis was carried out in a 10–15% acrylamide SDS/PAGE. Red for 30 min at 37 °C, washed twice with PBS, resuspended in
Proteins were transferred to Immobilon membranes (Amersham 500 μL of PBS and analyzed by flow cytometry in an Epics XL cytometer,
Pharmacia, Piscataway, NJ). Mouse anti-Complex I (8 and 39 kDa sub- Beckman Coultier, Brea, California, USA (excitation at 510 nm and fluo-
unit), mouse anti-complex II (30 kDa subunit I), mouse anti-Complex rescence detection at 580 nm).
III (Core 1 subunit), mouse anti-complex IV (COX II), AMPK-P, PGC-1
α, MnSOD, catalase and DNA repair enzyme 8-oxoguanine DNA
2.15. Oxygen consumption rate (OCR)
glycolase-1 (OGG-1) antibodies were used to detect proteins by West-
ern blotting. Proteins were electrophoresed, transferred to nitrocellu-
The oxygen consumption rate (OCR) was assessed in real-time using
lose membranes and, after blocking over night at 4 °C, incubated with
the 24 well Extracellular Flux Analyzer XF-24 (Seahorse Bioscience,
the respective antibody solution, diluted at 1:1000. Membranes were
North Billerica, MA, USA) according to the manufacturer's protocol,
then probed with their respective secondary antibody (1:2500).
which allows measuring OCR changes after up to four sequential addi-
Immunolabeled proteins were detected by using a chemiluminescence
tions of compounds. Cells (5 × 104/well) were seeded for 16 h in the
method (Immun Star HRP substrate kit, Bio-Rad Laboratories Inc.,
XF-24 plate before the experiment in a DMEM/10% serum medium
Hercules, CA). Protein was determined by the Bradford method.
and then incubated for 24 h with the different compounds studied.
Before starting measurements, cells were placed in a running DMEM
2.11. Measurement of CoQ levels medium (supplemented with 25 mM glucose, 2 mM glutamine, 1 mM
sodium Pyruvate, and without serum) and pre-incubated for 20 min
CoQ levels in cultured fibroblasts were performed using a method at 37 °C in the absence of CO2 in the XF Prep Station incubator (Seahorse
previously described by our group [8]. Bioscience, Billerica MA, USA). Cells were transferred to an XF-24 Extra-
cellular Flux Analyzer and after an OCR baseline measurement a profil-
ing of mitochondrial function was performed by sequential injection
2.12. Antioxidant enzyme activity of four compounds that affect bioenergetics, as follows: 55 μL of
oligomycin (final concentration 2.5 μg/mL) at injection in port A, 61 μL
Catalase activity was determined in cellular lysate by monitoring of 2,4-dinitrophenol (2,4-DNP) (final concentration 1 mM) at injection
H2O2 decomposition at 240 nm [12]. SOD activity was determined on in port B, and 68 μL of antimycin/rotenone (final concentration 10 μM/
the basis of the inhibition of the formation of NADH—phenazine 1 μM) at injection in port C. A minimum of five wells was utilized per
methosulfate-nitroblue tetrazolium formazan [13]. condition in any given experiment. Data are expressed as pMol of O2 con-
sumed per minute normalized to 1000 cells (pMol O2/1000 cells/min).
2.13. Quantification of mtDNA
2.16. Lipid peroxidation
Nucleic acids were extracted from fibroblasts by standard cellular
lysis. The primers used were: mtF3212 (5′-CACCCAAGAACAGGGTTT Fibroblasts were cultured on coverslips and incubated with 1 μM
GT-3′) and mtR3319 (5′-TGGCCATGGGTATGTTGTTAA-3′) for mtDNA, C11-Bodipy (BODIPY® 581/591 C11) for 30 min at 37 °C. Coverslips
and, 18S rRNA gene 18S1546F (5′-TAGAGGGACAAGTGGCGTTC-3′) were then rinsed with PBS and mounted onto slides as described
and 18S1650R (5′-CGCTGAGCCAGTCAGTGT3′) for nDNA for loading above for analysis with a fluorescence microscope. Fluorescent intensity
normalization. Arbitrary units were computed as the ratio between was measured using the Image J software (National Institutes of Health,
the optical density band corresponding to the mtDNA studied in the Bethesda, Maryland, USA).
20–30th cycle and that of the nDNA in the 15th amplification cycle. Lipid peroxidation in serum from mice was detected by measuring
One unit was considered to be the ratio corresponding to the control pa- the concentration of TBARS in fluorescence at 532 nm (F7000, HITACHI),
tient. For imaging of mtDNA in living cells, control and FM fibroblasts using a TBARS detection kit according to the manufacturer's instruc-
cells were cultured in dishes with a glass bottom (MatTek Corporation, tions. Absorbance of samples was measured at 535 nm. TBARS concen-
Ashland, MA) and stained with PicoGreen (3 μL/mL) for 1 h at 37 °C. trations of the samples were calculated using the extinction co-efficient
TMRM (100 nM) staining was used to visualize mitochondria. of 156,000 M−1 cm−1.
1260 E. Alcocer-Gómez et al. / Biochimica et Biophysica Acta 1852 (2015) 1257–1267
2.17. PCR Amplification and mtDNA sequencing carried out using the Staden package. For this purpose the revised
human mtDNA Cambridge reference sequence (www.mitomap.org/
The complete mtDNA was amplified from total DNA in 24 overlapping mitoseq.html) was used. The whole process was carried out at
800–1000-bp-long PCR fragments. Primers were carefully designed using Secugen (Madrid, Spain).
the revised human mtDNA Cambridge reference sequence (www.
mitomap.org/mitoseq.html).
The PCR fragments were sequenced in both strands in an 2.18. Analysis of apoptosis and viable cells
ABI 3730 (Applied Biosystems; www.appliedbiosystems.com;
Foster City, CA) sequencer using a BigDye v3.1 sequencing kit Viable cells were determined from their normal cell and nuclear
(Applied Biosystems; www.appliedbiosystems.com; Foster City, morphology and exclusion of propidium iodide. In each case 10 random
CA). Assembly and identification of variations in the mtDNA were fields and more than 500 cells were counted.
U/CS
U/CS
150
100 *
40
* * * 40
* * *
* *
50 20 20
0 0 0
Control FM1 FM2 FM3 Control FM1 FM2 FM3 Control FM1 FM2 FM3
U/CS
U/CS
** ** 15 *
200 100 * * 10
* *
100
* 50 5
0 0 0
Control FM1 FM2 FM3 Control FM1 FM2 FM3 Control FM1 FM2 FM3
100 70
90
IOD Complex I (39kDa) /
60
IOD Complex I (8kDa)/
80
B 70 50
Control FM1 FM2 FM3 60
GADPH
40
GADPH
50 *
Complex I 40 * * 30
30 20 *
8kDa subunit 20 *
10
10 *
Complex I 0 0
Control FM1 FM2 FM3 Control FM1 FM2 FM3
39kDa subunit 120
90
IOD Complex II (30kDa) /
80
IOD Complex II (70kDa) /
Complex II 100
30kDa subunit
70 *** 80 ***
60
*
GADPH
GADPH
50 60
Complex II 40 * *
70kDa subunit 30 40
20
Complex III 10
20 *
Core I subunit 0 0
Control FM1 FM2 FM3 Control FM1 FM2 FM3
Complex IV 70 90
Cox II subunit
IOD Complex III / GADPH
60 80
70
50
60
***
GADPH 40 50
* * * 40
30 *
20
30 *
20
10 10
0 0
Control FM1 FM2 FM3 Control FM1 FM2 FM3
Fig. 1. Mitochondrial dysfunction in skin fibroblasts from FM patients. (A) Mitochondrial enzymatic activities were determined as described in Material and methods. Results (mean ± SD)
are expressed in U/CS (units per citrate synthase). (B) Protein expression levels of mitochondrial subunits of complex I, II, III and complex IV. (C) Protein levels were determined by den-
sitometric analysis (IOD, integrated optical intensity) of three different Western blots and normalized to GADPH signal, using fibroblasts from three representative FM patients, compared
with a pool of fibroblasts from 5 healthy age- and sex-matched control subjects. *P b 0.001; **P b 0.01; ***P b 0.05 between control and FM patients.
E. Alcocer-Gómez et al. / Biochimica et Biophysica Acta 1852 (2015) 1257–1267 1261
A B *
4,0
Control 2,5
3.50
FM1 2,0
3.00 1,5
FM2
2.50 FM3 1,0
2.00 0,5
0,0
1.50 Control FM1 FM2 FM3
1.00
0.50
C
0,7 *
O 2/1000 cells/min)
0,5
Time (min)
0,4
0,3
0,2
D 0,1
200 0,0
pMolQ10/mgProtein
150
100 G Control
50 *
* *
0
Control 1 Control 2 Control 3 FM1 FM2 FM3
E
1.5 FM1
mtDNA/gDNA
1
* **
0.5
*
0
Control 1 Control 2 Control 3 FM1 FM2 FM3 FM2
F
250
PicoGreen Foci
200
* * *
150 FM3
100
50
0
Control 1 Control 2 Control 3 FM1 FM2 FM3
Fig. 2. Abnormalities in various aspects of bioenergetic function of mitochondria. Oxygen consumption rate (OCR) in cells from control and FM patients. (A) OCR was monitored using the
Seahorse XF-24 Extracellular Flux Analyzer with the sequential injection of oligomycin (1 μg/mL), 2,4-DNP (100 μM), rotenone (1 μM) at the indicated time point (B) The basal OCR was
markedly affected in cells from FM compared to control. (C) The spare respiratory capacity (SRC) of FM fibroblasts showed a significant decrease with respect to control fibroblasts.
(D) CoQ10 levels in control and FM cells. (E) mtDNA copy number was measured by RT-PCR as described in Material and methods. (F and G) mtDNA imaging by PicoGreen staining
and quantification of PicoGreen foci in control and FM fibroblasts. For the control cells, data are the means ± SD for experiments performed on two different control cell lines. Data
represent the mean ± SD of three separate experiments. Bar = 15 μm.*P b 0.001; **P b 0.01 between control and FM patients.
1262 E. Alcocer-Gómez et al. / Biochimica et Biophysica Acta 1852 (2015) 1257–1267
Data in figures is given as mean ± SD. Data between different groups 3.1. Mitochondrial metabolism
were analyzed statistically by using ANOVA on Ranks with Sigma Plot
and Sigma Stat statistical software (SPSS for Windows, 19, 2010, SPSS As AMPK signaling has been previously reported to be altered in BMCs
Inc. Chicago, IL, USA). For cell-culture studies, Student's t test was used from FM patients [9], we have next studied the role of AMPK in FM path-
for data analyses. A value of P b 0.05 was considered significant. ophysiology using isolated fibroblasts from three representative FM
A B
120 80
* *
Mitochondrial ROS Production
70 a a
100 a
80 50
Reduced
60 a 40 Oxidated
30
40
*
20 * *
20
10
0 0
Control 1 Control 2 Control 3 FM1 FM2 FM3 Control 1 Control 2 Control 3 FM1 FM2 FM3
C 60
IOD OGG-1 / GADPH
D E Red Green
Mitosox Cyto c Merge fluorescence fluorescence Merge
Control
Control
FM1
FM1
FM2
FM2
FM3
FM3
Fig. 3. Oxidative stress and oxidative damage levels in fibroblasts from FM patients. (A) Mitochondrial ROS production was analyzed in BMCs from control and FM patients by flow cytom-
etry as described in Material and Methods. (B) Quantification of lipid peroxidation in control and FM fibroblasts. Data represent the oxidized lipid/reduced lipid ratio. Data represent the
mean ± SD of three separate experiments.*P b 0.001, aP b 0.01 between control and FM patients. (C) Protein expression levels of 8-oxoguanine glycosylase (OGG-1, a DNA glycosylase
enzyme responsible for the excision of 7,8-dihydro-8-oxoguanine (8-oxoG)). (D) Mitochondrial ROS generation in fibroblasts cultured for 72 h in normal growth medium prior to analysis.
MitoSOX Red staining revealed increased superoxide anion. MitoSOX Red colocalized with subunit II of cytochrome c oxidase (COX II) in merged images, indicating that superoxide anion
production was mainly in mitochondria. (E) Lipid peroxidation in control and FM fibroblasts using C11-Bodipy staining. Red fluorescence represents non-oxidized lipids, and green fluo-
rescence represents oxidized lipids. Scale bar 30 μm.
E. Alcocer-Gómez et al. / Biochimica et Biophysica Acta 1852 (2015) 1257–1267 1263
patients. FM fibroblasts displayed a significant reduction in the activities 3.2. AMPK is implicated in oxidative stress response in FM
of mitochondrial respiratory enzymes compared to control fibroblasts
(Fig. 1A). Mitochondrial protein expression levels correlated with the de- Mitochondrial superoxide production was significantly increased in
pressed activities found in respiratory enzymes (Fig. 1B). Next, we inves- FM fibroblasts compared to controls (P b 0.001), accompanied by high
tigated mitochondrial function by measuring the OCR values in control levels of lipid peroxidation (Figs. 3A, B, D and E). To confirm these
and FM fibroblasts, exposed sequentially to each of four modulators of results, the expression of an additional oxidative stress marker such as
oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS): oligomycin (an inhibitor of F1Fo- 8-oxoguanine glycosylase (OGG1) was also determined. FM fibroblasts
ATPase or complex V), 2,4-DNP (uncoupling of the OXPHOS electron showed high levels of OGG1 (Fig. 3C).
transport chain) and antimycin/rotenone (complex I and III inhibitors re- As AMPK induces PGC-1α phosphorylation which leads to increased
spectively) (Fig. 2A). The basal OCR was markedly affected in fibroblasts antioxidant enzymes expression levels and mitochondrial biogenesis,
from FM patients compared to controls (Fig. 2B). The spare respiratory we analyzed AMPK protein expression levels and activation in FM
capacity (SRC) of cells was obtained by calculating the mean of OCR fibroblasts. Results showed low expression levels of active phosphory-
values after injection of 2,4-DNP minus the basal respiration and could lated AMPK, PGC-1α and MnSOD (Fig. 4A), suggesting that AMPK-
be used as an indicator of how close a cell is operating to its bioenergetic dependent activation of PGC-1α was indeed impaired in FM fibroblasts.
limit. Fibroblasts from FM patients showed a significant decrease of SRC As reduced antioxidant enzyme levels have been previously described
compared to control cells (Fig. 2C). Furthermore, similarly to what was in FM [5,6,11], we next investigated the response to moderate oxidative
previously found in BMCs [8], FM fibroblasts also showed decreased stress induced by exogenous addition of H2O2 in FM fibroblasts. Incuba-
CoQ10 levels when compared to controls (Fig. 2D). CoQ10 content of fibro- tion of FM fibroblasts with H2O2 failed to activate AMPK and PGC-1α
blasts from patient 1 was reduced by 70%, from patient 2 by 78% and from and to increase MnSOD expression levels (Fig. 4A). As a consequence
patient 3 by 82%. FM fibroblasts also had a smaller number of mitochon- of an impaired defensive response to oxidative stress, cell death
dria; we measured mtDNA content and compared it with control values. increased in FM fibroblasts treated with H2O2 (Fig. 4B).
Results showed that mtDNA content was 30–50% lower in fibroblasts Under oxidative stress condition, AMPK was found to lead to an
from FM (Fig. 2E). This finding was further confirmed by visualizing the increase in the NADPH generation [14]. However, as FM fibroblasts
number of mtDNA nucleoids per cell using PicoGreen staining and fluo- had reduced activity of phosphorylated AMPK, we found low levels of
rescence microscopy. Mitochondrial nucleoids were significantly reduced NADPH. Interestingly, metformin, an AMP mimetic that directly acti-
in FM fibroblasts (Figs. 2F and G). vates AMPK, induced an increase of NADPH levels and the activity of
Since mitochondrial respiratory chain defects are usually associated SOD and catalase (Figs. 5A–C).
with mtDNA mutations or deletions, we next sequenced the complete FM fibroblasts under moderate oxidative stress conditions mediated
mtDNA from FM patients. Sequence analysis did not show any impor- by H2O2 treatment or induction of AMPK by metformin showed PGC-
tant alterations as mutations or deletions which could justify the mito- 1alpha activation (Fig. 5D) which increased protection against H2O2
chondrial defects. We only found mitochondrial polymorphisms which exposure and reduced cell death (Fig. 5E). These results suggest that
are also observed in control fibroblasts (Table S1). the induction of AMPK phosphorylation could to be an interesting
A 350000
Arbitrary Units (a.u.)
300000
250000
200000
150000 * p-AMPKα
PGC-1α
100000
MnSOD
50000
B
70
N/T
* *
60 *
H2O2
50
%apoptosis
40
30
20
10
0
Control FM1 FM2 FM3
Fig. 4. Comparison of oxidative stress levels and metabolic response to H2O2 treatment of skin fibroblasts between FM patients and healthy subjects. (A) Protein expression levels of phos-
phorylated AMPK, PGC-1α, and MnSOD after incubation with 100 mM H2O2 for 48 h. Protein levels were determined by densitometric analysis (IOD, integrated optical intensity) of three
different Western blots and normalized to GADPH signal. *P b 0.001 between control and FM patients. (B) Percentage of apoptosis in control and FM fibroblasts after incubation with
100 mM H2O2 for at 48 h. *P b 0.001 between control and FM patients.
1264 E. Alcocer-Gómez et al. / Biochimica et Biophysica Acta 1852 (2015) 1257–1267
A 16
B 30
C
* 80 **
0 0 0
D
200000
180000
E
70
60 * *
*
50
% Apoptosis
40 N/T
H2O2
30
H2O2+Metformin
20
10
0
Control FM1 FM2 FM3
Fig. 5. Effects of metformin treatment on antioxidant defense and oxidative stress response of fibroblasts from FM patients. (A, B and C) NADPH levels and antioxidant enzymes SOD and
catalase (CAT) activities in FM fibroblasts treated with metformin (Met). *P b 0.001 and **P b 0.05 between control and control with Met. aP b 0.001 and aaP b 0.005 between FM and control.
≠
P b 0.001 between FM and FM with Met. (D) Levels of phosphorylated PGC-α in FM fibroblasts after 100 mM H2O2 and 2 mM Met treatments for 48 h (representative subset is shown).
(E) Percentage of apoptosis in control and FM fibroblasts after incubation with 100 mM H2O2 and 2 mM Met for 48 h. *P b 0.001 between control and FM patients and between H2O2 and
H2O2 + Met.
therapeutic approach in FM. Given that it has been speculated that the when compared with ad libitum (AL) fed mice (Fig. 6A) accompanied
beneficial effects of caloric restriction (CR) could be mediated by by AMPK phosphorylation (Fig. 6B) and reduced levels of serum oxida-
AMPK [3], CR could be a promising method to alleviate oxidative dam- tive stress (Fig. 6C). To determine the potential effect of improvement of
age in FM. Taken into account the possible role of AMPK in FM patho- AMPK by CR, fibroblasts from FM patients were cultured with serum
physiology and the results with metformin treatment, we next studied from AL and CR mice, and cell growth, ATP and mitochondrial mass
the implication of AMPK in the protective effect of CR on FM fibroblasts. were assessed. Serum from CR mice improved cell growth in controls
Thus, we performed an experiment with a mouse model of CR. Sev- and FM fibroblasts (Fig. 6D), accompanied by an increase in ATP levels
eral mice were fed with a normal diet and with CR for one month. Mice and mitochondrial mass (determined by increased citrate synthase
submitted to the CR diet for one month developed a marked analgesia activity) and cell morphology normalization (Figs. 6E–G).
E. Alcocer-Gómez et al. / Biochimica et Biophysica Acta 1852 (2015) 1257–1267 1265
A Temperature 55ºC
B 3
C
45 pAMPK/GADPH 12
TBARS µMol/mL
2 8
30
25 AL 1.5 6 *
20
CR
15 1 4
10
0.5 2
5
0 0 0
Day 30 Day 32 Day 34 Day 36 AL CR AL RC
D E F
protein)
Relative cell growth
6
CTL
40 4
CTL
CTL AL
30 2
CTL CR
0
20 FM CTL AL CTL CR FM AL FM CR
FM AL
10
G
FM FBS
FM CR
0 40
Citrate Synthase
Specific activity
0 48 72 96 120 ** *
30
Time of growth (hours)
FBS AL CR 20
10
FM AL
0
CTL
CTL AL CTL CR FM AL FM CR
FM AL FM CR
FM CR
FM
Fig. 6. Effects of caloric restriction on bioenergetics function of mice and skin fibroblasts from FM patients. (A) Evolution of pain sensitivity in ad libitum (AL) and caloric restriction (CR)
mice evaluated in the hot plate test at 55 °C. (B) Phosphorylation of AMPK after CR. (C) Oxidative stress in serum evaluated by TBARS levels. (D) Cell growth with AL and CR serum de-
termined in healthy and FM fibroblasts. (E) Morphological changes of fibroblasts incubated with FBS or serum from AL or CR mice. (F) ATP levels in control and FM fibroblasts.
(G) Mitochondrial mass determined by measuring citrate synthase levels and cytochrome c levels by immnunofluorescence in control and FM fibroblasts. Data represents the
means ± SD of three separate experiments. *P b 0.001 AL or CR; **P b 0.01 between AL or CR in control fibroblasts.
4. Discussion disease biochemistry and molecular studies [1]. Skin fibroblasts repre-
sent a useful biological model in which defined mutations and the
Despite decades of intense research, the basic pathophysiological cumulative cellular damage can be examined. We found reduced mito-
mechanisms of FM still remain elusive. Several important pathophysio- chondrial chain enzimatic activities and proteins, CoQ10 levels, mito-
logical processes in FM onset and development have been described: chondrial mass and ATP levels, accompanied by increased oxidative
oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, bioenergetic alterations damage. We found no specific mutation after mtDNA sequencing; how-
and inflammation processes are only some of the most important mech- ever, we cannot rule out the presence of mutations in nDNA or potential
anisms that have been postulated [5–11]. AMPK has been reported to mtDNA mutations in other patients not included in this study.
play a master regulatory role in all these cellular processes and its dys- Moreover, we observed reduced levels of phosphorylated PGC-1α
regulation has been described in several other diseases [15]. Recently, accompanied by low levels of antioxidant MnSOD and impaired oxida-
we have reported alterations in AMPK signaling in BMCs from FM pa- tive stress response which are protective mechanisms controlled by
tients. However, the role of AMPK in FM remains unknown. In this AMPK. Furthermore, reduced levels of active phosphorylated AMPK
study, we found a marked mitochondrial dysfunction in fibroblasts de- were observed in FM fibroblasts. These data are interesting because
rived from 3 FM patients. It is interesting to remark that until now, all AMPK has been involved in the control of peripheral sensitization of
the studies in FM have explored the pathophysiological processes only nociceptors, providing evidence of AMPK activation as a novel treat-
in biological samples isolated directly from patients, e.g. BMCs, platelets, ment avenue for acute and chronic pain states [16]. In addition, the
serum, plasma, saliva, muscle. In this work we have used human dermal exposition of fibroblasts to moderate oxidative stress, as induced by
fibroblasts that have a long track record of utility in mitochondrial exogenously added H2O2, fails to up-regulate AMPK, PGC-1α and
1266 E. Alcocer-Gómez et al. / Biochimica et Biophysica Acta 1852 (2015) 1257–1267
antioxidant enzymes. Concerning this, AMPK has been deeply involved OGG1 8-oxoguanine glycosylase
in the regulation of oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunction PGC-1α peroxisomal proliferator activator receptor γ co-activator 1α
[17–19]. In this sense, AMPK phosphorylation by metformin treatment NRF1 nuclear respiratory factor-1
induced activation of PGC-1α accompanied by increased antioxidant ROS reactive oxygen species
enzyme activities and, as a consequence, protection of FM fibroblasts SOD superoxide dismutase
against stress exposure. PGC-1α is a key player in the ROS-induced mi- TBARS thiobarbituric acid reactive substances
tochondrial biogenesis, along with the NRF-1 and the mitochondrial
transcription factor Tfam [20]. According to our data, metformin could Author disclosure statement
induce PGC-1α activation by AMPK phosphorylation. Furthermore,
PGC-1α has a key role in the antioxidant enzymes biosynthesis, and All the Authors declare that no conflict of interest exists for any of
its genetic deletion has shown an inhibitory effect in SOD2 and catalase them.
expression levels [4,20]. Furthermore, it has been shown that PGC-1α
induction by phosphorylation of AMPK increases SOD2 and catalase Author contributions
expression levels [21]. Our data show that PGC-1α activation by metfor-
min induces increased mitochondrial biogenesis and antioxidant en- E.A.G.. and M.D.C. conceived of the study and wrote the manuscript.
zymes expression levels, and, as a consequence, a more physiological A.M.C., E.A.G., F.M.A., and DC. performed mouse experiments. E.A.G.,
response to oxidative stress. A chronic exposure to oxidative stress J.G.M., J.M.A.S., F.G. P.B. and J.A.S.A. performed cell culture experiments.
and dysregulation of the stress response are accepted causative factors J.A.S.A. conducted patient evaluations and skin biopsies isolation.
involved in the pathophysiology of FM [11,22–24]. Our results could All authors analyzed and discussed the data and commented on the
represent the basis for a valuable new therapeutic target/strategy. We manuscript.
found in FM fibroblasts: (i) a lack of AMPK phosphorylation and (ii) res-
toration of its phosphorylation by AMPK activators, such as metformin.
Acknowledgments
These findings suggest that AMPK plays a central role in FM pathophys-
iology and stress response. Identification of AMPK as a regulating factor
This work has been supported by Federación Andaluza de
in FM would have implications for patient management and treatment.
Fibromialgia y Fatiga Crónica (ALBA Andalucía) and Grupo de
We can hypothesize that the loss of sensitivity of AMPK activation is re-
Investigacion Junta de Andalucia CTS113. Authors are indebted
sponsible for increased oxidative stress and impaired bioenergetics in
with Ms Monica Glebocki for extensive editing of the manuscript.
FM patients. Furthermore, other metabolic events have been related
with AMPK down-regulation. Reduced AMPK activity has been found
Appendix A. Supplementary data
in obesity or metabolic syndrome [3], both reported to be implicated
in FM [25,26]. AMPK dysfunction seems to explain many of the patho-
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at http://dx.
physiological alterations found in FM. In this sense, activation of AMPK
doi.org/10.1016/j.bbadis.2015.03.005.
with other activators having similar effects to metformin must induce
similar beneficial effects. To investigate whether AMPK could be respon-
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156–166. [24] R. Alok, S.K. Das, G.G. Agarwal, L. Salwahan, R. Srivastava, Relationship of severity of
[18] S.B. Wu, Y.T. Wu, T.P. Wu, Y.H. Wei, Role of AMPK-mediated adaptive responses in depression, anxiety and stress with severity of fibromyalgia, Clin. Exp. Rheumatol.
human cells with mitochondrial dysfunction to oxidative stress, Biochim. Biophys. 29 (2011) S70–S72.
Acta 1840 (2014) 1331–1344. [25] L. Arranz, M.A. Canela, M. Rafecas, Relationship between body mass index, fat mass
[19] K. Takeuchi, Y. Morizane, C. Kamami-Levy, J. Suzuki, M. Kayama, W. Cai, J.W. Miller, and lean mass with SF-36 quality of life scores in a group of fibromyalgia patients,
D.G. Vavvas, AMP-dependent kinase inhibits oxidative stress-induced caveolin-1 Rheumatol. Int. 32 (2012) 3605–3611.
phosphorylation and endocytosis by suppressing the dissociation between c-Abl [26] B.L. Loevinger, D. Muller, C. Alonso, C.L. Coe, Metabolic syndrome in women with
and Prdx1 proteins in endothelial cells, J. Biol. Chem. 288 (2013) 20581–20591. chronic pain, Metabolism 56 (2007) 87–93.
[20] Z. Lu, X. Xu, X. Hu, J. Fassett, G. Zhu, Y. Tao, J. Li, Y. Huang, P. Zhang, B. Zhao, Y. Chen, [27] R. de Cabo, S. Fürer-Galbán, R.M. Anson, C. Gilman, M. Gorospe, M.A. Lane, An
PGC-1 alpha regulates expression of myocardial mitochondrial antioxidants and in vitro model of caloric restriction, Exp. Gerontol. 38 (2003) 631–639.
Journal of Medical Genetics
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Mutation in Cytochrome b gene of mitochondrial DNA in a
family with Fibromyalgia is associated with NLRP3-
Inflammasome activation
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Journal: Journal of Medical Genetics
Manuscript ID jmedgenet-2015-103392.R1
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Article Type: Original Article
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Complete List of Authors: Cordero, Mario D.; IBiS Institute of Biomedicine of Seville, University
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Humana (INEBIR).
Bullon, Pedro; IBiS Institute of Biomedicine of Seville, University Hospital
Virgen del Rocío-CSIC-University of Seville, Spain,
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3 Mutation in Cytochrome b gene of mitochondrial DNA in a family with
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5 Fibromyalgia is associated with NLRP3-Inflammasome activation
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8 Mario D. Cordero1,2, Elísabet Alcocer-Gómez3,4, Fabiola Marín-Aguilar1, Tatyana
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10 Rybkina5, David Cotán3,4, Antonio Pérez-Pulido3, José Miguel Alvarez-Suarez6,
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Maurizio Battino7, José Antonio Sánchez-Alcazar3,4, Angel M. Carrión5, Ognjen Culic8,
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15 José M Navarro-Pando9, Pedro Bullón1,2
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IBiS Institute of Biomedicine of Seville, University Hospital Virgen del Rocío-CSIC-
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21 Research Laboratory, Oral Medicine Department, University of Sevilla, Sevilla, Spain
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23 Centro Andaluz de Biología del Desarrollo (CABD), Universidad Pablo de Olavide-
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Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Raras (CIBERER),
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28 ISCIII, Sevilla, Spain.
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30 División de Neurociencias, Universidad Pablo de Olavide de Sevilla, Carretera de
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Unidad de Reproducción Humana y Cirugía Endoscópica, Instituto para el Estudio de
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la Biología de la Reproducción Humana (INEBIR).
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Running Title: Mitochondrial diseases and inflammasome
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49 All authors declare no Conflict of Interests
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53 † Corresponding Author:
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Mario D. Cordero
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57 IBiS Institute of Biomedicine of Seville, Universidad de Sevilla,
58 C/ Calle Antonio Maura Montaner s/n, 41013 –Sevilla, SPAIN.
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3 Tel.: +34 954 481120
4 Fax: +34 954 486784
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Email: mdcormor@us.es
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10 Abstract
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12 Background: Fibromyalgia (FM) is a world-wide diffuse musculoskeletal chronic pain
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condition that affects up to 5% of the general population. Many symptoms associated
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15 with mitochondrial diseases are reported in FM patients such as exercise intolerance,
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16 fatigue, myopathy and mitochondrial dysfunction. In this study, we report a mutation
17 cytochrome b gene of mitochondrial DNA in a family with FM with inflammasome-
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21 Methods: mtDNA from blood cells of five patients with FM were sequenced. We
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transmitochondrial cybrids.
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fibroblasts showed a very significant mitochondrial dysfunction and oxidative stress.
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32 Increased NLRP3-inflammasome complex activation was observed in blood cells from
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3 Introduction
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6 Mitochondria are essential organelles present in virtually all eukaryotic cells. One of the
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8 primary functions of mitochondria is ATP production via the oxidative phosphorylation
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10 system through a series of reactions mediated by complexes encoded by both nuclear
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and mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) (1,2). Moreover, mitochondria play crucial roles in
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15 many other metabolic, regulatory and developmental processes and in a variety of
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17 pathological mechanisms (2,3).
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20 Fibromyalgia (FM) is a common chronic pain syndrome accompanied by other
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22 symptoms such as fatigue, headache, sleep disorders, and depression. Despite the fact
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that it affects up to 5% of the general population worldwide, its pathogenic mechanism
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mitochondrial respiratory chain activity and impaired bioenergetics (6-12). Furthermore,
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36 cytokines, especially IL1β, may play a role in FM (11-14) and ROS have also been
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43 related with exercise intolerance, musculoskeletal and nervous system alterations (2).
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45 To understand the implication of mtDNA in the pathophysiology of FM, we explored
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48 alterations of mtDNA in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (BMCs) from five FM
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50 patients. The current study describes a mutation in the cytochrome b gene (mtCYB), a
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52 mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) gene, in one patient and several family members
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54 diagnosed with FM. Functional analysis in cybrids cells carrying the mitochondrial
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mutation revealed the pathogenic role of the mutation and the activation of
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3 inflammasome. Interestingly, NLRP3-inflammasome activation was observed in
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5 Mitochondrial myopathy, encephalopathy, lactic acidosis, and stroke (MELAS)
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7 syndrome with 3243 A>G mutation in the tRNALeu (UUR) gene, Myoclonic epilepsy
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10 with ragged-red fibers (MERRF) with 8344A>G mutation in the gene MT-TK, and
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12 Leber hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON) with 11778G>A in the gene MT-ND4.
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15 MATERIAL AND METHODS
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18 Ethical Statements
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21 The approval of the ethical committee of University of Seville was obtained, according
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25 Harmonization and Good Clinical Practice Guidelines. All the participants into the
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28 study gave their written informed consent before initiating the study.
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31 Reagents.
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34 Trypsin was purchased from Sigma Chemical Co., (St. Louis, Missouri). Anti-GAPDH
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36 monoclonal antibody from Calbiochem-Merck Chemicals Ltd. (Nottingham, UK). Anti-
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38 NLRP3 antibody from Adipogen (San Diego, USA) and anti-IL-1β (p17) from Santa
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40 Cruz Biotechnology. Anti-active caspase-1 was obtained from Cell Signaling
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Technology. A cocktail of protease inhibitors (complete cocktail) was purchased from
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45 Boehringer Mannheim (Indianapolis, IN). The Immun Star HRP substrate kit was from
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Bio-Rad Laboratories Inc. (Hercules, CA).
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50 Fibroblast cultures
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52 Patient and control fibroblasts were obtained according to the Helsinki Declarations of
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54 1964, as revised in 2001. Fibroblasts were cultured in D-MEM media (4500 mg/L
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glucose, L-glutamine, piruvate), (Gibco, Invitrogen, Eugene, OR, USA) supplemented
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3 with 10% fetal bovine serum (FBS) (Gibco, Invitrogen, Eugene, OR, USA) and
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5 antibiotics (Sigma Chemical Co., St. Louis, MO, USA). Cells were incubated at 37ºC in
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7 a 5% CO2 atmosphere.
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10 Mitochondrial disease fibroblasts
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12 MELAS cultured fibroblasts were derived from a patient who harbored a heteroplasmic
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14 A to G mutation at nucleotide 3243 in the tRNALeu(UUR) gene. Clinically, the patient
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16 had encephalopmyopathy, stroke-like episodes, and lactic acidosis, plus short stature,
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deafness diabetes mellitus, dementia, and ataxia. The level of the m.3243G>A mutation
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21 was 43% in fibroblasts. Molecular pathophysiology is described in reference 16.
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25 m.8344A>G mutation (57%). Molecular pathophysiology is described in reference 17.
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30 mutation which has not yet been characterized.
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Biological samples
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36 Blood, urine, skin biopsy and saliva samples were collected from all of the probands
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40 method of Miller et al. (1988) (18). The first morning urine sample of 30–40 ml was
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42 collected in a clean 50 ml centrifuge tube (produced by CORNING) and centrifuged at
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1000 rpm for 10 min to obtain sediment. Total DNA was then extracted from urine, and
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saliva by the silica method (19). Total skin DNA was obtained by the phenol–
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3 Complete mtDNA was amplified from total DNA in 24 overlapping 800–1,000-bp-long
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5 PCR fragments. Primers were carefully designed using the revised human mitochondrial
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7 DNA Cambridge reference sequence (www.mitomap.org/mitoseq.html).
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10 PCR fragments were sequenced in both strands in an ABI 3730 (Applied Biosystems;
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www.appliedbiosystems.com; Foster City, CA) sequencer using a BigDye v3.1
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15 sequencing kit (Applied Biosystems; www.appliedbiosystems.com; Foster City, CA).
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17 Assembling and identification of variations in the mitochondrial DNA was carried out
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19 using the Staden package (20). For this purpose the revised human mitochondrial DNA
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Cambridge reference sequence (www.mitomap.org/mitoseq.html) was used. The whole
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28 Activities of NADH:coenzyme Q1 oxidoreductase (complex I), succinate
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30 deshydrogenase (complex II), ubiquinol:cytochrome c oxidoreductase (complex III),
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cytochrome c oxidase (complex IV), NADH: cytochrome c reductase (complex I+III),
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35 succinate:cytochrome c reductase (complex II +complex III) and citrate synthase (CS)
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37 were determined on sonicated permeabilized fibroblasts using previously described
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39 spectrophotometric methods (21). Results are expressed as Units/CS (mean±SD).
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Proteins of fibroblast homogenates were analyzed by the Lowry procedure (22).
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48 containing 0.9% NaCl, 20 mM Tris-ClH, pH 7.6, 0.1% triton X-100, 1 mM
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50 phenylmethylsulfonylfluoride and 0.01% leupeptine. Electrophoresis was carried out in
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53 a 10–15% acrylamide SDS/PAGE. Proteins were transferred to Immobilon membranes
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3 respective antibody solution, diluted at 1:1000. Membranes were then probed with their
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5 respective secondary antibody (1:2500). Immunolabeled proteins were detected using a
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7 chemiluminescence method (Immun Star HRP substrate kit, Bio-Rad Laboratories Inc.,
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10 Hercules, CA). Protein was determined by the Bradford method (23). Western blot
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12 image was quantified using ImageJ software (see:
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14 http://rsb.info.nih.gov/ij/download.html).
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CoQ levels were performed using a method previously described by our group (11).
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IL-1β and IL-18 levels
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IL-1β (GenWay, San Diego CA, USA) and IL-18 (Biosensis, Australia) levels in serum
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kit from Invitrogen-Molecular Probes (Eugene, OR, USA) following the instructions of
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40 Nucleic acids were extracted from fibroblasts by standard cellular lysis. The primers
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42 used were: for mitochondrial DNA, mtF3212 (5'-CACCCAAGAACAGGGTTTGT-3')
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and mtR3319 (5'-TGGCCATGGGTATGTTGTTAA-3') and those for nuclear DNA for
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loading normalization, 18S rRNA gene 18S1546F (5'-
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49 TAGAGGGACAAGTGGCGTTC-3') and 18S1650R (5'-
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51 CGCTGAGCCAGTCAGTGT3'). Arbitrary units were computed as the ratio between
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the optical density band corresponding to the mitochondrial DNA studied in the 20–
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56 30th cycle and that of the nuclear DNA in the 15th amplification cycle. One unit was
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3 mtDNA, control and FM fibroblasts cells were cultured in dishes with a glass bottom
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5 (MatTek Corporation, Ashland, MA) and stained with PicoGreen (3 l/ml) for 1 h at
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10 Patients and cybrids mutation genotyping
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12 Once DNA was extracted, PCR amplification of the mtCYB fragment containing the
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14 mutation, from 15700 to 16003 nucleotides of mtDNA, was performed using the
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GGAGGCAAGCATAAGACTGG -3’, yielding a 300 bp product. Amplification
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21 products were then digested with BbvI enzyme and fractionated in a 2.5% agarose gel.
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30 fragments).
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32 Mitochondrial ROS production
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34 Mitochondrial ROS generation in BMCs and fibroblasts was assessed by MitoSOX™
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36 red, a red mitochondrial superoxide indicator. MitoSOX Red is a novel fluorogenic dye
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recently developed and validated for highly selective detection of superoxide in the
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mitochondria of live cells. MitoSOX™ Red reagent is live-cell permeant and is rapidly
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43 and selectively targeted to the mitochondria. Once in the mitochondria, MitoSOX™
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45 Red reagent is oxidized by superoxide and exhibits red fluorescence.
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48 Flow cytometry. Approximately 1 x 106 cells were incubated with 1µM MitoSOXTM
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50 red for 30 min at 37°C, washed twice with PBS, resuspended in 500 µl of PBS and
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53 analyzed by flow cytometry in an Epics XL cytometer, Beckman Coulter, Brea,
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58 Oxygen consumption rate (OCR)
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3 Oxygen consumption rate (OCR) was assessed in real-time using the 24 well
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5 Extracellular Flux Analyzer XF-24 (Seahorse Bioscience, North Billerica, MA, USA)
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7 according to the manufacturer’s protocol, which allows to measure OCR changes after
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10 up to four sequential additions of compounds. Cells (5 x104/well) were seeded for 16
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12 hours in the XF-24 plate before the experiment in a DMEM/10% serum medium and
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14 then incubated for 24 hours with the different compounds studied. Before starting
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mM glucose, 2 mM glutamine, 1 mM sodium Pyruvate, and without serum) and pre-
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25 Extracellular Flux Analyzer and after an OCR baseline measurement a profiling of
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30 affect bioenergetics, as follows: 55 µl of oligomycin (final concentration 2.5 µg/mL) at
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32 injection in port A, 61 µl of 2,4-dinitrophenol (2,4-DNP) (final concentration 1 mM) at
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34 injection in port B, and 68 µl of antimycin/rotenone (final concentration 10 µM/1µM) at
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experiment. Data are expressed as pMol of O2 consumed per minute normalized to 1000
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cells (pMol O2/1000 cells/min).
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49 used (24) with default parameters and they were visualized with the Rasmol program.
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surroundings of the studied mutation (25).
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Statistical Analysis
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3 Data in figures is given as mean ± SD. Data between different groups were analyzed
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5 statistically by using ANOVA on Ranks with Sigma Plot and Sigma Stat statistical
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7 software (SPSS for Windows, 19, 2010, SPSS Inc. Chicago, IL, USA). For cell-culture
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15 Results
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20 genes in FM, mtDNA from blood cells of five patients with FM and intolerance exercise
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22 were sequenced. Mean age of the FM group was 44 ± 2 years. The mean duration of
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symptoms in the FM group was 6.2 ± 1.7 years. Clinical data are shown in Table S1.
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m.15804T>C, in the mtCYB gene, predicting the substitution of the valine at codon 353
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36 with an alanine (p.V353A). This is the only suspected change observed in patient 3 and
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51 Molecular analysis
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54 The T→C transition in patient 3 generated a new restriction site for the BbvI enzyme
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58 1A). Molecular analysis in patient 3, a woman of 45 years old, showed that the 15804
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3 mutation was homoplasmic in blood cells, urine, and saliva samples (Fig. 1B). In
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14 according to ACR criteria. Laboratory evaluation in patient 3 was normal, including
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skin fibroblasts from patient 3 showed reduced levels of complex III activity (Figure
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protein structure showed that the mutation (yellow) was localized in an opposite area of
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43 Mitochondrial dysfunction in FM fibroblasts was also assessed by a reduced oxygen
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45 consumption rate (OCR) determined by exposition of cells sequentially to each of four
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48 modulators of oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) such as oligomycin (an inhibitor
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50 of F1Fo-ATPase or complex V), 2,4-DNP (uncoupling of the OXPHOS electron
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3 Under oxidative stress conditions, mitochondria can be damaged resulting in cellular
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5 dysfunction and inflammation (11). Inhibition of complex I or III of the mitochondrial
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10 activation (15,26,27). Therefore, we analyzed the activation of inflammasome related
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12 proteins in patient 3 samples. We found increased NLRP3, active caspase 1 (p20) and
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activation (Figure 3B and C). To examine the effect of inflammasome activation in cell
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21 metabolism, patient 3 fibroblasts were treated with 16673-34-0 (5-chloro-2-methoxy-N-
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25 (28), and cellular growth was evaluated. Inhibition of NLRP3 induced an increase of
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34 serum levels (Figure 3E and F). We also analyzed the activation of NLRP3-
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and LHON. Our data show increased NLRP3 and IL-1β (p17) protein expression levels
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in fibroblasts from these diseases (Figure 3G).
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55 mtDNA from the corresponding donor platelets (Figure 4A). Complex III activity and
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3 Mitochondrial ROS levels in mutant cybrids were also significantly higher than in
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5 control cybrids (Figure 4D). Interestingly, active caspase 1 (p20) and IL-1β (p17)
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7 protein expression levels were increased in mutant cybrids (Figure 4E). These results
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10 strongly suggest that the mutated mtDNAs are indeed responsible for the biochemical
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12 alterations occurring in patient cells.
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15 CoQ10 deficiency has been commonly associated with mitochondrial diseases (30), and
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17 its supplementation has been documented as an effective treatment in several clinical
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19 cases (31,32,33). Given that we previously showed that CoQ10 treatment induces a
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marked clinical improvement in FM patients (34,35), and considering the favorable
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24 effects of CoQ10 on pathological cells, the patient started oral treatment with CoQ10
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26 (5mg/Kg/day). After 7 months, the patient showed a significant improvement in FM
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28 clinical symptoms associated with restoration of altered biochemical parameters to
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normal levels (Table S4).
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Structure and amino acid sequence analysis
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The mutation in CYB protein substitutes a partially conserved valine residue with an
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39 alanine. This is a conservative change which does not seem to impair the function or
40
structure. But this same change has been previously found in another protein of the
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43 mitochondrial respiratory chain, COXIII, where it was associated with Leigh syndrome
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45 (36). Comparing the residues around the change and their conservation, we showed that
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48 there is a high similarity in that region between both proteins (Figure 5). In both
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50 proteins the valine residue appears in the middle of a trans membrane helix enriched in
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3 Mitochondrial disorders are an important group of genetic conditions characterized by
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5 impaired oxidative phosphorylation and bioenergetics which present a great variability
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7 of symptoms, organ involvement, and clinical course. Furthermore, these diseases
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10 considerably impact the quality of life of the patients and quite often shorten their life
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12 expectancy. Many symptoms associated with mitochondrial diseases are commonly
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14 presented in FM patients: exercise intolerance, fatigue, myopathy and various
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16 neurological complaints (37).
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19 Moreover, mitochondrial diseases have been usually related to maternal inheritance (2).
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However, in FM patients, although the inheritance factor has been documented, the
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28 and coworkers compared FM with other pain diseases such as arthritis rheumatoid and
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30 they found a higher inherited factor in the FM group (38). In this respect, Buskila and
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coworkers observed a high prevalence with FM among offspring of FM mothers (39).
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35 Supporting these findings, in our study we show for the first time a mutation in mtDNA
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37 in a family diagnosed of FM. As expected, the mutation was maternally transmitted and
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39 was present in all family members with typical clinical manifestation of FM.
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Pathophysiological studies showed evidences of a mitochondrial dysfunction in patient
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44 cells that was restored by CoQ10 treatment. The mutation was absent in the other
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46 patients and healthy controls included in the study so, although more healthy controls
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48 must be examined to confirm these results, our data suggests that it could be associated
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50 to the disease in this family. The mutation found in our study converted a highly
51
ly
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53 conserved valine at position 353 to alanine in the transmembrane functional domain of
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55 mtCYB, which could affect transfer of electrons from ubiquinol (reduced CoQ10) to
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3 cytochrome c, impair the utilization of energy to translocate protons from inside the
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5 mitochondrial inner membrane the outside and increases ROS production (40).
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8 Mitochondrial dysfunction in FM has been widely documented. Thus, studies in muscle
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10 biopsies have demonstrated the presence of inflammatory markers, subsarcolemmal
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mitochondrial accumulation, abnormal mitochondria, higher incidence of ragged red
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15 fibers, and defects of cytochrome-c-oxidase (complex IV of oxidative phosphorylation)
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17 (41,42,43). It is interesting to mention that ragged red fibers, subsarcolemmal
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19 mitochondrial accumulation and alteration in ultrastructure, number and size of
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mitochondria are typical defects and markers found in genuine mitochondrial diseases
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28 fibroblasts from FM patients (44). Despite a marked mitochondrial impairment in FM
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30 patient cells, the mtDNA sequence analysis did not show any important alterations such
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as mutations or deletions that could justify the mitochondrial defects. Therefore, it is
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35 reasonable to postulate that mitochondrial DNA alterations can be only detected in a
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37 reduced subgroup of patients diagnosed of FM. Mitochondrial dysfunction is implicated
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39 in many diseases in a direct or indirect form (1,2). Mitochondrial diseases are a group of
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diseases with a reduced prevalence (5.7 per 100,000 in the population over 14 years of
43
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44 age) (45), and the symptoms can be confounded with other diseases and frequently
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46 labelled as fibromyalgia or chronic fatigue syndrome (46). In this respect, Villanova and
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48 coworkers reported in 1999 the case of a 45-year-old woman with FM and mtDNA
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50 deletion of about 4 kb and propose the presence of patients with mitochondrial diseases
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53 among labelled FM patients (47). In this sense, our data confirm this previous report in
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55 a new family case.
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3 In this study, we also propose the implication of the inflammasome complex in the
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5 pathophysiology of mitochondrial diseases. Inflammasome has emerged recently as an
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7 unexpected sensor for metabolic stress and it has been implicated in several diseases in
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10 which mitochondria play a central pathogenic role (48). Inhibition of complex I or III of
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12 the mitochondrial respiratory chain has been shown to induce ROS production and
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14 NLRP3 inflammasome activation (15). Furthermore, inflammation has been proposed to
15
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16 participate in the pathophysiological mechanisms of mitochondrial disorders (49). In
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addition, inflammatory events has been observed in patients with a 3251A > G mutation
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21 supporting the hypothesis that mitochondrial diseases induce a pathologic inflammatory
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23 response (50). In this sense, we show the inflammasome activation implicated with
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25 fibroblasts of three known mitochondrial diseases with mutation in Complex I,
26
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27 mitochondrial tRNALeu(UUR) gene and MT-TK genes and our new mutation. So,
28
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30 NLRP3-inflammasome could be induced for different mitochondrial mutations in which
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32 oxidative stress has been involved. Another interesting result showed in this study is the
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34 effect of the NLRP3 inhibition in the fibroblasts from the patient. A correct cell growth
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36 is an important marker of metabolic status in the cell. Fibroblasts from mitochondrial
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diseases have been shown to have a relatively reduced growth (51), so the increment of
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cell growth of the fibroblasts from patient 3 is shows a possible improvement in cellular
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43 metabolism. Furthermore, this improvement demonstrates that inflammasome activation
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45 has a pathophysiological role in the phenotype of fibroblasts from patient 3. As
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3 We have to take account that 15804T>C polymorphism is a rare variant identified in
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5 20/29,867 sequences in Mitomap’s GeneBank set (www.mitomap,org). Epidemiologic
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7 studies have associated mitochondrial haplogroups to mitochondrial diseases.
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10 Therefore, it is very difficult to find the etiology of these diseases due to its
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12 multifactorial facet in which we find the combination of genetic and environmental
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14 factors (52). All these factor individually contribute only in a small part to the
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16 development of the illness. Thus, the haplogroup-defining mutations might behave as
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18
susceptibility factors, but they could have only a small effect on the physiopathology.
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21 Because the effects of these changes would be highly dependent on the ‘context’ in
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23 which the genetic variant is acting, the activation of inflammatory events could help to
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25 explain the pathological context induced by a haplogroup-defining mutations. In this
26
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27 respect, a cellular approach is available that involves the use of what is known as
28
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30 ‘cybrids’ (52). In our study, cybrids showed the same pathophysiological events of
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32 fibroblasts and inflammasome activation.
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34
35 The most significant implication of these data could be the potential role of
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37 inflammasome complex activation and the subsequent IL-1β release in the different
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39 affected tissues in mitochondrial diseases (brain, muscle, kidney, heart, eye) (53,54).
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Probably, a high content of defective mitochondria could induce NLRP3-inflammasome
43
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47
48 taken into account that ROS serve as important inflammasome activating signals,
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50 antioxidant treatment can also be effective in these diseases (54). Pharmacological
51
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53 approach in mitochondrial diseases is based on removing noxious metabolites, using
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55 reactive oxygen species scavengers and administering different compounds as CoQ10
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57 (55). Indeed, mitochondria-targeted lipophilic antioxidants selectively block
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3 mitochondrial oxidative damage and prevent some types of cell death. Consequently,
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5 inflammasome complex which is activated by mitochondrial ROS production could be
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7 selectively inhibited by lipophilic antioxidants. Interestingly, it has been reported that
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10 CoQ10 inhibits NLRP3-inflammasome activation in FM patients (12). Furthermore,
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12 MitoQ, a mitochondria-targeted derivative of CoQ10, has also been reported to inhibit
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14 NLRP3-inflammasome (56). As CoQ10 is a common treatment for mitochondrial
15
id
16 diseases (30,31,32,57,58), here we report another potential mechanism by which CoQ10
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treatment can be effective in these patients.
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In conclusion, we propose the indication of mtDNA sequence analysis in FM patients
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28 who could benefit from genetic diagnostic testing by mtDNA sequence analysis and be
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30 elegible for treatment with CoQ10 and/or another mitochondrial targeting compound.
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Furthermore, the implication of inflammasome complex as a stress sensor could to
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35 encourage the damage and impairing the symptoms in mitochondrial diseases.
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37
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38 Acknowledgments
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40 This work has been supported by Federación Andaluza de Fibromialgia y Fatiga
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42 Crónica (ALBA Andalucía), Federación Onubense de Fibromialgia y Fatiga Crónica,
43
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45
grants from the Fundación Ramón Areces and DGICYT (Departamento Gubernamental
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de Investigaciones Científicas y Tecnológicas: BFU2011-27207), Grupo de
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49 Investigacion Junta de Andalucia CTS113 and Consejería de Salud of the Junta de
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51 Andalucia (PI-0036-2014).
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56 Conflict of Interest: The authors report no conflict of interest.
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3 Author Contributions
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6 P.B. and M.D.C. conceived of the study and wrote the manuscript. E.A.G., F.M.A.,
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8 T.R., J.M.N.P., and D.C. performed cell experiments. J.A.S.A. and A.P.P performed
Co
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10 bioinformatics approximation. J.M.A.S. and M.B. performed oxygen consumption rate
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and bioenergetics experiments. A.M.C., and O.C. performed cybrids experiments. P.B.
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15 and M.D.C. conducted patient evaluations. All authors analyzed and discussed data and
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17 commented on the manuscript.
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Hernández A, Gómez Izquierdo L, De la Mata M, De Miguel M, Lorite JB,
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43 Infante ER, Jackson S, Navas P, Sánchez-Alcázar JA. Secondary coenzyme Q10
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45 deficiency triggers mitochondria degradation by mitophagy in MELAS
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3 53. Benetti E, Chiazza F, Patel NS, Collino M. The NLRP3 Inflammasome as a
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5 novel player of the intercellular crosstalk in metabolic disorders. Mediators
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7 Inflamm. 2013; 2013:678627.
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10 54. Takahashi M. NLRP3 inflammasome as a novel player in myocardial infarction.
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12 Int Heart J 2014;55:101-5.
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14 55. Harijith A, Ebenezer DL, Natarajan V. Reactive oxygen species at the
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16 crossroads of inflammasome and inflammation. Front Physiol. 2014;5:352.
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56. Scarpelli M, Cotelli MS, Mancuso M, Tomelleri G, Tonin P, Baronchelli C,
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21 Vielmi V, Gregorelli V, Todeschini A, Padovani A, Filosto M. Current options
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25 2010;5:203-9.
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27 57. Dashdorj A, Jyothi KR, Lim S, Jo A, Nguyen MN, Ha J, Yoon KS, Kim HJ,
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30 Park JH, Murphy MP, Kim SS. Mitochondria-targeted antioxidant MitoQ
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32 ameliorates experimental mouse colitis by suppressing NLRP3 inflammasome-
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34 mediated inflammatory cytokines. BMC Med 2013;11:178.
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36 58. Montini G, Malaventura C, Salviati L. Early coenzyme Q10 supplementation in
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primary coenzyme Q10 deficiency. N Engl J Med 2008;358:2849-50.
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46 Figure legends
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49 Figure 1. Genotyping analysis of mtCYB mutation. A, Illustration of the mutation
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51 found in patient 3 mtCYB gene. The transition m15.804 C→T generates a new
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53 restriction site (GCAGC) for the BbvI enzyme. PCR amplification of genomic DNA
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55 samples of patient 3 and patient without m15.803 C→T mutation with specific primers
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58 followed by digestion of the amplification products with the BbvI enzyme allows to
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3 identify a haplotype specific pattern by DNA agarose gel electrophoresis. B, Molecular
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5 analysis in patient 3 showed that the m15.804 mutation was homoplasmic in blood cells,
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7 urine, and saliva samples. C, Pedigree analysis of patient 3 family along three
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10 generations. Black and white symbols denote people with or without FM symptoms,
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12 respectively. Squares: man, circles: woman.
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15 Figure 2. Pathophysiology of mutant fibroblasts from patient 3. A, Respiratory
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17 complex activity in fibroblasts from patient 3 compared to control. B, CoQ10 levels were
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19 measured by high-performance liquid chromatography, as described in Materials and
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Methods. C, Bioenergetic levels of fibroblasts showed by ATP determination. D,
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28 FM patient compared with healthy control. F, Cell growth with CoQ10 determined in
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30 healthy and FM fibroblasts. G, The three dimensional structure of the human mtCYB
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show mutation (yellow) localized in area opposite the ubiquinone binding site (green).
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35 H, OCR was monitored through Seahorse XF-24 Extracellular Flux Analyzer with the
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37 sequential injection of Oligomycin (1 µg/mL), 2,4-DNP (100 µM), Rotenone (1 µM) at
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39 the indicated time point into each well, after baseline rate measurement. I, The basal
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OCR was markedly affected in cells from patient, and improved with CoQ10. J, The
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48 between controls and FM patient.
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51 Figure 3.- Inflammasome activation in fibroblasts and pro-inflammatory cytokines
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in serum from FM patient. A, NLRP3 protein levels, active caspase 1 (p20) and IL-1β
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56 (p17) were analysed by Western blotting. Protein levels were determined by
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3 and normalized to GADPH signal compared with a pool of 5 healthy age- and sex-
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FM patient were determined by ELISA as described in Material and Methods. D, Cell
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12 levels in blood mononuclear cells (BMCs), lymphocytes and monocytes and IL-1β
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14 serum levels were determined in several members of three generations from the
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patient´s family. Pedigree image shows affected family members with the mutation.
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19 Squares: man, circles: woman. G, NLRP3 protein levels and IL-1β (p17) were analyzed
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21 in fibroblasts from MELAS, Merrf and LHON by Western blotting. Protein levels were
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different western blots and normalized to GADPH signal compared with a pool of 5
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28 healthy age- and sex-matched control subjects. Data represent the mean±SD of three
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30 separate experiments. *p < 0.001; **p < 0.005 between controls and FM patient.
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platelets from patient 3 (cy 1 and 2). The m15.804 mutation only was introduced in cy2
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40 cells. B, Mitochondrial complex III activity, C, Cellular bioenergetics of mutant cybrids
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42 was assessed by ATP determination. D, Mitochondrial ROS production was analyzed in
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of three separate experiments. *p < 0.001 between controls and FM cybrids.
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Figure 5. Conservation and structure similarity of the mutation VaL-Ala between
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54 CYB and COXIII. A, Logos showing the conservation of the mutation surrounding (6
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56 residues on each side) the two proteins. The height of the stack corresponds to the
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58 conservation at that position (information content), and the height of each letter is
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3 related on the frequency of that letter at that position. The occupancy is the probability
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7 putative inserts in the alignment. The mutation appears in different Pfam domains from
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10 the two proteins: Cytochrome b C-terminal for CYB, and Cytochrome C oxidase
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14 Region structure from the two proteins, corresponding to part of a transmembrane helix.
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Table S1. Symptomatic parameters in FM patients.
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Parameter Patient 1 Patient 2 Patient 3 Patient 4 Patient 5
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Age (years)
Tender points
ide 45
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14
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12
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11
45
13
nt
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13 Disease duration (years) 6 8 5 4 8
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15 Sex Female Female Female Female Female
16 BMI (kg/m )2
23.2 22.9 24.9 22.1 23.8
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FIQ Total score, range 0-80
:F
68 70 66 71 75
or
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Pain 7 6 8 4 5
21 Fatigue 8 9 7 8 6
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Morning tiredness
Stiffness
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7
8
8 Re 5
9
4
9
5
5
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Anxiety
Depression
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7
10
6 vie
6
7
7
2
2
2
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VAS Pain Total score 0-10 7 6 8
w 7 6
On
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34 BMI, Body Mass Index; FIQ, Fibromyalgia Impact Questionnaire; VAS, Visual Analogical Scale.
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3 Table S2. Summary of sequencing results in blood cells from FM patients.
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6 FM1 FM2 FM3 FM4 FM5
7 MT-RNR1 A750G G709A A750G G709A A750G
8 A1438G A750G A1438G A750G A1438G
9 A1438G A1438G
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10 MT-RNR2 G3010A G1888A G1888A
11 A2706G A2706G
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13 MT-ND1 G3834A G3834A
14 T4216C T4216C
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15 MT-ND2 A4769G A4769G A4769G A4769G A4769G
16 A4917G A4917G
17 T5105C T5105C
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MT-TW
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20 MT-CO1 C7028T T6776C C7028T T6776C
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21 MT-CO2 A8014G
22 MT-ATP6 A8860G G8697A A8860G G8697A A8860G
23 A8701G A8701G
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A8860G A8860G
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MT-CO3
27 MT-ND4 A11251G A11251G
28 G11719A G11719A
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36 A15607G A15607G
37 MT-TT G15928A G15928A
38 MT-DLOOP T16519C T16126C T16519C T16126C T16519C
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A263G A16163G A263G A16163G A263G
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41 302insCC- C16186T T152C C16186T T152C
42 CCC T16189C 310insC T16189C 310insC
43 310insC C16294T C16294T
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50 514inCA 514inCA
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3 Table S3. Serum biochemical parameters in FM patient 3.
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6 Biochemical parameter Patient Range
7 Glucose (mg/dL) 99 76-110
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9 Urea (mg/dL) 17 10-50
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11 Total protein (g/dL) 6.8 6.6-8.7
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13 Na (mEq/L) 142 135-145
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K (mEq/L) 4.2 3.5-5
16 Uric acid (mg/dL) 3.9 2.4-5.7
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22 Phosphate (mg/dL) 3.44 2.7-4.5
23 Bilirubin (mg/dL) 0.39 0.2-1
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3 Table S4. Biochemical data in several biological samples from patients 3. Data show
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5 percentage of change respect to controls.
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7 Blood cells Urine cells Salivary cells Platelets
8 Complex III 49% 28% 33% 45%
9 CoQ10 40% 31% 60% 50%
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10 ATP 42% 36% 36% 70%
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mtDNA/nDNA 37% 30% 32% 47%
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47 Figure S1. Pathophysiology of mutant fibroblasts from patient 3 after CoQ10
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49 treatment. A, CoQ10 levels were measured by high-performance liquid
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57 was monitored through Seahorse XF-24 Extracellular Flux Analyzer with the sequential
58 injection of Oligomycin (1 μg/mL), 2,4-DNP (100 μM), Rotenone (1 μM) at the
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indicated time point into each well, after baseline rate measurement. G, The basal OCR
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was markedly affected in cells from patient, and improved with CoQ10. H, The spare
respiratory capacity (SRC) in FM fibroblasts showed a significant decrease which was
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3 improved by CoQ10. Data represent the mean – SD of three separate experiments. *p <
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Table S5. Laboratory and clinical changes in the patient 3 (proband) and mutated family members (identified related to pedigree in figure 4) after
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seven months of oral CoQ10 treatment.
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11 ide Proband Patient 2 Patient 3 Patient 4 Patient 5 Patient 6
nt
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Parameter Pre Post Pre Post Pre Post Pre Post Pre Post Pre Post
ial
14
Tender points
15 12 6 14 7 11 7 13 5 11 4 13 3
16
:F
FIQ Total score, range 0-80
17 66 21 69 20 64 22 67 20 57 18 51 16
18
Pain 8 3 8 4 8 2 9 4 7 2 7 2
19
Fatigue
20
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Morning tiredness
22
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2 or8
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1
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23
Stiffness
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Anxiety
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7 Re 2
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Depression
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VAS Pain Total score 0-10
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vie
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VAS Fatigue Total score 0-10
30 7 3 7 3 8 2 8
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Citrate synthase (specific activity) 4.7 18.3 3.7 15.6 4.1 15.9 3.8 16.6 8.1 21.3 6.3 19.1
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ATP levels (nMol/mgProtein)
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IL-1β (pg/ml) 24.3 5.4 26.1 6.1 21.3 7.1 26.3 4.8 25.2 4.4 27.1 3.4
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mtDNA copy number(nDNA/mtDNA) 0.4 0.9 0.5 0.8 0.6 0.9 0.3 0.7 0.3 1 0.3 0.9
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