Peristil : zbornik radova za povijest umjetnosti , Vol. 65 No. 1, 2022
Through the past decades, there have been many attempts to reconstruct Constantine the Great's Fo... more Through the past decades, there have been many attempts to reconstruct Constantine the Great's Forum in Constantinople-his Nea Roma, and to decipher its intended symbolical meaning. Most of these attempts were fruitful to some extent, but the entire message that the Emperor wanted to convey through the specific arrangement of the Forum has never been fully and clearly explained. Moreover, the Middle and Late Byzantine literary sources have additionally obscured the original message, so each piece of evidence about Constantine's original concept of the Forum is extremely valuable. This paper should thus be a contribution to the understanding of its original symbolism, based on a piece of evidence that has often been either circumvented or ignored by the researchers: the unique drawing of the pedestal of Constantine's porphyry column, made by Danish artist Melchior Lorichs (1526/27-after 1583). The pedestal was decorated with an elaborate relief, whose proper interpretation becomes an important clue for deciphering Constantine's imperial agenda. So, the paper offers a new interpretation of the relief, and establishes its importance in the symbolical framework of the Forum.
The late antique complex in Mogorjelo can be categorized as one of the prime Dalmatian late antiq... more The late antique complex in Mogorjelo can be categorized as one of the prime Dalmatian late antique monuments. It has attracted considerable attention over the past hundred years and more, and its ground plan can be found in a number of reviews of late antique architecture in Dalmatia, as well as in the wider region. Still, although it has been studied for such a long time, there are many unanswered questions regarding this “puzzling” building complex. When a monument has such a long history of research, it is bound to become a subject of divergent and even conflicting opinions. The aim of this paper is to present the complex as objectively as possible, thus rectifying the conceptions about its form, function, and purpose in a wider organizational framework established in the province by Emperor Diocletian. The intention is not to explain each detail of the complex, but to offer a new and more comprehensive insight into the nature of the castellum itself, and to provide the scholars of late antique architecture with factography, as complete as possible, about the complex and its surroundings.
The paper re-examines the general assumption that the Doclean (Dioclean) so-called Object IX once... more The paper re-examines the general assumption that the Doclean (Dioclean) so-called Object IX once served as a “capitoline” temple. The focus has been put on the 3rd phase (its 1st stage) of the rebuilding of the sanctuary, which happened sometimes by the end of the 3rd century or the beginning of the 4th century. By examining of the specific finds, contextualising them inside of the Diocletian’s, more than likely, extensive rebuilding project in his hometown of Doclea (Dioclea), as well as form inside of Diocletian’s distinctive framework of “religious ideology” and his “aesthetic preferences”, paper reaches the conclusion that the temple and the whole complex was re-embellished and redesigned as a part of Diocletian’s intervention in the urban tissue, and proposes a more likely dedication - the one to the Goddess Minerva, a dedication based on Doclean (Dioclean finds), as well on analogy with Diocletian’s worship of Minerva, well attested in “Diocletian’s camp” in Palmyra.
The paper represents the first attempt of interpretation and contextualiza- tion of Diana’s sanct... more The paper represents the first attempt of interpretation and contextualiza- tion of Diana’s sanctuary in late antique Doclea, through re-examination of its particular architectural features, which have been documented by archaeologists through the past 131 years. We offer an integral picture of the temple and its temenos, thus once again confirming that the sanc- tuary was actually a part of large-scale imperial interventions into the urban fabric of the town — those of Emperor Gaius Aurelius Valerius Dio- cletianus. We substantiate the hypothesis that the temple was a creation of distinctive, highly innovative and original, Diocletian’s “architectural school” of planners, builders and stonemasons.
The bathing complex in Domavia (near modern Srebrenica, Bosnia and Herzegovina), drew our attenti... more The bathing complex in Domavia (near modern Srebrenica, Bosnia and Herzegovina), drew our attention as one of the most interesting and yet still unexplored bathing complexes at the territory of the ancient Roman province of Dalmatia. It was discovered more than a hundred years ago by Ljudevit Pogatschnig during the excavation of the site called Gradina, unearthed to a significant extent, and rather well documented by Vaclav Radimský in his reports from 1892 and 1894. Unfortunately, although this monumental and lavishly decorated bathing complex differs in many respects from the majority of ancient baths around the Roman world, and is a superb testament to the social conditions, wealth and overall culture of Domavia, an official mining centre from the time of Emperor Marcus Aurelius, its remains (except for the mosaics) never spurred further academic interest. This paper deals with the unusual arrangement and structure of the complex, its way of functioning, its rich decoration and quite substantial epigraphic material. All these contribute not only to the better understanding of life in ancient Domavia and northern part of the Roman province of Dalmatia, but also to the general knowledge and understanding of Roman baths, their types and distinctive features. For their unique structure and character, we labelled Domavia baths-balnea metallicorum, arguing that they were designed for specific purposes and specific needs of their customers. We are also convinced that they were not an isolated example of this kind of baths at the territory of the Roman province.
The aim of the paper is the re-examination of the “forum” of late antique Doclea (Dioclea), the i... more The aim of the paper is the re-examination of the “forum” of late antique Doclea (Dioclea), the interpretation of which has never been finished, although so information been collated during the past 131 years. Through re-examination of the complex with its distinctive features this paper offers answers on some of the still unresolved issues. A primary is-sue was to resolve who was responsible for its arrangement. After an onomastic analysis only one conclusion asserted itself – the “forum complex” could only have been erected by the Emperor Diocletian, who was obviously responsible for the rearrangement of the whole town of Doclea (Dioclea), his hometown. Further analysis of the concept, architec-tural arrangement and vocabulary used in the “forum” and adjoining “basilica” only corroborate that it was precisely Diocletian and his “architectural school”. Without a doubt, the Doclean (Dioclean) “forum complex” was innovative and original in many ways, along with its importance as an “imperial forum”, the “Diocletian’s imperial court”, will re-main in the collective memory of the Montenegrins for centuries to come. The paper also represents an effort to clarify Diocletian’s background and the “modus operandi” of his “architectural school” whose presence in Doclea (Dioclea) has already been noticed.
This paper refers to the results of the previously conducted archaeological excavations on the Ka... more This paper refers to the results of the previously conducted archaeological excavations on the Kaštelina peninsula on the island of Rab. After the completion of four archaeological campaigns, the authors have been able to contextualize the collected data on the Roman villa maritima situated on the peninsula's promontory, which show that the villa went through two phases of construction during the 1st century AD and may be associated with a tombstone of the local Baebius family found nearby.
Cities, Lands and Ports in Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages: Archaeologies of Change, 2017
The paper deals with urban development of one of the most thoroughly archaeologically explored qu... more The paper deals with urban development of one of the most thoroughly archaeologically explored quarters of Salona, the ancient capital of the Roman province of Dalmatia – the north-western part of the so-called Urbs Orientalis, part of the town in which late antique Episcopal complex was situated. The urban transformation of the quarter is presented through three major phases; the situation that preceded the erection of the Christian complex, then the complex itself, with subsequent changes of its appearance, and finally its further growth and expansion to the east. The study largely depends on combining and ‘merging’ the results of different archaeological campaigns conducted during the past century (W. Gerber and E. Dyggve) that, quite surprisingly, have never been put together and studied comparatively.
Quite contrary to common notions, it is argued that before the erection of the Christian buildings this part of the town was a residential quarter, organized according to the usual principles of Roman town planning, and that the outlines of at least five houses can be discerned from the ancient structures preceding the Episcopal complex. It is also hypothesized that during the sixth century the complex spread to the east, across the street, and that it got an even more monumental appearance, incorporating among other structures the so-called ‘Large thermae’, and that this part of the town was turned into a grand ‘Episcopal district’.
Radovi Instituta za povijest umjetnosti u Zagrebu 40, 2016
The paper deals with liturgical vestments represented on fragmentarily preserved figures on the w... more The paper deals with liturgical vestments represented on fragmentarily preserved figures on the walls of the so-called Byzantine basilica found in the archaeological excavations under Dubrovnik Cathedral, and the saints depicted in two churches on the Elaphiti Islands in Dubrovnik aquatorium: St John’s in Šilovo Selo on Šipan and St Nicholas’ on Koločep. An iconographic analysis shows that the vestments in question belong to the Eastern type of liturgical dress, and the elaboration on their origin, meaning and development provides some additional information for interpretation and dating of the paintings. Given conclusions are then observed in specific historical context of eleventh and twelfth century Dubrovnik, its traditions, dynamic relations with Byzantium and Rome, but also in the context of already recognized cultural contacts with the southern regions of the Apennine peninsula. Finally it is pointed to some further directions for re-addressing the problem of “Adrio-Byzantinism” in eleventh and twelfth century art and architecture of southern Dalmatia, but also to the need for examining the validity of the concept, its possible aspects, meanings and manifestations, in a wider socio-cultural context; which, after all, defines the underlying ideas of the visual imagery employed.
Zbornik Stjepan Gunjača i hrvatska srednjovjekovna povijesno-arheološka baština 1 : zbornik radova sa Znanstvenog skupa "Stjepan Gunjača i hrvatska srednjovjekovna povijesno-arheološka baština" : u povodu 100. obljetnice rođenja akademika Stjepana Gunjače, Split 3.- 6. studenog 2009., 2010
At the end of the 2009 International Research Centre for Late Antiquity and Middle Ages of the Un... more At the end of the 2009 International Research Centre for Late Antiquity and Middle Ages of the University of Zagreb (IRCLAMA) has conducted a new architectural survey in a collaboration with the University of Padova of an early byzantine fortress with the church of Saint Cosmas and Damian located above the town of Barbat on the island of Rab. In many respects, survey has improved our knowledge about the fortress and its church, as well as about its interior arrangement. Careful analysis of the collated data has brought forward a number of new discoveries about the fortress, equal in number to the amount of structures newly identified inside of the fortress. Finaly, presented study makes the fortress one of the best explored military instalations on the eastern Adriatic shores.
Il lavoro rappresenta un tentativo di analisi onnicomprensiva della storiatardoantica e altomedie... more Il lavoro rappresenta un tentativo di analisi onnicomprensiva della storiatardoantica e altomedievale diTarsatica dall’aspetto delle fonti disponibili e dall’aspettogeopolitico vigente tra il II e il X secolo. Particolare attenzione è stata dedicata alchiarimento delle strutture amministrative e di potere nel cui ambito geografico è venutaa trovarsi
Tarsatica nel citato periodo. Le conclusioni che derivano dall’analisi delle fonticontraddicono la percezione finora esistente riguardo ad eventi catastrofici per i quali sisupponeva che per due volte avessero interrotto il corso della vita di
Tarsatica
.
In the last two decades, the architecture of late antique country estates in Europe - most notabl... more In the last two decades, the architecture of late antique country estates in Europe - most notably those in the northern provinces (Raetia, the two Germanias, Pannonia, Noricum, Moesia and Dacia), but also in the Iberian and Italian peninsula - has been systematically researched. Based on the typology of examined structures, numerous studies have yielded observations about evident similarities between late antique complexes from various parts of the Western Empire, which had adopted a completely new paradigm in the spatial arrangement of representative and lavish administrative buildings on the estates affected by the economic reforms of the late third century. The abundance of the variants of the universal theme of aulic architecture in country estates from the late third and during the fourth century has enabled the identification of regional varieties and patterns in the spreading of individual architectural solutions, as well as the defining and careful research of other phases of the architectural transformation of late antique estates.
The question which this paper attempts to answer is where Dalmatian late antique villas belong in such an ‘international’ architecture of the late antique country estate, and whether their forms follow the trends of the neighbouring provinces. In the lack of finds, the only way towards a clarification of the outlined questions is a formal analysis which most Dalmatian late antique villas have not been subjected to, and which opens the door for the interpretation of the building considered essential from the art-historical perspective. Formal qualities of the villas suggest the provenance of their architectural elements, reveal the function of a structure and its parts and clarify the position of a villa in the developmental line of the architecture of country estates and indicate the likely time frame of its production.
In this context, this paper focuses on the late antique complex discovered in the early twentieth century on the site of Prikače in the village of Strupnić (near Livno). The villa is, unfortunately, only known from the initial reports but its dimensions and layout make it stand out from other late antique complexes in Dalmatian hinterland. However, the modestly recorded ground plan and a recent reconstruction of this structure do leave considerable space for formal analysis and more precise conclusions about its date. The noted symmetrical division of the front part of the building with two apsed lateral spaces and axial arrangement of the central reception hall, which was most likely accessed from the courtyard, point to the comparisons with late third- and early fourth-century complexes in the Danube area, such as those at Kövágászölös or Keszthely-Fenékpuszta, which served as administrative centres of large estates along the Danube, and which may have drawn upon a luxurious complex near Parndorf. Symmetrically placed apses on the façade, an almost unique phenomenon in the Danube area, is doubtlessly rooted in the desire to make façades more monumental as can be seen in a number of buildings which span the end of the third and the beginning of the fourth century, when a certain revolution took place in the architecture of country estates, reflecting the socio-economic changes which transformed the European landscape through the enlargement of estates. It is a clear sign of the estate owner’s status and a clear indication of the building’s function. The villa at Strupnić, together with the examples at Ljusine and Livade, and the remains of the architectural complex at Majdan, points to a strong connection between Dalmatia and the trends which sprung up in the Danube area in the late third and during the fourth century, and clearly illustrates the direction through which late antique solutions in the architecture of country estates reached the interior of Dalmatia. Thus, we deem that it is not inopportune to place the time frame of the construction of Dalmatian late antique country estates in the same formal and chronological context of the estates in its northern neighbourhood which was, at that time, going through what Mocsy called the last age or prosperity in the Danube area. The formal connection with the mentioned estates implies that the function of Dalmatian and Danube structures complemented each other.
Although the structure at Strupnić is relatively small (32,6 x 27,5 m), and is classified in the category of small country estates such as those at Deutschkreuz, Sümeg, Csúcshegy, Majdan or Mali Mošunj, we deem that it is completely un- founded to interpret it as a journey station, i.e. an inn (mutatio), as Bojanovski suggested on a number of occasions. Considering the layout of the complex, a more luxurious nature of its form and its location, it seems more likely that it had been part of a richer estate which was administered from a central administrative-residential-economic complex, and in connection with this, it is advisable to return to Bojanovski’s earlier interpretations which identified it as one of the examples of praetorium fundi. During the third and fourth centuries, in the time of economic reforms and en- largement of estates, medium-sized estates of the social elite may have been situated in the area of Livanjsko polje, due to its good road networks and fortified transformations of architectural complexes in individual sites. The Strupnić late antique estate still represents a riddle of sorts the solving of which depends on future archaeological excavations that this structure undoubtedly deserves. In this paper, it has been an example of the amount of information that can be obtained from scarce records about a building when it is subjected to a formal and contextual analysis. The traditional definitions of the architecture of estates and the generalising approach which does not take into account individual features of a building need to be questioned, and this is confirmed by the example of Strupnić.
Kratki osvrt na postignuća projekta IRCLAMA financiranog od strane Europske Komisije kroz Međunar... more Kratki osvrt na postignuća projekta IRCLAMA financiranog od strane Europske Komisije kroz Međunarodni istraživački centar za kasnu antiku i srednji vijek Sveučilišta u Zagrebu, s zacrtanim osnovnim smjernicama u razvoju Centra i pristupa baštinih raznih razdoblja u budućnosti.
The paper is an extended version of the paper on the architecture of the "palace" in Polače bay. ... more The paper is an extended version of the paper on the architecture of the "palace" in Polače bay. It describes the whole context of Mljet, taking into account all the particularities of the island.
Peristil : zbornik radova za povijest umjetnosti , Vol. 65 No. 1, 2022
Through the past decades, there have been many attempts to reconstruct Constantine the Great's Fo... more Through the past decades, there have been many attempts to reconstruct Constantine the Great's Forum in Constantinople-his Nea Roma, and to decipher its intended symbolical meaning. Most of these attempts were fruitful to some extent, but the entire message that the Emperor wanted to convey through the specific arrangement of the Forum has never been fully and clearly explained. Moreover, the Middle and Late Byzantine literary sources have additionally obscured the original message, so each piece of evidence about Constantine's original concept of the Forum is extremely valuable. This paper should thus be a contribution to the understanding of its original symbolism, based on a piece of evidence that has often been either circumvented or ignored by the researchers: the unique drawing of the pedestal of Constantine's porphyry column, made by Danish artist Melchior Lorichs (1526/27-after 1583). The pedestal was decorated with an elaborate relief, whose proper interpretation becomes an important clue for deciphering Constantine's imperial agenda. So, the paper offers a new interpretation of the relief, and establishes its importance in the symbolical framework of the Forum.
The late antique complex in Mogorjelo can be categorized as one of the prime Dalmatian late antiq... more The late antique complex in Mogorjelo can be categorized as one of the prime Dalmatian late antique monuments. It has attracted considerable attention over the past hundred years and more, and its ground plan can be found in a number of reviews of late antique architecture in Dalmatia, as well as in the wider region. Still, although it has been studied for such a long time, there are many unanswered questions regarding this “puzzling” building complex. When a monument has such a long history of research, it is bound to become a subject of divergent and even conflicting opinions. The aim of this paper is to present the complex as objectively as possible, thus rectifying the conceptions about its form, function, and purpose in a wider organizational framework established in the province by Emperor Diocletian. The intention is not to explain each detail of the complex, but to offer a new and more comprehensive insight into the nature of the castellum itself, and to provide the scholars of late antique architecture with factography, as complete as possible, about the complex and its surroundings.
The paper re-examines the general assumption that the Doclean (Dioclean) so-called Object IX once... more The paper re-examines the general assumption that the Doclean (Dioclean) so-called Object IX once served as a “capitoline” temple. The focus has been put on the 3rd phase (its 1st stage) of the rebuilding of the sanctuary, which happened sometimes by the end of the 3rd century or the beginning of the 4th century. By examining of the specific finds, contextualising them inside of the Diocletian’s, more than likely, extensive rebuilding project in his hometown of Doclea (Dioclea), as well as form inside of Diocletian’s distinctive framework of “religious ideology” and his “aesthetic preferences”, paper reaches the conclusion that the temple and the whole complex was re-embellished and redesigned as a part of Diocletian’s intervention in the urban tissue, and proposes a more likely dedication - the one to the Goddess Minerva, a dedication based on Doclean (Dioclean finds), as well on analogy with Diocletian’s worship of Minerva, well attested in “Diocletian’s camp” in Palmyra.
The paper represents the first attempt of interpretation and contextualiza- tion of Diana’s sanct... more The paper represents the first attempt of interpretation and contextualiza- tion of Diana’s sanctuary in late antique Doclea, through re-examination of its particular architectural features, which have been documented by archaeologists through the past 131 years. We offer an integral picture of the temple and its temenos, thus once again confirming that the sanc- tuary was actually a part of large-scale imperial interventions into the urban fabric of the town — those of Emperor Gaius Aurelius Valerius Dio- cletianus. We substantiate the hypothesis that the temple was a creation of distinctive, highly innovative and original, Diocletian’s “architectural school” of planners, builders and stonemasons.
The bathing complex in Domavia (near modern Srebrenica, Bosnia and Herzegovina), drew our attenti... more The bathing complex in Domavia (near modern Srebrenica, Bosnia and Herzegovina), drew our attention as one of the most interesting and yet still unexplored bathing complexes at the territory of the ancient Roman province of Dalmatia. It was discovered more than a hundred years ago by Ljudevit Pogatschnig during the excavation of the site called Gradina, unearthed to a significant extent, and rather well documented by Vaclav Radimský in his reports from 1892 and 1894. Unfortunately, although this monumental and lavishly decorated bathing complex differs in many respects from the majority of ancient baths around the Roman world, and is a superb testament to the social conditions, wealth and overall culture of Domavia, an official mining centre from the time of Emperor Marcus Aurelius, its remains (except for the mosaics) never spurred further academic interest. This paper deals with the unusual arrangement and structure of the complex, its way of functioning, its rich decoration and quite substantial epigraphic material. All these contribute not only to the better understanding of life in ancient Domavia and northern part of the Roman province of Dalmatia, but also to the general knowledge and understanding of Roman baths, their types and distinctive features. For their unique structure and character, we labelled Domavia baths-balnea metallicorum, arguing that they were designed for specific purposes and specific needs of their customers. We are also convinced that they were not an isolated example of this kind of baths at the territory of the Roman province.
The aim of the paper is the re-examination of the “forum” of late antique Doclea (Dioclea), the i... more The aim of the paper is the re-examination of the “forum” of late antique Doclea (Dioclea), the interpretation of which has never been finished, although so information been collated during the past 131 years. Through re-examination of the complex with its distinctive features this paper offers answers on some of the still unresolved issues. A primary is-sue was to resolve who was responsible for its arrangement. After an onomastic analysis only one conclusion asserted itself – the “forum complex” could only have been erected by the Emperor Diocletian, who was obviously responsible for the rearrangement of the whole town of Doclea (Dioclea), his hometown. Further analysis of the concept, architec-tural arrangement and vocabulary used in the “forum” and adjoining “basilica” only corroborate that it was precisely Diocletian and his “architectural school”. Without a doubt, the Doclean (Dioclean) “forum complex” was innovative and original in many ways, along with its importance as an “imperial forum”, the “Diocletian’s imperial court”, will re-main in the collective memory of the Montenegrins for centuries to come. The paper also represents an effort to clarify Diocletian’s background and the “modus operandi” of his “architectural school” whose presence in Doclea (Dioclea) has already been noticed.
This paper refers to the results of the previously conducted archaeological excavations on the Ka... more This paper refers to the results of the previously conducted archaeological excavations on the Kaštelina peninsula on the island of Rab. After the completion of four archaeological campaigns, the authors have been able to contextualize the collected data on the Roman villa maritima situated on the peninsula's promontory, which show that the villa went through two phases of construction during the 1st century AD and may be associated with a tombstone of the local Baebius family found nearby.
Cities, Lands and Ports in Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages: Archaeologies of Change, 2017
The paper deals with urban development of one of the most thoroughly archaeologically explored qu... more The paper deals with urban development of one of the most thoroughly archaeologically explored quarters of Salona, the ancient capital of the Roman province of Dalmatia – the north-western part of the so-called Urbs Orientalis, part of the town in which late antique Episcopal complex was situated. The urban transformation of the quarter is presented through three major phases; the situation that preceded the erection of the Christian complex, then the complex itself, with subsequent changes of its appearance, and finally its further growth and expansion to the east. The study largely depends on combining and ‘merging’ the results of different archaeological campaigns conducted during the past century (W. Gerber and E. Dyggve) that, quite surprisingly, have never been put together and studied comparatively.
Quite contrary to common notions, it is argued that before the erection of the Christian buildings this part of the town was a residential quarter, organized according to the usual principles of Roman town planning, and that the outlines of at least five houses can be discerned from the ancient structures preceding the Episcopal complex. It is also hypothesized that during the sixth century the complex spread to the east, across the street, and that it got an even more monumental appearance, incorporating among other structures the so-called ‘Large thermae’, and that this part of the town was turned into a grand ‘Episcopal district’.
Radovi Instituta za povijest umjetnosti u Zagrebu 40, 2016
The paper deals with liturgical vestments represented on fragmentarily preserved figures on the w... more The paper deals with liturgical vestments represented on fragmentarily preserved figures on the walls of the so-called Byzantine basilica found in the archaeological excavations under Dubrovnik Cathedral, and the saints depicted in two churches on the Elaphiti Islands in Dubrovnik aquatorium: St John’s in Šilovo Selo on Šipan and St Nicholas’ on Koločep. An iconographic analysis shows that the vestments in question belong to the Eastern type of liturgical dress, and the elaboration on their origin, meaning and development provides some additional information for interpretation and dating of the paintings. Given conclusions are then observed in specific historical context of eleventh and twelfth century Dubrovnik, its traditions, dynamic relations with Byzantium and Rome, but also in the context of already recognized cultural contacts with the southern regions of the Apennine peninsula. Finally it is pointed to some further directions for re-addressing the problem of “Adrio-Byzantinism” in eleventh and twelfth century art and architecture of southern Dalmatia, but also to the need for examining the validity of the concept, its possible aspects, meanings and manifestations, in a wider socio-cultural context; which, after all, defines the underlying ideas of the visual imagery employed.
Zbornik Stjepan Gunjača i hrvatska srednjovjekovna povijesno-arheološka baština 1 : zbornik radova sa Znanstvenog skupa "Stjepan Gunjača i hrvatska srednjovjekovna povijesno-arheološka baština" : u povodu 100. obljetnice rođenja akademika Stjepana Gunjače, Split 3.- 6. studenog 2009., 2010
At the end of the 2009 International Research Centre for Late Antiquity and Middle Ages of the Un... more At the end of the 2009 International Research Centre for Late Antiquity and Middle Ages of the University of Zagreb (IRCLAMA) has conducted a new architectural survey in a collaboration with the University of Padova of an early byzantine fortress with the church of Saint Cosmas and Damian located above the town of Barbat on the island of Rab. In many respects, survey has improved our knowledge about the fortress and its church, as well as about its interior arrangement. Careful analysis of the collated data has brought forward a number of new discoveries about the fortress, equal in number to the amount of structures newly identified inside of the fortress. Finaly, presented study makes the fortress one of the best explored military instalations on the eastern Adriatic shores.
Il lavoro rappresenta un tentativo di analisi onnicomprensiva della storiatardoantica e altomedie... more Il lavoro rappresenta un tentativo di analisi onnicomprensiva della storiatardoantica e altomedievale diTarsatica dall’aspetto delle fonti disponibili e dall’aspettogeopolitico vigente tra il II e il X secolo. Particolare attenzione è stata dedicata alchiarimento delle strutture amministrative e di potere nel cui ambito geografico è venutaa trovarsi
Tarsatica nel citato periodo. Le conclusioni che derivano dall’analisi delle fonticontraddicono la percezione finora esistente riguardo ad eventi catastrofici per i quali sisupponeva che per due volte avessero interrotto il corso della vita di
Tarsatica
.
In the last two decades, the architecture of late antique country estates in Europe - most notabl... more In the last two decades, the architecture of late antique country estates in Europe - most notably those in the northern provinces (Raetia, the two Germanias, Pannonia, Noricum, Moesia and Dacia), but also in the Iberian and Italian peninsula - has been systematically researched. Based on the typology of examined structures, numerous studies have yielded observations about evident similarities between late antique complexes from various parts of the Western Empire, which had adopted a completely new paradigm in the spatial arrangement of representative and lavish administrative buildings on the estates affected by the economic reforms of the late third century. The abundance of the variants of the universal theme of aulic architecture in country estates from the late third and during the fourth century has enabled the identification of regional varieties and patterns in the spreading of individual architectural solutions, as well as the defining and careful research of other phases of the architectural transformation of late antique estates.
The question which this paper attempts to answer is where Dalmatian late antique villas belong in such an ‘international’ architecture of the late antique country estate, and whether their forms follow the trends of the neighbouring provinces. In the lack of finds, the only way towards a clarification of the outlined questions is a formal analysis which most Dalmatian late antique villas have not been subjected to, and which opens the door for the interpretation of the building considered essential from the art-historical perspective. Formal qualities of the villas suggest the provenance of their architectural elements, reveal the function of a structure and its parts and clarify the position of a villa in the developmental line of the architecture of country estates and indicate the likely time frame of its production.
In this context, this paper focuses on the late antique complex discovered in the early twentieth century on the site of Prikače in the village of Strupnić (near Livno). The villa is, unfortunately, only known from the initial reports but its dimensions and layout make it stand out from other late antique complexes in Dalmatian hinterland. However, the modestly recorded ground plan and a recent reconstruction of this structure do leave considerable space for formal analysis and more precise conclusions about its date. The noted symmetrical division of the front part of the building with two apsed lateral spaces and axial arrangement of the central reception hall, which was most likely accessed from the courtyard, point to the comparisons with late third- and early fourth-century complexes in the Danube area, such as those at Kövágászölös or Keszthely-Fenékpuszta, which served as administrative centres of large estates along the Danube, and which may have drawn upon a luxurious complex near Parndorf. Symmetrically placed apses on the façade, an almost unique phenomenon in the Danube area, is doubtlessly rooted in the desire to make façades more monumental as can be seen in a number of buildings which span the end of the third and the beginning of the fourth century, when a certain revolution took place in the architecture of country estates, reflecting the socio-economic changes which transformed the European landscape through the enlargement of estates. It is a clear sign of the estate owner’s status and a clear indication of the building’s function. The villa at Strupnić, together with the examples at Ljusine and Livade, and the remains of the architectural complex at Majdan, points to a strong connection between Dalmatia and the trends which sprung up in the Danube area in the late third and during the fourth century, and clearly illustrates the direction through which late antique solutions in the architecture of country estates reached the interior of Dalmatia. Thus, we deem that it is not inopportune to place the time frame of the construction of Dalmatian late antique country estates in the same formal and chronological context of the estates in its northern neighbourhood which was, at that time, going through what Mocsy called the last age or prosperity in the Danube area. The formal connection with the mentioned estates implies that the function of Dalmatian and Danube structures complemented each other.
Although the structure at Strupnić is relatively small (32,6 x 27,5 m), and is classified in the category of small country estates such as those at Deutschkreuz, Sümeg, Csúcshegy, Majdan or Mali Mošunj, we deem that it is completely un- founded to interpret it as a journey station, i.e. an inn (mutatio), as Bojanovski suggested on a number of occasions. Considering the layout of the complex, a more luxurious nature of its form and its location, it seems more likely that it had been part of a richer estate which was administered from a central administrative-residential-economic complex, and in connection with this, it is advisable to return to Bojanovski’s earlier interpretations which identified it as one of the examples of praetorium fundi. During the third and fourth centuries, in the time of economic reforms and en- largement of estates, medium-sized estates of the social elite may have been situated in the area of Livanjsko polje, due to its good road networks and fortified transformations of architectural complexes in individual sites. The Strupnić late antique estate still represents a riddle of sorts the solving of which depends on future archaeological excavations that this structure undoubtedly deserves. In this paper, it has been an example of the amount of information that can be obtained from scarce records about a building when it is subjected to a formal and contextual analysis. The traditional definitions of the architecture of estates and the generalising approach which does not take into account individual features of a building need to be questioned, and this is confirmed by the example of Strupnić.
Kratki osvrt na postignuća projekta IRCLAMA financiranog od strane Europske Komisije kroz Međunar... more Kratki osvrt na postignuća projekta IRCLAMA financiranog od strane Europske Komisije kroz Međunarodni istraživački centar za kasnu antiku i srednji vijek Sveučilišta u Zagrebu, s zacrtanim osnovnim smjernicama u razvoju Centra i pristupa baštinih raznih razdoblja u budućnosti.
The paper is an extended version of the paper on the architecture of the "palace" in Polače bay. ... more The paper is an extended version of the paper on the architecture of the "palace" in Polače bay. It describes the whole context of Mljet, taking into account all the particularities of the island.
Peristyle Buildings in Late Antiquity: Architecture, Landscape and Function International Workshop of the I-SITE ULNE (University of Lille) funded Project, 2023
In 1988 Simon Ellis started his study of Late Antique Roman houses with the statement: “The disap... more In 1988 Simon Ellis started his study of Late Antique Roman houses with the statement: “The disappearance of the Roman peristyle house marks the end of the ancient world and its way of life. No new peristyle houses were built after A.D. 550”. And, indeed, peristyle houses and villae were a trademark of the Roman and Mediterranean civilisation. And it is certainly true that during the late antique period a number of new peristyle houses and villae was dwindling. Such a transformation becomes quite understandable when we consider the historical circumstances which brought about the strong influx of architectural models from the northern and northwestern provinces during late antique centuries. Moreover, the same circumstances dictated a change in cultural norms, including the idea of the desired standard of self-presentation. However, although the number of new peristyle houses and villae might have been in decline during late antique centuries, peristylum as such survived, however, not in the same domestic context. Of course, there are multiple examples of rearrangements of peristyle houses in the Roman province of Dalmatia from the end of the 4th century onwards, in order for old structures to meet the new needs and their new functions. Both, in the urban centres and in the Dalmatian countryside. However, these rearrangements of domestic architecture represent just the survival of a type of edifice, while peristylum as such migrated between the 4th and 6th century into more prestigious architectural context, both in Dalmatia and elsewhere. As to Dalmatia, the model for the peristyle courtyard functioning as a “cour/tribunal” of late antique imperial edifices was the peristylum of Diocletian’s retirement “palace” in Spalato. The same general usage of the peristylum as the central “cour/tribunal”, or to borrow from Dyggve - “late antique cour d’honneur”, is present in most of the Tetrarchic or 4th century constructions in Dalmatia, and are derivatives of the same conception of peristyle “cour/tribunal” defined and promoted through Diocletian’s imperial constructions. In that sense, the architectural form of peristylum acquired new significance and new vitality. However, its vitality will not vane in Dalmatia even in the 6th century, not even at its end. One of the most monumental examples of peristylum courtyard on the eastern Adriatic, equal only to the one of the palatium in Ravenna, and constructed in the second half or right at end of the 6th century as a part of grandiose structure intended for the assembly of the Salonitan clergy, could be found in Salona, or more precisely, in the Salonitan “episcopal district”. The structure is in itself unique, as it combines two architectural models - one coming from Diocletian’s palace in Spalato, the other from the palatium in Ravenna, whose general outlines are perfectly reflected in this imposing Salonitan edifice. The sheer idea of the construction of an episcopal “cour/tribunal” in Salona is quite in accordance with defiant and independent characters of the last Salonitan archbishops. Hence, the aim of the presentation is to demonstrate the particular late antique Dalmatian line of development related to the peristyle courtyards, which will be once again put in the spotlight of architectural developments. So, Ellis might have been correct only partially, as during Late Antiquity the peristyle assumed its new functions and would continue to mirror the Mediterranean character of the Late Roman world. At the same time, the intention of the presentation is to draw attention to the fact that the coastal Dalmatia had its own line of cultural evolution, expressed quite uniquely in grand architecture, even the one constructed at the brink of Early Middle Ages (i. e. first half of the 7th century).
HOUSING IN LATE ANTIQUE MEDITERRANEAN 4th CISEM INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS, 2022
Presentation provides a short overview with several examples from the territory of the province o... more Presentation provides a short overview with several examples from the territory of the province of Dalmatia. It also offers a definition of general (or most common features) of the late antique Dalmatian balnea.
Presentations problematises the conclusions made up to this date about several issues regarding t... more Presentations problematises the conclusions made up to this date about several issues regarding the eastern Adriatic in the Early Middle Ages, from its allegiance to one of the Empires, to the creation of a state in Dalmatian hinterland. By examining verifiable historical facts and documents authors postulated the theory about the "no-state condition" of the Dalmatian hinterland at the end of the 8th and the first decades of the 9th ct., intentionally reinforced both by the Byzantium and Franks. Presentation also refers to the mechanisms by which a territory in "no-state condition" was transformed to a half-finished political project of a state still relying on the system of a "dominant protective association" throughout the first decades of its existence.
INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE: Art history and discourse on the centre and periphery An homage to Ljubo Karaman 1886—1971At: Zagreb, 2022
The paper represents an effort to reexamine age old paradigm of Ljubo Karaman for classification ... more The paper represents an effort to reexamine age old paradigm of Ljubo Karaman for classification and valorisation of the artistic production in Croatia, especially Dalmatia, and in general. Authors intention was to refresh and update the paradigm from a contemporary stand point. By contrasting the underlying logic of Karaman's paradigm about the artistic production, which was essentially in tune with "western" linear perception of fluctuation of artistic models, paper suggests that today a Byzantine contribution to the artistic production in the Late Antique and Early Medieval Croatia could and should be examined through more sophisticated approaches. Byzantine heritage on the Eastern Adriatic, much disputed and, more often than not, contested, was examined in the paper as a derivative of an sophisticated Romaian society and its culture whose mechanisms cannot be understood from the perspective of linear systems. It could be understood, on the other hand, from a perspective of complex systems, which was already noticed by various authors. However, the paper takes the examination of Romaian society and culture, in general, a notch up, introducing Cillier's post-structuralist connectivistic theory in deciphering how did "Byzantine" cultural, political, etc. network actually functioned. In that respect, the paper demonstrates that "western" idioms cannot be applied on "eastern" world, nor other way around. In effect, that means that Karaman's paradigm, as a product of a "westerner's" mind, could not in any way penetrate the depths of Romaian culture on Adriatic, nor can his categories be applied to the evidently rich Byzantine heretage in Dalmatia.
MEĐUNARODNI ZNANSTVENI SKUP - LJUBO KARAMAN - PEDESET GODINA POSLIJE, 2021
Izaganje problematizira teze Ljube Karamana o tzv. "crkvicama slobodnih oblika" s ciljem procijen... more Izaganje problematizira teze Ljube Karamana o tzv. "crkvicama slobodnih oblika" s ciljem procijenjivanja validnosti njegovih zaključaka u svijetlu recentnih istraživanja. Izlaganjem se ujedno ističe izniman doprinos Ljube Karamana kao vrsnog eksponenta sinteznog načina sagledavanja specifičnih pitanja, ali se istodobno i ukazuje na nužnost preispitivanja Karamanove "prozapadne orijentacije" pri obradi ranosrednjovjekovnih crkava na području Dalmacije u svijetlu recentnih bizantoloških spoznaja.
ROMAC - Roundtable "The Idea of Romanitas from Antiquity to the End of the Middle Ages", 4th December, Zagreb, 2021, 2021
Presentation investigates the history and continuity of the idea of romanitas, connecting the anc... more Presentation investigates the history and continuity of the idea of romanitas, connecting the ancient Roman definition of this universal idea, firmly instituted by Cicero, Augustus and all of the participants in his cultural reforms of the Roman State. It follows the developments in further articulation of the idea through "Meditationes" of the Emperor Marcus Aurelius, as well as its actual manifestation in the reality of the Roman world of the 2nd ct. AD, attested in the works such are Tertullian's "De Pallio" or Apuleius "The Golden Ass". Presentation follows the thread up to the Late Antiquity, when the idea was significantly restored by Constantine the Great and afterwards redefined by St. Augustine. It presents the mechanisms of construction of Eastern Romanitas as well as fragmentation of Western conceptions of Romanitas, i. e. romanitates. It also critically re-evaluates various theories and approaches to Romanitas, especially such as "identity theory" or "theory of imperialism", etc.
Presentation is an attempt to reconsider iconography of the Constantine's round forum in Constant... more Presentation is an attempt to reconsider iconography of the Constantine's round forum in Constantinople with all of its symbolical monuments. In.a way, presentation aims at a holistic approach to forum, while identifying multiple layers of its symbolical values. It is an extension of the recent studies by various researchers, from Kaldellis and Bassett, as well as through re-examination of written sources describing individual monuments on the forum.
Programme of 8th International Conference on Heat Transfer, Fluid Mechanics and Thermodynamics, Mauritius, Pointe aux Piments, July 2011, 2011
The aim of the presentation is to demonstrate efficiency of ancient Roman thermodynamic engineeri... more The aim of the presentation is to demonstrate efficiency of ancient Roman thermodynamic engineering on the one curious example of the imperial bathing architecture - small western baths located inside of the Diocletian"s palace in Spalato (Croatia). Although there have been some of the experiments and hypothetical calculations, and even reconstructions, of the Roman heating systems, these small baths, adequately preserved, offer an excellent insight in how accurate and efficient were actually Roman imperial builders. It becomes clear that they indeed relied on quite accurate calculations to achieve maximum effect. Presentation offers the calculations of the research team which support this conclusion.
The aim of the paper and presentation given at the Round Table "Perspective on the Constantine"s ... more The aim of the paper and presentation given at the Round Table "Perspective on the Constantine"s Age 2013-313. held in June 2013 on the Faculty for Humanities and Social Sciences is to re-examine Christian conception of Constantine as primarily the First Christian ruler. Author argues that the Constantine's acceptance of the Christianity was first and foremost a pragmatical move, in line with the general inclusiveness of his religious politics. The often repeated and still generally accepted perception of Constantine as the First Christian Emperor, mostly based on Eusebius' perspective, and acknowledged by a significant number of contemporary scholars should be reconsidered in view of his other religious inclinations which were immortalised in the monuments of his Nea Roma. Author poses question, how come n truly devoted Christian Emperor could install a figure of the Emperor Diocletian right on the spina of his new hippodrome in Constantinople, centre of the pivotal ceremony of the new capital, the same Diocletian which would be so scorned by Lactantius. Making the short overview of the pagan monuments of Constantinople, author is making the point that the solar cult as an overarching concept was actually a baseline for Constantine's religious politics.
PONTES ADRIATICI: mreža kulturnih razmjena na Jadranu, 2018
The book represents the Proceedings of the Round Table held in Split in 2014 as an output of the ... more The book represents the Proceedings of the Round Table held in Split in 2014 as an output of the project of the same name (PI was academic Igor Fisković), financed by University of Zagreb. 13 authors contributed to the Proceedings which reflect the range of topic discussed at the round table. As is evident from the Contents of the Proceedings, the primary goal of the Round Table was to discuss and further define the channels of transmission of ideas, concepts and forms along and across the Adriatic basin, functioning as a complex system which adopted, adapted and distributed wide range ideas and concepts form Antiquity to beginning of the Renaissance.
Dissertation Symbols on the Peutinger's map and the development of the Croatian urban landscape b... more Dissertation Symbols on the Peutinger's map and the development of the Croatian urban landscape between Antiquity and Middle Ages is a product of a long standing research of the late antique and medieval cartography, particularly of the so-called Peutinger's map (Codex Vindobonensis 324), which is still a subject of many unresolved dilemmas. As the map is an elaborate cartographic depiction of the whole world known to late antique cartographers, the issues of dating and purpose of the map have attracted attention of a multitude of researchers from 16th onwards. Dissertation contains a comprehensive interpretation of the map's visual content which has been analysed from a perspective of the development of cartographic conventions, as well as from a perspective of the development of European urban landscape between Antiquity and Middle Ages. Research has yielded with conclusions about the date of production of the map and its purpose and they were presented in the dissertation. A number of arguments have been presented in support of the conclusion that the map was made by the beginning of the 9th century and not in the 12th or 13th century as it was suggested. Some of the researchers have discussed the possibility of existence of a Carolingian redaction of the map, but almost all of them considered Peutinger's map to be a late medieval copy. As to the purpose of the map, interpretation have shown that it preserved utilitarian elements copied from the late antique model, but it obviously acquired symbolical function at the beginning of the 9th century. Furthermore, through analysis of what was represented on the map and how it was represented, several conclusions have been reached. First of all, it is apparent that several “hands” have updated the content of the map through the Middle Ages, using the various kinds of ink and drawing styles. Some of these “redactions” quite vividly illustrate that the map was at the disposal from 9th to 13th century. At least five “hands” are recognizable on the map, some of them using the symbolic vocabulary distinctly different from the one used by original cartographer. Furthermore, it is evident that the parts of the map depicting the “Western world” are much more elaborated than the ones depicting the East. The apparent break in topographical elaboration and general understanding of disposition of place starts exactly in the middle of the Balkan region, i. e. former Roman province of Dalmatia (most of the unique symbols for towns are locate precisely in that territory - Tragurium, Ragusa, Ad matricem, etc). Such a rift in cartographer’s interest in topography, where he is more interested and more intimately familiar with the topography of the West than the the one of the East, is highly indicative, as is his selection of the translated content. Dissertation takes into account all of the opinions and conclusions about the map through time, but gives a prominence to the facts presented by Patrick Gautier-Dalché, related to the existence of the second panoramic map of the same kind documented by Pellegrino Prisciani (1435-1518.), as well as to the observations of Hans Lieb. Finally, although some palaeographic analyses have been presented, the dissertation offers its own analysis which, again, supports the conclusion that the map has been copied around year 800 and afterwards put at the disposal of the medieval examiners in some of the monastery libraries, possibly first at Reichenau, and afterwards in Speyer.
Exhibition "Rediscovery of Old Cathedrals of Dubrovnik" was one of final outputs of the project "... more Exhibition "Rediscovery of Old Cathedrals of Dubrovnik" was one of final outputs of the project "Research and Educational Program of the Romanesque cathedral of Sta. Maria Maggiore in Dubrovnik". Project lasted between 2015 and 2018 and was financed by University of Zagreb and Parish of Dubrovnik. Its objectives were to inventorise all of the remains of the romanesque cathedral in Dubrovnik, stocked in various shelters during the war in 1990', revise and interpret the archaeological logs form the excavations form 1980', and relate the log entries to the specific fragments, thus establishing a clearer picture of the romanesque cathedral, as well as of Byzantine church beneath it. Exhibition held in Dubrovnik and Zagreb in 2017 presents, in popular way, some of the most important fragments from the reassembled and inventorised collection.
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Quite contrary to common notions, it is argued that before the erection of the Christian buildings this part of the town was a residential quarter, organized according to the usual principles of Roman town planning, and that the outlines of at least five houses can be discerned from the ancient structures preceding the Episcopal complex. It is also hypothesized that during the sixth century the complex spread to the east, across the street, and that it got an even more monumental appearance, incorporating among other structures the so-called ‘Large thermae’, and that this part of the town was turned into a grand ‘Episcopal district’.
Tarsatica nel citato periodo. Le conclusioni che derivano dall’analisi delle fonticontraddicono la percezione finora esistente riguardo ad eventi catastrofici per i quali sisupponeva che per due volte avessero interrotto il corso della vita di
Tarsatica
.
The question which this paper attempts to answer is where Dalmatian late antique villas belong in such an ‘international’ architecture of the late antique country estate, and whether their forms follow the trends of the neighbouring provinces. In the lack of finds, the only way towards a clarification of the outlined questions is a formal analysis which most Dalmatian late antique villas have not been subjected to, and which opens the door for the interpretation of the building considered essential from the art-historical perspective. Formal qualities of the villas suggest the provenance of their architectural elements, reveal the function of a structure and its parts and clarify the position of a villa in the developmental line of the architecture of country estates and indicate the likely time frame of its production.
In this context, this paper focuses on the late antique complex discovered in the early twentieth century on the site of Prikače in the village of Strupnić (near Livno). The villa is, unfortunately, only known from the initial reports but its dimensions and layout make it stand out from other late antique complexes in Dalmatian hinterland. However, the modestly recorded ground plan and a recent reconstruction of this structure do leave considerable space for formal analysis and more precise conclusions about its date. The noted symmetrical division of the front part of the building with two apsed lateral spaces and axial arrangement of the central reception hall, which was most likely accessed from the courtyard, point to the comparisons with late third- and early fourth-century complexes in the Danube area, such as those at Kövágászölös or Keszthely-Fenékpuszta, which served as administrative centres of large estates along the Danube, and which may have drawn upon a luxurious complex near Parndorf. Symmetrically placed apses on the façade, an almost unique phenomenon in the Danube area, is doubtlessly rooted in the desire to make façades more monumental as can be seen in a number of buildings which span the end of the third and the beginning of the fourth century, when a certain revolution took place in the architecture of country estates, reflecting the socio-economic changes which transformed the European landscape through the enlargement of estates. It is a clear sign of the estate owner’s status and a clear indication of the building’s function. The villa at Strupnić, together with the examples at Ljusine and Livade, and the remains of the architectural complex at Majdan, points to a strong connection between Dalmatia and the trends which sprung up in the Danube area in the late third and during the fourth century, and clearly illustrates the direction through which late antique solutions in the architecture of country estates reached the interior of Dalmatia. Thus, we deem that it is not inopportune to place the time frame of the construction of Dalmatian late antique country estates in the same formal and chronological context of the estates in its northern neighbourhood which was, at that time, going through what Mocsy called the last age or prosperity in the Danube area. The formal connection with the mentioned estates implies that the function of Dalmatian and Danube structures complemented each other.
Although the structure at Strupnić is relatively small (32,6 x 27,5 m), and is classified in the category of small country estates such as those at Deutschkreuz, Sümeg, Csúcshegy, Majdan or Mali Mošunj, we deem that it is completely un- founded to interpret it as a journey station, i.e. an inn (mutatio), as Bojanovski suggested on a number of occasions. Considering the layout of the complex, a more luxurious nature of its form and its location, it seems more likely that it had been part of a richer estate which was administered from a central administrative-residential-economic complex, and in connection with this, it is advisable to return to Bojanovski’s earlier interpretations which identified it as one of the examples of praetorium fundi. During the third and fourth centuries, in the time of economic reforms and en- largement of estates, medium-sized estates of the social elite may have been situated in the area of Livanjsko polje, due to its good road networks and fortified transformations of architectural complexes in individual sites. The Strupnić late antique estate still represents a riddle of sorts the solving of which depends on future archaeological excavations that this structure undoubtedly deserves. In this paper, it has been an example of the amount of information that can be obtained from scarce records about a building when it is subjected to a formal and contextual analysis. The traditional definitions of the architecture of estates and the generalising approach which does not take into account individual features of a building need to be questioned, and this is confirmed by the example of Strupnić.
Quite contrary to common notions, it is argued that before the erection of the Christian buildings this part of the town was a residential quarter, organized according to the usual principles of Roman town planning, and that the outlines of at least five houses can be discerned from the ancient structures preceding the Episcopal complex. It is also hypothesized that during the sixth century the complex spread to the east, across the street, and that it got an even more monumental appearance, incorporating among other structures the so-called ‘Large thermae’, and that this part of the town was turned into a grand ‘Episcopal district’.
Tarsatica nel citato periodo. Le conclusioni che derivano dall’analisi delle fonticontraddicono la percezione finora esistente riguardo ad eventi catastrofici per i quali sisupponeva che per due volte avessero interrotto il corso della vita di
Tarsatica
.
The question which this paper attempts to answer is where Dalmatian late antique villas belong in such an ‘international’ architecture of the late antique country estate, and whether their forms follow the trends of the neighbouring provinces. In the lack of finds, the only way towards a clarification of the outlined questions is a formal analysis which most Dalmatian late antique villas have not been subjected to, and which opens the door for the interpretation of the building considered essential from the art-historical perspective. Formal qualities of the villas suggest the provenance of their architectural elements, reveal the function of a structure and its parts and clarify the position of a villa in the developmental line of the architecture of country estates and indicate the likely time frame of its production.
In this context, this paper focuses on the late antique complex discovered in the early twentieth century on the site of Prikače in the village of Strupnić (near Livno). The villa is, unfortunately, only known from the initial reports but its dimensions and layout make it stand out from other late antique complexes in Dalmatian hinterland. However, the modestly recorded ground plan and a recent reconstruction of this structure do leave considerable space for formal analysis and more precise conclusions about its date. The noted symmetrical division of the front part of the building with two apsed lateral spaces and axial arrangement of the central reception hall, which was most likely accessed from the courtyard, point to the comparisons with late third- and early fourth-century complexes in the Danube area, such as those at Kövágászölös or Keszthely-Fenékpuszta, which served as administrative centres of large estates along the Danube, and which may have drawn upon a luxurious complex near Parndorf. Symmetrically placed apses on the façade, an almost unique phenomenon in the Danube area, is doubtlessly rooted in the desire to make façades more monumental as can be seen in a number of buildings which span the end of the third and the beginning of the fourth century, when a certain revolution took place in the architecture of country estates, reflecting the socio-economic changes which transformed the European landscape through the enlargement of estates. It is a clear sign of the estate owner’s status and a clear indication of the building’s function. The villa at Strupnić, together with the examples at Ljusine and Livade, and the remains of the architectural complex at Majdan, points to a strong connection between Dalmatia and the trends which sprung up in the Danube area in the late third and during the fourth century, and clearly illustrates the direction through which late antique solutions in the architecture of country estates reached the interior of Dalmatia. Thus, we deem that it is not inopportune to place the time frame of the construction of Dalmatian late antique country estates in the same formal and chronological context of the estates in its northern neighbourhood which was, at that time, going through what Mocsy called the last age or prosperity in the Danube area. The formal connection with the mentioned estates implies that the function of Dalmatian and Danube structures complemented each other.
Although the structure at Strupnić is relatively small (32,6 x 27,5 m), and is classified in the category of small country estates such as those at Deutschkreuz, Sümeg, Csúcshegy, Majdan or Mali Mošunj, we deem that it is completely un- founded to interpret it as a journey station, i.e. an inn (mutatio), as Bojanovski suggested on a number of occasions. Considering the layout of the complex, a more luxurious nature of its form and its location, it seems more likely that it had been part of a richer estate which was administered from a central administrative-residential-economic complex, and in connection with this, it is advisable to return to Bojanovski’s earlier interpretations which identified it as one of the examples of praetorium fundi. During the third and fourth centuries, in the time of economic reforms and en- largement of estates, medium-sized estates of the social elite may have been situated in the area of Livanjsko polje, due to its good road networks and fortified transformations of architectural complexes in individual sites. The Strupnić late antique estate still represents a riddle of sorts the solving of which depends on future archaeological excavations that this structure undoubtedly deserves. In this paper, it has been an example of the amount of information that can be obtained from scarce records about a building when it is subjected to a formal and contextual analysis. The traditional definitions of the architecture of estates and the generalising approach which does not take into account individual features of a building need to be questioned, and this is confirmed by the example of Strupnić.
Of course, there are multiple examples of rearrangements of peristyle houses in the Roman province of Dalmatia from the end of the 4th century onwards, in order for old structures to meet the new needs and their new functions. Both, in the urban centres and in the Dalmatian countryside. However, these rearrangements of domestic architecture represent just the survival of a type of edifice, while peristylum as such migrated between the 4th and 6th century into more prestigious architectural context, both in Dalmatia and elsewhere. As to Dalmatia, the model for the peristyle courtyard functioning as a “cour/tribunal” of late antique imperial edifices was the peristylum of Diocletian’s retirement “palace” in Spalato. The same general usage of the peristylum as the central “cour/tribunal”, or to borrow from Dyggve - “late antique cour d’honneur”, is present in most of the Tetrarchic or 4th century constructions in Dalmatia, and are derivatives of the same conception of peristyle “cour/tribunal” defined and promoted through Diocletian’s imperial constructions. In that sense, the architectural form of peristylum acquired new significance and new vitality. However, its vitality will not vane in Dalmatia even in the 6th century, not even at its end. One of the most monumental examples of peristylum courtyard on the eastern Adriatic, equal only to the one of the palatium in Ravenna, and constructed in the second half or right at end of the 6th century as a part of grandiose structure intended for the assembly of the Salonitan clergy, could be found in Salona, or more precisely, in the Salonitan “episcopal district”. The structure is in itself unique, as it combines two architectural models - one coming from Diocletian’s palace in Spalato, the other from the palatium in Ravenna, whose general outlines are perfectly reflected in this imposing Salonitan edifice. The sheer idea of the construction of an episcopal “cour/tribunal” in Salona is quite in accordance with defiant and independent characters of the last Salonitan archbishops.
Hence, the aim of the presentation is to demonstrate the particular late antique Dalmatian line of development related to the peristyle courtyards, which will be once again put in the spotlight of architectural developments. So, Ellis might have been correct only partially, as during Late Antiquity the peristyle assumed its new functions and would continue to mirror the Mediterranean character of the Late Roman world. At the same time, the intention of the presentation is to draw attention to the fact that the coastal Dalmatia had its own line of cultural evolution, expressed quite uniquely in grand architecture, even the one constructed at the brink of Early Middle Ages (i. e. first half of the 7th century).