Automatic Plastic-Hinge Analysis

UNIVERSIT DE LIGE
FACULT DES SCIENCES APPLIQUES
Automatic plastic-hinge analysis

and design of 3D steel frames
Par
HOANG Van Long
Docteur en sciences de lingnieur de lUniversit de Lige
Thse de doctorat
2008
Thse dfendue, avec succs, le 24 septembre 2008, pour lobtention du garde

de Docteur en sciences de lingnieur de lUniversit de Lige.
Jury: J.P. JASPART, Professeur lUniversit de Lige, Prsident

H. NGUYEN-DANG, Professeur lUniversit de Lige, Promoteur
R. MAQUOI, Professeur lUniversit de Lige
J.P. PONTHOT, Professeur lUniversit de Lige
J. RONDAL, Professeur lUniversit de Lige
I. DOGHRI, Professeur lUniversit Catholique de Louvain
M. DOMASZEWSKI, Professeur lUniversit de Technologie de
Belfort-Montbliard
G. MAIER, Professeur Politecnico di Milano
P. MORELLE, Docteur, SAMTECH Lige
Dedicated to
my parents,
my parents-in-law,
my brother,
my wife,
and my daughter.
Table of contents
Introduction
Chapter 1
An overview of the plastic-hinge analysis for steel frames

1.1. Models in plastic-hinge analysis
9
9
1.1.1. Discretization of structures

1.1.2. Definition of plastic hinge and collapse mechanism
1.1.3. Modelling of frame in plastic-hinge analysis
1.1.4. Advantages and limitations
1.2. Direct methods for plastic-hinge analysis
1.2.1. Description
9
9
9
10
11
11
13
1.3. Step-by-step methods for plastic-hinge analysis

1.3.1. Description
13
13
14
1.4. Computer program aspect
15
1.4.1. Generality
1.4.2. CEPAO computer program
15
15
1.5. Conclusions
16
Chapter 2
Inelastic behaviour of frames and fundamental theorems
17
2.1. Loading types
17
2.2. Material behaviour
18
2.3. Structural behaviour
18
2.3.1. Under simple loading

2.3.2. Under repeated loading
19
19
2.4. Fundamental theorems
20
2.4.1. Equation of virtual power

2.4.2. Theorems of limit and shakedown analysis
2.4.2.1. Lower bound theorem of limit analysis
2.4.2.2. Upper bound theorem of limit analysis
2.4.2.3. Static theorem of shakedown analysis
2.4.2.4. Kinematic theorem of shakedown analysis
20
21
21
21
22
22
Chapter 3
Element formulation
24
3.1. Modelling of plastic hinges
24
3.1.1. Yield surfaces

3.1.2. Normality rule
3.1.3. Plastic incremental forces-generalized strains relationship
3.1.4. Plastic dissipations
3.2. Thirteen-DOF element formulation
24
25
27
27
28
3.2.1. Compatible and equilibrium relations

3.2.2. Constitutive relation
Chapter 4
Limit and shakedown analysis of 3-D steel frames by linear

programming
28
30
32
4.1. General formulation
32
4.2. Limit analysis by kinematic method
33
4.2.1. Standard kinematic approach

4.2.2. Further reduction of kinematic approach
4.2.2.1. Change of variables
4.2.2.2. Automatic choice of initial admissible solution
4.2.2.3. Advantages of proposed techniques
4.2.3. Direct calculation of internal force distribution
4.2.3.1. Primal-dual technique
4.2.3.2. Advantages of primal-dual technique
4.3. Shakedown analysis by kinematic method
4.2.2. Further reduction of the kinematic approach
4.2.3. Direct calculation of the residual internal force distribution
33
33
33
34
36
36
36
38
38
38
38
39
4.4. Determination of referent displacement
39
4.5. Numerical example and discussions
40
4.6. Conclusions
45
Chapter 5
Limit and shakedown design of 3-D steel frames by linear

programming
46
5.1. Weight function
46
5.2. Limit design by static approach
46
5.2.1. Direct algorithm

5.2.2. Semi-direct algorithm
5.2.2.1. Fixed-push technique
47
47
48
5.2.2.2. Standard-transformation technique

5.2.2.3. Reduced formulas
5.3. Shakedown design by static approach
49
50
51
51
52
52
52
53
5.4. Advantages of semi-direct algorithm
53
5.5. Numerical example and discussions
54
5.6. Conclusions
58
Chapter 6
Second-order plastic-hinge analysis of 3-D steel frames including

strain hardening effects
6.1. Modelling of plastic hinges accounting strain hardening
6.1.1. Strain hardening rule
6.1.2. Increment deformation-force relation
59
60
60
61
6.2. Global plastic-hinge analysis formulation
61
6.2.1. Elastic-plastic constitutive equation

6.2.2. Elastic-plastic stiffness equation
6.2.3. Taking into account P- effect
6.2.4. Global solution procedure
61
63
63
65
6.3. Limit effective strain hardening and strain hardening modulus

6.3.1. Stress-hardening and limit effective strain
6.3.2. Strain hardening modulus
65
65
67
6.4. Numerical examples and discussions
68
6.5. Conclusions
74
Chapter 7
Local buckling check according to Eurocode-3 for plastic-hinge

analysis of 3-D steel fames
76
7.1. Conception of local buckling in Eurocode-3
76
7.2. Stress distribution over a cross-section
77
7.2.1. At yielded section (plastic-hinge)

7.2.1.1. Plastic-hinge concept
7.2.1.2. Assumptions
7.2.1.3. Formulation
7.2.1.4. Particular cases
7.2.1.5. Coefficient
7.2.1.6. Verification
78
78
78
78
81
82
82
7.2.2. At elastic sections

7.2.3. At elasto-plastic sections
83
83
7.3. Classification of cross-sections and local buckling check

7.3.1. Classification of cross-sections
7.3.2. Local buckling check
83
83
83
84
7.5. Conclusions
88
Chapter 8
Plastic-hinge analysis of semi-rigid frames
89
8.1. Practical modelling of connexions
89
8.2. Effect of semi-rigid connexions
90
8.2.1. Initial stiffness effects

8.2.2. Ultimate strength effects
8.2.3. Function objective including connexion cost
90
92
92
8.3. Numerical examples
93
8.3.1. Example 8.1

8.3.2. Example 8.2
8.3.3. Example 8.3
93
95
98
8.4. Conclusions
103
Chapter 9
CEPAO package: Application aspect
104
9.1. Introduction
104
9.2. Input data
104

9.2.2. Input file
104
104
9.3. Output data
104
9.4. Conclusions
124
Chapter 10
Conclusions
125
References
127
Introduction
Each year, a huge volume of steel is used in construction. Each year, ten thousands of
researchers, engineers devote their time to determine an appropriate structural solutions
respecting safety, serviceability and cost saving. Thank to the development of computer science,
the application of modern theories for obtaining automatic solutions becomes the optimal
answer to the mentioned questions.
During the last 40 years, the theories of plasticity, stability and computing technology
made the great achievements. They permit to adopt the nonlinear design specifications in the
Standards of construction. Both conditions and motivations to build-up the numerical tools for
structural analysis are taken off since 1970s. The framed structures are always the test bench,
many software for this family of structure were early developed in various research centres
around the world. For example, in the Department of Structural Mechanics and Stability of
Constructions of the University of Lige, two computer programs for frameworks ware
established at the end of the 1970s: FINELG program, a finite element computer program for
nonlinear step-by-step analysis, was firstly build by F. Frey [50]; and CEPAO program
developed by Nguyen-Dang [117], is a package for plastic-hinge direct analysis and
optimization of 2-D frames.
In general, either the plastic-zone or the plastic-hinge approach is adopted to capture the
both material inelasticity and geometric nonlinearity of a framed structure. In the plastic-zone
method, according to the requirement of refinement, a structure member is discretized into a
mesh of finite elements, composed of three-dimensional finite-shell elements or fibre elements.
Thus, this approach may describe the actual behaviour of structures, and it is known as the
quasi-exact solution. However, although tremendous advances in both computer hardware
and numerical technique were achieved, plastic-zone method is still considered as an
expensive method requiring considerable computing burden.
On the other hand, in the plastic-hinge approach, only one beam-column element per
physical member can model the nonlinear properties of the structures. It leads to significant
reduction of computation time. Furthermore, the computer program using the plastic-hinge
model is familiar to the habit the engineers. With such mentioned advantages, it appears that the
plastic-hinge method is more widely used in practice than the plastic zone method. However, the
plastic-hinge analysis is not without inconveniences that will be mentioned in Chapter 1 of this
thesis. This approach needs then to be improved. Present thesis is oriented in that direction and
aims to develop practical software for automatic plastic-hinge analysis and optimisation of 3-D
steel frames. The principal basic ideas have been originally adopted in CEPAO package for 2-D
frames by Nguyen-Dang [117]. The present work proposes to extend these solutions to 3-D
frames. The theory of plasticity, particularly, the theory of limit analysis and the theory of
shakedown analysis constitute the fundamental theoretical bases for the numerical
implementations. The use of the linear programming technique combined with the finite element
method constitutes the two useful pillars of this numerical procedure. This thesis is concretely
composed of 10 chapters as follows:
Chapter 1 constitutes an overview of plastic-hinge analysis of frameworks. It aims to

highlight the deficiencies of the domain, on about both aspects: model and method. In fact, the
main motivations of the present thesis are to overcome these deficiencies.
Chapter 2 describes the plastic behaviours of structures under fixed and repeated
loading. Useful theorems for plastic analysis are presented.
Chapter 3 presents the formulation of the thirteen-degree-of-freedom element for 3-D
members. This element allows to apply the fundamental equations in both elastic-plastic and
rigid-plastic analysis of frames. The compatible matrix (or its transpose the equilibrium matrix)
established automatically in this chapter is fundamentally used in all procedures, both analysis
and in design aspects of CEPAO package.
Chapter 4 deals with an efficient algorithm for both limit and shakedown analysis of 3-D
steel frames based on kinematical method using linear programming technique. Several features
in the application of linear programming technique for rigid-plastic analysis of threedimensional steel frames are discussed. We will mainly tackle the change of the variables, the
automatic choice of the initial basic matrix for the simplex algorithm and the direct calculation
of the dual variables by primal-dual technique. To highlight the capacity of the proposed
techniques, numerical examples and discussions will be presented.
Chapter 5 considers the volume optimization of 3-D steel frames under both fixed
loading (limit design) and repeated loading (shakedown design). The conception variables of the
problem are the cross sections of 3-D frame members; they are automatically chosen in the
database that contains the standard I or H-shaped section of both Europe and USA. Besides, the
dimension of rigid-plastic design problem by statical approach using linear programming is
considerably reduced. Several special techniques so-called fixed-push and standardtransformation leading to semi-direct algorithm are originally described. The content of this
chapter may be considered as the dual formulation of which of Chapter 4. The efficiency of
the technique is demonstrated with details by some numerical examples.
Chapter 6 concerns the second-order aspect of plastic-hinge analysis. First, a strain
hardening rule for 3-D plastic-hinges is proposed in this chapter. The linear strain hardening law
is modelled by two parameters: the effective strain and the plastic modulus. The definition of the
effective strain as well as the method to fix the value of plastic modulus is described. A
conventional second-order elastic-plastic approach taking into account above hardening rule is
also considered in the present chapter. Finally, numerical examples are analyzed by using
CEPAO. It appears that the new numerical results are in good agreement with benchmarks.
Chapter 7 deals with local buckling check according to Eurocode-3 for the plastic-hinge
analysis of 3-D steel frames with I or H-shaped sections. A useful technique for the
determination of the stress distribution on the cross-sections under axial force and bi-bending
moments is proposed. It permits to the concept of the classification of cross-sections may be
directly used. Cross-section requirements for global plastic analysis in Eurocode-3 are applied
for the local buckling check. To evaluate the technique, a large number of 3-D plastic hinge
have been tested.
Chapter 8 is devoted to semi-rigid steel frames in the level of global plastic analysis and
optimization. First, the behaviour and the popular modelling of connexions are briefly reminded.
One may see here how CEPAO takes into account the semi-rigid behaviour of connexions in
both elastic-plastic and rigid-plastic analysis. Finally, various numerical examples solved by
CEPAO are examined. The comparison with some other software is also illustrated.
Chapter 9 presents the application aspect of CEPAO by the input and output systems. It
demonstrates the automatic level of CEPAO, with a simple input as in the linear elastic analysis
one obtains a rather complete picture of the plastic analysis and design of frames in the output.
Chapter 10 contains the main conclusions and future perspectives.
From Chapter 3 to Chapter 8, all mentioned algorithms were implemented in a united
package, written in FORTRAN language. The robustness of code, that is the ability to solve the
large-scale frames, constitutes the most important task in the preparation of this thesis.
Considerable times are needed to overcome multiple difficulties in the construction of the new
CEPAO package.
On the scientific research point of view, according to the authors knowledge, the following
points may be considered as the original contributions in this thesis:
The change of variables and the automatic choice of the initial basic matrix for the
simplex algorithm allow to reduce the computational cost in both limit and shakedown analysis
of 3-D steel frames (Chapter 4).
To reduce the problem size of limit and shakedown design problem, we propose the
following techniques: fixed-push technique, standard-transformation technique and semi-direct
algorithm (Chapter 5).
We did set up a new algorithm for the second-order plastic-hinge analysis of 3-D steel
frames taking into account strain hardening behaviour (Chapter 6).
We propose the formulations to determine the stress state over I or H-shaped sections so
that the concept of the classification of cross-sections in Eurocode-3 may be directly used
(Chapter 7).
The mentioned points have been already presented in our recent already published or in
review for publications [60, 61, 62, 63].
10
1
An overview of plastic-hinge analysis for
steel frames
Chapter
Generally, there are two principal aspects in the domain of structural analysis: models
and methods. This chapter discusses on models and methods frequently used in the plastic-hinge
analysis of frames.
Keywords: Plastic hinge; Yield surface; Direct methods; Step-by-step methods.
1.1. Models in plastic-hinge analysis

Actually, all structures have three dimensions; their behaviour is the object of the
continuum mechanic where the fundamental relationships are written at each point in the
structure. However, with their form, the bars have the particular behaviour described by the
kinematic hypothesis of Bernoulli: the cross-section of bars remains plan after deformation (see
Massonnet (1947)[107]). By this hypothesis, the bars may be reduced to one-dimensional
structure. On the large sense, the bars are discretized and modelled by their neutral axis. The
state of stress and strains anywhere in the bars may be deduced from the axiss stress and the
axiss strain also respectively called the generalized stresses and the generalized strains. The
generalized stresses are bending moments, torsional moment, shear force and axial force; the
corresponding generalized strains contain rotations, deflections and elongation/shortening. The
concept of generalized stresses and generalized strains were widely used in the structural
engineering since the 1950s (see Timoshenko (1951, 1962)[142, 143]).
1.1.2. Definitions of plastic hinge and collapse mechanism
According to many authors (e.g. Neal [114], Massonnet [106]), the notion of plastic
hinge and collapse mechanism were firstly pointed out by Kazinczy in 1914.
Until now, the terminology plastic hinge is used to indicate a section (zero-length) on
which all points are in the plastic range. The elastic state and the plastic state of a section are
distinguished by a yield surface that is written in the space of the generalized stresses.
The terminology collapse mechanism is originally utilized to describe the ultimate state
of a frame where it is considered as a deformable geometric system. The last state is based on
the idealization: the plastic hinges are replaced by real hinges whereas the rest parts of the
frame are the rigid-bodies. In the large sense, the collapse mechanism is understood as the
collapse state of frames due to the combined plastic deformations at plastic hinges.
1.1.3. Modelling of frames in plastic- hinge analysis
On the behaviour aspect, in the plastic-hinge analysis, the frame is considered as a
system of three components: the joints (connexions), the critical sections and the bars. The
different behaviour laws are applied onto each component as follows:
11
Connexions behaviours: Either rigid or semi-rigid behaviour is adopted for the

connexions. The behaviour of the semi-rigid connexions depends on their form. It was dealt
with in many texts, e.g. Chen (1989, 1991, 1996)[23, 24, 19], Kishi (1990)[82], Bjorhovde
(1990)[8], Maquoi (1991, 1992)[105, 104], Jaspart (1991, 1997)[68, 70], Cabrero (2005,
2007)[11, 12], among many others.
Critical section behaviours: the critical sections could exhibit two states: elastic or
plastic (plastic hinge). They are distinguished by the yield surface. There are not relative
displacements at the elastic sections, while there exist the discontinuities of the displacements at
plastic hinges (Fig.1.1). The last phenomenon is due to the fact that the plastic deformations are
lumped at plastic hinges (zero length). To model the behaviour of plastic hinges, there are three
principal approaches:
1. Considering only the bending effect, the others effects are neglected (Fig.1.2a). By its
simplicity, this approach is popularly applied to 2-D steel frames (see Neal (1956)[114], Hodge
(1959)[64] and Massonnet (1976)[106]).
2. Considering the effect of axial force by the yield surface but neglecting the plastic
axial deformation (Fig.1.2b). The detailed application of this type may be found in Chen
(1996)[19]; and several authors recently adopted this model to build up the numerical algorithms
for 3-D steel frames (e.g. Kim (2001, 2002, 2003)[81, 79, 80]).
3. The plastic hinge is modelled by the normality rule (Fig.1.2c), it is considered as the
most exact model. This formulation were adopted by many authors, for example: Lescouarch
(1975, 1976)[86, 87], Orbison (1982)[126] and present thesis.
Fig.1.1. Behaviours of critical sections
Fig.1.2. Plastic hinge models
Behaviours of bars: in the elastic-plastic plastic-hinge analysis, the bars abide obviously
the Hooks law. These behaviours are the object of the strength of material domain. On the other
hand, the rigid-plastic analysis assumes the bars are the rigid bodies.
On the concept of the finite element method, in the plastic-hinge analysis, each physical
member is modelled by a beam-column element that is modelled again by a line. These elements
are connected by the nodes. Herein, the nodes are the point, no behaviour. Therefore, the
behaviour of the beam element must include the behaviours of the bars, of two critical sections
at its ends and of the concerned semi-rigid connexions.
From the above description, the plastic-hinge model embeds the following features:
12
Advantages
1. In the plastic-hinge model, a physical member may be modelled by only one beamcolumn element; the computational cost is then significant reduced, in comparison with plasticzone methods.
2. The computer program for the global analysis of frames using the plastic-hinge model is
familiar with the uses as the engineers.
Limitations
1. Although the formulation of yield surfaces have drawn the attentions of many authors
(e.g. Hodge (1959[64], Save (1961, 1972)[136, 135], Sawczuk (1971)[137], Chen (1977)[20],
Orbison (1982)[126] and Nguyen-Dang (1984)[122]), it is still difficult to build-up the practical
yield surfaces for any shapes of cross-sections. For the practical purpose, a yield surface must be
satisfied two conditions: (1) to have a good reflection of the real behaviour of sections; (2) to be
suitable to global plastic analysis (not too complicated). The second request means that the yield
surface must be convex and must be described by only a few numbers of mathematical
equations. In the steel frames, I or H-shaped sections is frequently used. The inherent form of
this type sections leads to both mentioned conditions are not easy to satisfy. Up to now, the
popular yield surfaces take into account only the bending moments and the axial force, the shear
force and torsional moments are ignored; e.g. the sixteen-facet polyhedron of AISC [1] or
Orbisons yield surface [126].
2. Because the theory of limit analysis is usually applied to construct the yield surfaces, the
local buckling phenomenon of the sections is normally ignored.
3. There are a significant difference between the Eulers bar used in plastic-hinge analysis
and the actual bar. The experiments demonstrate that the critical axial force of an actual bar
never reached the Eulers value; its due to the complex member behaviour, such as: distributed
plasticity, lateral-torsional effect, local buckling, geometric imperfection, and residual stresses.
The mentioned discussions is demonstrated by the difference between the buckling curves and
Euler curve (see Rondal (1979, 1984)[131, 130]).
1.2. Direct methods for plastic analysis and design

Generally, problems of analysis and design are closely related, but they are not identical.
On one hand, the aim of analysis problems is the determination of the maximum safe load for a
frame that is fully specified. On the other hand, the loads are specified in a design problem, and
we must determine the optimal member-size (cross-sections) of a frame with the node layout is
fixed. In the plastic theory for frameworks, the analysis and design approaches constitute dual
problems. It is not complete if we consider only one of them.
1.2.1. Description
Fundamental theorems: The two fundamental theorems of limit analysis, static and
kinematic theorems, were first established by Gvozdev in 1938. At the same time, the static
shakedown theorem was first proved by Melan in 1938. After 20 years, the kinematic theorem
for shakedown analysis of frames was derived by Neal in 1956 [114]. In the same year, this
theorem for solids was pointed out by Koiter [83]. The theorems concerning plastic design
problems were established, in 1950s, by Foulkes [47] and Neal [114].
Plastic methods: Generally, there are two fundamental theorems: static and kinematic. It
leads to two corresponding approaches: static approach and kinematic approach that are called
direct methods. The terminology Direct means that the load multiplier is directly found without
any intermediate state of structures. Both the static method and the kinematic method are
13
continually exploited and improved since more than 50 years until now. A brief historic
landmark of this question for framed structures is described as follows:
Classic methods
In the 1950s, at University of Cambridge, the first plastic methods, e.g. trial and error
method; combination of mechanism method; plastic moment distribution method, were
proposed by Baker, Neal, Symonds and Horne (see Neal [114]). The method of combined
mechanics has become rapidly popular around the world, and it is now still presented as lectures
of many universities. Based on the method of combined mechanics, some computer program
were established (see Cohn (1969)[31]). However, since 1970, with the developments of
application of mathematical programming in the plasticity, the mentioned methods become
classic methods. They are still the best tools for simple frames, less than 20 bars, but it is not
suitable for the large real-world structures.
Automatic methods using mathematical programming
The application of mathematical programming to the structural mechanic in generally,

and to the engineering plasticity in particularity, is a large and interesting domain. The plastic
analysis can be formulated as a problem of mathematical programming, and this powerful tool
developed in the mathematical theory of optimization can be applied. With the simplex method,
proposed by Dantzig in 1949 (see [39]), the linear programming problem is generally well
solved. The first connexion of the linear programming to the plastic analysis was pointed out
by Charnes (1951)[17]. The useful approaches using mathematical programming for all plastic
analysis and design problems were developed by Maier (1969, 1970, 1971, 1973)[102, 101, 93,
96, 103, 98], Cohn (1971)[30, 33], Grierson (1971)[55] and Munro (1972)[113]. It is a landmark
in the plastic method using mathematical programming for structural analysis. After that, this
domain has been exploited with success. We may find a big picture on the application of the
mathematical programming to structural analysis in the texts: the state-of-the-art report of
Grierson (1974)[54]; the book edited by Cohn (1979)[32]; the state-of-the-art papers and the key
note of Maier (1982, 2000)[97, 99, 94]; the book edited by Smith (1990)[140]; and the paper by
Cocchetti (2003)[29] . At University of Lige, Nguyen-Dang et al. have obtained the progress to
establish the automatic algorithms using the finite element technique (see Nguyen-Dang (1976,
1978, 1980, 1982, 1984)[115, 121, 124, 118, 116, 117], Morelle (1984, 1986, 1989)[111, 110,
109], Bui-Cong (1998)[9], Yan (1999)[150], Vu-Duc (2004)[147] and Hoang-Van (2008)[60,
61, 62, 63]).
During 1970-1990, the researchers aimed to develop the practical software for framed
structures. Some interesting computer programs were built up, e.g. DAPS [127], STRUPLANALYSIS [49], CEPAO [117, 38]. For this work, seeking of automatic algorithms and of
techniques to reduce the computational cost are two most important problems. In general, in
order to have an automatic solution, the linear programming technique must combine with the
finite element method. The fine combination between the structural behaviour with the linear
algebra/linear programming properties leads to a significant reduction of the problem-sizes.
Various useful techniques with the archival values are presented in Domaszewski (1979, 1983,
1985)[41, 42, 43] and Nguyen-Dang (1983, 1984)[117, 123]. Not only the determination of the
ultimate load factor but also the determination of the displacement field by linear programming
has examined, e.g. Grierson (1972)[56], Nguyen-Dang (1983)[125]. Even the second-order
analysis using linear programming was also examined (see Baset (1973)[3]). However,
unfortunately, after 1990, the research in this direction is sporadic and limited; requirement of
practical engineering is not yet satisfied. This situation due to two main reasons: (1) some
inconveniences of the direct methods appear (see Section 1.2.2); and (2) the attraction of the
step-by-step methods (see Section 1.3.2).
14
1.2.2. Advantages and limitations of direct methods

Concerning the rigid-plastic analysis and design of frames using linear programming, we
may summarize in the following points.
Advantages
It appears that this type of analysis is
1. Capable of taking full advantages of mathematic programming achievements;

2. Suitable to solve the structures under repeated loading (shakedown problem);
3. Possible to unify into unique computer program because the algorithms of direct
methods for different procedures are similar, such as: limit or shakedown, analysis or design,
frames or plate/shell, etc.
4. Not influenced by the local behaviour of structures, such as the elastic return (a
phenomenon often occurs in the step-by-step methods). There exists sometime degenerate
phenomenon in simplex method but it was treated by the lexicographical rule (see [39]).
Limitations
One may evoke here some drawbacks:
1. The difficulties appear when the geometric nonlinearity conditions are considered. It is a
great challenge.
2. The difficulties to solve the large-scale frames. Because the direct methods are one
step methods.
1.3. Step-by-step methods for plastic-hinge analysis

1.3.1. Description
Step-by-step methods, or elastic-plastic incremental methods, are based on the standard
methods of elastic analysis. The loading process is divided into various steps. After each loading
step, the stiffness matrix is updated in order to take into account the nonlinear effects. In
comparison with the elastic solution, only the physical matrix varies to consider the plastic
behaviour. Zienkiewicz (1969)[151] is one pioneer who first introduced the formulation of the
elastic-plastic physical matrix into the finite element method. The majority of step-by-step
approaches are based on the displacement model, while a few authors have applied the
equilibrium approach (e.g. Fraeijs de Veubeke (1965)[48], Nguyen-Dang (1970)[119], Beckers
(1972)[7]). Normally, the stiffness matrix is classically updated. However, other authors have
proposed to implement the indirect update of structural stiffness matrix using mathematical
programming (e.g. Maier (1979)[95]). In summary, the step-by-step methods benefit the long
experiences of the linear elastic analysis by the finite element method. One may find many
useful computational algorithms and techniques in many text books (e.g. Bathe (1982, 1996)[5,
4], Gradin (1997)[51], Zienkiewicz (1989, 1991)[152, 153], Doghri (2000)[40], among others).
Concerning the plastic-hinge analysis of framed structures, the question to be answer is
the formulation of the beam-column element. It must be suitable to the global algorithm, while
the complex behaviours of the structures should be taken into account. It means that the
improvement of the third limitation (see Section 1.1.4) is the focus in the plastic-hinge analysis
of steel frames using step-by-step methods. Some remarks are summarized as follows:
Geometric nonlinearity: Concerning the geometric nonlinearity, there are two theories:
the finite-strains (large deformation) and the large-displacements small-strains. The first theory
is suitable to model some process of the mechanics, e.g. metal forming (see Cescotto (1978,
15
1994)[15, 16], Ponthot (1994, 2002)[128, 129]). In general speaking, the maximal deformations
occurring at the ultimate state of the building steel frames are in the scope of the largedisplacements small-strains theory. With the 3-D frames, the treatment of the finite rotation
about an axis is an important subject (see Argyris (1978)[2]). This problem attracts the attention
of many authors (e.g. Cardona (1988)[13], Teh (1998)[141], Izzuddin (2001)[65], Battini
(2002)[6] and Ridrigues (2005)[132]). However, for the practical purpose, the conventional
second-order analysis is widely utilized to capture the geometric nonlinearity of the steel frames.
This approach takes into account the P-delta effect (P- and P-), and the finite rotations are
simply ignored. In order to avoid the member is divided into various elements, the stability
functions are widely utilized in the element formulation. The elementary explanations of the
method for steel structures may be found in a lot of books, e.g. Chen (1996)[19].
Effect of distributed plasticity: Actually, there is always a plastic zone around the plastic
hinge. Their dimensions depend on the slope of the moment diagrams. Moreover, due to initial
imperfection (member out of straightness and residual stress), some plastic pieces also appear
along the bars. Those phenomena are named distributed plasticity. They are neglected in the
classic plastic-hinge model. In order to take into account the plastic zone effect at plastic hinges,
most of authors used the element with spring ends (e.g. Liew (1993)[90], Chan (1997)[18],
Hasan (2002)[58], Sekulovi (2004)[138], Gong (2006)[53], Gizejowski (2006)[52], Liu
(2008)[91], among others). Based on the AISC-LRFD Specification [1], Liew (1993)[90] has
proposed the column effective stiffness concept to approximate the effect of distributed plasticity
along the bars. This technique were recently applied and modified by the utilization of European
buckling curves (Landesmann (2005)[85]). When the distributed yielding is considered by the
mentioned techniques, the analysis is called the refined plastic-hinge analysis (see Liew
(1993)[90] and Donald (1993)[44] and Chen (2005)[22]).
Strain hardening behaviour: It seems that the hardening effect is not adequately
highlighted in the refined plastic hinge analysis. On the other context, the role of the hardening
in steel structures is underlined by recent theoretic development and experimental tests
presented by Davies (2002, 2006)[36, 37] and Byfield (2005)[10]. Those authors did study in
detail the parameters useful to establish an expression which takes into account the increased
bending moment due to a plastic-hinge rotation. By this technique, the strain hardening may be
directly considered in the global plastic-hinge analysis of frames. However, their results are only
applicable to the elastic-plastic analysis of 2-D steel frames where the bending behaviour is
dominant.
Numerical algorithm: In the recent years, many authors concentred their efforts to
establish the useful algorithms for the numerical tools to 3-D steel frames. For example: Orbison
(1982)[126], Liew (2000, 2001)[88, 89], Kim (2001, 2006)[77, 78], etc. The lateral torsional and
local buckling effects were also taken into account in few researches (Kim (2002, 2003)[79,
80]). Generally, these formulations are based on the conventional second-order approach with
the concept of refined plastic hinge analysis. On the other hand, it is necessary to mention here
several interesting algorithms so-called the quasi-plastic zone methods (e.g. Jiang (2002)[71],
Chiorean (2005)[28] and Cuong (2006)[35]). They compromise plastic-zone and plastic-hinge
methods.
When the global algorithm including the geometric and material nonlinearity is used, the
approach is called the direct design. It means that the effective length factor concept is not
requited (see Chen (2000)[26]).
Compared to the direct methods, the step-by-step methods have the following features:
16
Advantages
1. The geometric nonlinearity is appropriately taken into account in step-by-step methods.

2. The step-by-step methods furnished the complete redistribution progress prior to collapse
of structures.
3. With the progress in both computing hardware and numerical technology, the modelling
of structures, even the large-scale 3-D frames, could be dealt with.
Limitations
1. For the case of arbitrary loading histories (shakedown problem), the step-by-step
methods are cumbersome and embed many difficulties. It is a great challenge.
2. With the elastic-plastic plastic-hinge analysis of frames, this method is influenced by the
local behaviour of structures, such as the elastic return, it can lead to an erroneous solution.
1.4. Computer program aspect

1.4.1. Generality
Computer program is an algorithm written by a computational language (FORTRAN, C,
C , MATLAB, etc.), and the calculation procedures are then automatically realized by
computer. There is a great distance from the theory to the computer program but it is the optimal
way leading to the target.
++
Based on the application aspect, one may classed the computer program into three
categories: computer program to illustrate the algorithms, computer programs to study and
commercial software.
With the mentioned definition, one may see that any research group owns at least one
computer program. However, according to the author knowledge, almost computer programs
for plastic-hinge analysis of complicated frames are based on the step-by-step methods. In fact,
the large-scale 3-D steel frames under the arbitrary loading histories are not yet carried out.
1.4.2. CEPAO computer program
At the end of the 70s, this computer program was established by Nguyen-Dang et al. in
University of Lige. The detailed explanation of this package may be found in Nguyen-Dang
(1984)[117]. In the present thesis, only a brief presentation is condensed hereinafter:
Unified package of approaches: CEPAO was a unified package devoted to
automatically solve the following problems happened for 2-D frames: Elastic analysis, elasticplastic analysis, limit analysis with proportional loadings, shakedown analysis with variable
repeated loadings, optimal plastic design with fixed loading, optimal plastic design with choice
of discrete profiles and stability checks, shakedown plastic design with variable repeated
loadings, shakedown plastic design with updating of elastic response in terms of the plastic
capacity, optimal plastic design for concrete structures. In CEPAO, both direct and step-by-step
methods are used, they give a better view on the behaviour of the structure and also they may
mutually make up for their deficiencies. With the multi-results given by multi-approaches,
CEPAO is an auto-control computer program.
Package of original techniques: In CEPAO, efficient choice between statical and
kinematic formulations is realised leading to a minimum number of variables; also there is a
considerable reduction of the dimension of every procedure is performed. The basic matrix of
linear programming algorithm is implemented under the form of a reduced sequential vector
which is modified during each iteration. An automatic procedure is proposed to build up the
17
common characteristic matrices of elastic-plastic or rigid-plastic calculation, particularly the

matrix of the independent equilibrium equations. Application of duality aspects in the linear
programming technique allows direct calculation of dual variables and avoids expensive reanalysis of every problem.
However, in the old version of CEPAO, the necessary techniques to treat some particular
cases are not enough. For example, the treatment of the elastic-return phenomenon and the
treatment of the degenerate in the simplex method are not efficient. Recently, CEPAO has been
re-checked and updated to the case of semi-rigid frames (see Nguyen-Dang (2006)[120]).
Moreover, at the present time, on the point of view of software development, the 2-D
bending frame modelling is not yet acclaimed. The actual computing technology permits us to
think about the better modern modelling. On the one hand, the advanced analysis gives the
results that reflect well the actual behaviour of structures. On the other hand, the engineers are
emancipated by the conformable software that uses the modern analysis while the application
is simple.
1.5. Conclusions
An overview of the global plastic-hinge analysis of steel frames has been presented. The
current difficulties of the domain have been highlighted. Among those, there are the great
challenges that are not easy to overcome. It appears that using the ideas of CEPAO to develop
the practical software for 3-D frames is a research direction of great promise.
18
Chapter
Inelastic behaviour of frames and

fundamental theorems
The inelastic behaviour and the fundamental theorems for structures analysis in
generally, and for frames analysis in particularly, were well dealt with in many text books (e.g.
Neal (1951) [114], Hodge (1959)[64], Save (1972)[135], Massonnet (1976)[106], Nguyen-Dang
(1984)[122], Knig (1987)[84], Chen (1988)[21], Lubliner (1990)[92], Mrz (1995)[112],
Weichert (2000)[148] and Jirsek (2001)[72]). This chapter will first introduce a brief
presentation of the plastic behaviour of frames; it is clear and sufficient to state the definitions
and the hypotheses that are applied in this work. In the second part, the classic theorems are
briefly announced without proof explanations, but the useful comments for the case of framed
structures are underlined.
Keywords: Simple loading; Complex loading; Plastic behaviour; Lower bound theorem;
Upper bound theorem.
2.1. Loading types

In the plasticity theory, the load is classified into two types: simple loads and complex
loads. The simple loads indicate the proportional or fixed loads, while the complex loads denote
non-proportional or repeated loads. The complex loads are described by a domain (Fig.2.1a), in
which each load varies independently:
f kmin f k f kmax .
(2.1)
The simple load is a particular case of the complex load where f kmin = f kmax , the domain
becomes a line (proportional load) or a point (fixed load) as the show on Fig.2.1b,
f k = f k
(2.2)
Fig.2.1. Loading type (a-complex loading; b-simple loading)
In Eqs.(2.1) and (2.2), is called the load multiplier, to be found in the plastic analysis
problems.
19
In practices of construction, a structure may be subjected to various kinds of load, by

example: dead load, live load, wind load, effects of earthquake, etc. The dead load consists of
the weight of the structure itself and its cladding. The dead load remains constant, but the other
loading types continually vary. Those variations are independent and repeated with the arbitrary
histories. It is clear that the structure is always subjected to the complex loads. However, up to
now, the researches on the structures under complex load do not yet completely answer to the
practical requirements, the studies on the structures subjected to simple loads are then still
necessary.
2.2. Material behaviour

Under simple loading: Fig.2.2 displays three types of stress strain diagram that are
generally applied in the inelastic analysis of steel structures. They are: the rigid-plastic material
(Fig.2.2a), the elastic-perfectly plastic material (Fig.2.2b) and the elastic-plastic-hardened
material (Fig.2.2c). The principal characters of the material are: Youngmodulus (E); Yield
stress (p); Strain hardening modulus (ESH). e.g. for the mild steel, E is about 2.0x108 kN/m2; p
is about from 2.3x105 to 3.5x105 kN/m2; ESH is about 2% of Youngmodulus.
Fig.2.2. Ideal behaviours of mild steel
Under repeated loading (loading, unloading and reloading): Bauschinger effect always
occurs in the material; the limit elastic is unsymmetrical in two opposite directions. There are
three possibilities of material behaviours as follows:
(1) Material returns to in the elastic range after have some plastic deformations
(Fig.2.3a), the material is said to have shakedown;
(2) Plastics deformation constitutes a closed cycle (Fig.2.3b), the material is said to have
failed by alternating plasticity;
(3) Plastic deformation infinitely progress (Fig.2.3c), the material is said to have failed
by incremental plasticity.
Fig.2.3. Material behaviours under repeated loading
2.3. Structural behaviour

The influence of geometric nonlinearity will be discussed in Chapter 6, the present
section mainly describes the plastic behaviour of framed structures.
20
On the mechanical point of view, the behaviour of a structure is deduced from which of
its components. With the plastic-hinge concept, the components of the frame are the critical
sections while the components of the critical section are the fibres (material).
2.3.1. Under simple loading
The behaviours of fibres, of sections and of frames are respectively illustrated on Fig.2.4.
One may see that the elastic-plastic behaviour may be ignored in components (points, fibres or
sections) but it always appears in the behaviour of structures (sections or frames).
On the frame level, there are two load-displacement relationships showing on Figs.2.4g
and 2.4h. They represent respectively two types of analysis: rigid-plastic assumed in direct
method and elastic-plastic assumed in step-by-step method. In principle, the rigid-plastic
analysis and elastic-plastic analysis provide the same load multiplier. All numerical examples in
the thesis will confirm this statement.
Fig.2.4. From the component behaviours to structure behaviours under simple loading
2.3.2. Under repeated loading

Fig.2.5 shows a sequence from the fibre behaviours to the frame behaviours under
repeated loading. The elasto-plastic property and the Bauschingers effect appear in the structure
even they are ignored in the adjacent components. In the present thesis, the behaviour of
21
sections shown on Fig.2.5d is adopted; it means that the Bauschingers effect and the elastoplastic property are ignored in the behaviour of sections.
The states of the structures are deduced from the states of its components as the
following:
The structure (section/frame) shakes down if the all its components (fibres/sections)
shake down.
The structure (section/frame) has the incremental plasticity if at least a component
(fibre/section) has the incremental plasticity.
The structure (section or frame) has the alternating plasticity if all its components (fibres
of sections) working in the plastic range have the incremental plasticity.
Fig.2.5. From component behaviours to frame behaviour, under repeated loading
2.4. Fundamental theorems

All computational algorithms must be based on fundamental theorems. In the following,
the useful theorems for plastic analysis of structures are briefly presented.
2.4.1. Equation of virtual power
Static admissible field and kinematic admissible field
A field of displacements is called a kinematic admissible field if it has continuous

distribution of displacements and respects the boundary conditions.
22
A field of internal forces is called a static admissible field if it satisfies the equilibrium
condition, inside and on the boundary.
Equation of virtual power
For all static admissible field (s) and all cinematic admissible field of (d), the external
power carried out by external load ( f ) equals to the internal power absorbed by the internal
deformation (e):
f T d = s T e ,
(2.3)
Static and kinematic relations
The kinematic admissible field may be expressed by the kinematic relationship between
the generalized strains e and the displacements d. Under matrix formulation, one may write:
(2.4)
e = Bd ,
where B is called compatible matrix or connection matrix.

Substituting Eq.(2.4) in Eq.(2.3), one obtains the equilibrium relationship:
s = B T f
(2.5)
The establishment of the matrix B for 3-D frames will be presented in Chapter 3 of the
thesis.
2.4.2. Theorems of limit and shakedown analysis
Before dealing with the rigid-plastic theory, let us recall the following definitions: the
kinematic licit field and the static licit field.
The kinematic licit field is the kinematic admissible field for which the external power is
non-negative.
The static licit field is the static admissible field satisfying the plastic admissible
condition (nowhere violates the plastic yield conditions).
2.4.2.1. Lower bound theorem of limit analysis
Giving the structure some licit filed of internal forces, the equilibrium equation of the
structure is written as:
lf = B T s ,
(2.6)
The upper bound theorem is expressed as: The safely factor is the largest static
multiplier:
l l .
(2.7)
2.4.2.2. Upper bound theorem of limit analysis

If the structure is submitted to licit field of displacement rates ( d ), from Eq.(2.3) one
obtains a kinematic load multiplier:
23
l+ =
s T e
,
f T d
(2.8)
The upper bound theorem is expressed as: The safely factor is the smallest kinematic
multiplier:
l l+ .
(2.9)
2.4.2.3. Static theorem of shakedown analysis

Melans theorem:
Shakedown occurs, if there is a permanent field of residual internal forces ( ), statically
admissible, such that:
(s e + ) < 0 ,
(2.10)
at all sections.
Shakedown will not occur, if no exists, such that:
(s e + ) 0 ,
(2.11)
at one or several sections.

In Eqs.(2.10) and (2.11), is the yield surface of cross-section; s e is the envelop of the
elastic responses of the considered loading domain (computed as if the structure were purely
elastic), it involves two extreme values: positive ( s emax ) and negative ( s emin ).
Lower bound theorem
Consider a load multiplier s that leads to the elastic response s e . If one may find a field
of residual forces (self-equilibrium) such that Eq.(2.10) is satisfied, s is called statically
admissible multiplier. Based on Melans theorem, lower bound theorem of shakedown induces:
The safety factor is the largest statically admissible multiplier:
s s .
(2.12)
2.4.2.4. Kinematic theorem of shakedown analysis

Koiters theorem
Let us consider a cycle load described by a periodic function f(t) which period , Koiters
theorem can be stated as following:
e (t ) ,
Shakedown may happen if there is an kinematic admissible plastic deformation cycle

such that:
T
T
f (t )d (t )dt s e (t ) dt .
(2.13)
Shakedown cannot happen as long as the following inequality is valid:
T
T
f (t )d (t )dt > s e (t ) dt .
24
(2.14)
Note that the compatible condition is only required after the complete cycle (i.e. the
intermediate increment of e do not have to be compatible):
e = Bd ,
(2.15)
with:
d = d (t )dt ,
(2.16)
e = e (t )dt .
(2.17)
Remark: The frame has incremental plasticity if Eq.(2.14) occurs and d 0 . The frame
has alternating plasticity if Eq.(2.14) occurs and d = 0 .
Upper bound theorem
During the deformation process, there are the time intervals when the generalized strains
rate ( e ) are positive and there are the time intervals when they are negative. Let us decompose
e into the positive part, e + = ( e + e ) / 2 parts, and the negative part, e = ( e e ) / 2 , so that e = e + e .
Then, we obtain the following quantities:
e + = e + (t )dt ,
(2.18)
e = e (t )dt ,
(2.19)
e = e + e .
(2.20)
One can prove the following relations:
T
T
+
s e (t ) dt = s (e + e ) ,
(2.21)
max T
+
min T
T
f (t )d (t )dt (s e ) e + (s e ) e .
(2.22)
Consider now some kinemaric licit field d , the following load multiplier
s+
s T (e + + e )
(s emax ) T e + + (s emin ) T e
(2.23)
is called a kinematic admissible load multiplier.

According to Koiters theorem, the upper bound theorem may be stated as: The safety
factor is the smallest kinematic admissible multiplier:
s s+ .
(2.24)
The application of mentioned theorems using the linear programming will be described
in Chapters 4 and 5.
25
3
Element formulation
Chapter
In the mechanic study, there are three fundamental relations: the compatible, the
equilibrium and the constitutive. Those equations describe the relationships between the
following variables: the displacements, the strains and the stresses. In the finite element method,
the fundamental equations are first established for each element, they are then assembled to the
whole structure.
With the plastic-hinge concept, the frames are discretized into elements such as the bars
including the plastic hinges. In the present work, one element of 3-D steel frames is described
by thirteen-degree-of-freedom (DOF) with plastic hinges modelled by normality rule. The
formulation of this element is detailed in this chapter. The applications of those formulations for
the global analysis will be presented in the next Chapters. Taking into account the semi-rigid
behaviours of beam-to-column connexions will be dealt with in Chapter 8.
Keywords: Plastic hinge; Yield surface; Compatible relation; Equilibrium relations;
Constitutive relations.
3.1. Modelling of plastic hinges

The general presentation of the constitutive laws may be found in many texts (e.g.
Nguyen-Dang (1984)[122], Chen (1988)[21], Lubliner (1990)[92], Jirsek (2001)[72], among
others). Particularly, the useful discussions on the piecewise linearization constitutive laws were
condensed in Maier (1976)[100] where one may also find many others references. Present
section deals with the practical constitutive laws at 3-D plastic hinges of steel bars with I or Hshaped, the material properties are assumed to be elastic-perfectly plastic. A physical relation
taking into account the strains hardening will be proposed in Chapter 6.
3.1.1. Yield surfaces
The I or H-shaped sections (Fig.3.1a) are often used in steel frames, for which the yield
surfaces of Orbison [126] and of AISC [1] are adopted in present work. Orbisons yield surface
is a single-smooth-convex-nonlinear function while the AISC yield surface is a sixteen-facet
polyhedron. The equations are presented bellows:
Orbisons yield surface [126](Fig.3.1b):

= 1.15n 2 + m z2 + m 4y + 3.67 p 2 m z2 + 3 p 6 m 2y + 4.65m 2y m z4 1 = 0 ,
(3.1)
Yield surface of AISC [1] (Fig.3.1c):

n + (8 / 9) m y + (8 / 9) mz = 1 for n 0.2 ;
(3.2a)
(1 / 2) n + m y + mz = 1 for n < 0.2 ;
(3.2b)
26
in the Eqs.(3.1) and (3.2); n=N/Np is ratio of the axial force over the squash load, my=My/Mpy
and mz=Mz/Mpz are respectively the ratios of the minor-axis and major-axis moments to the
corresponding plastic moments.
Fig.3.1. Yield surfaces
Eqs. (3.2a) and (3.2b) may also be written under the form:
a1 N + a 2 M y + a 3 M z = S 0 for N 0.2 N p ;
(3.3a)
a4 N + a5 M y + a6 M z = S 0 for N < 0.2 N p ;
(3.3b)
with S0 is a referential value, and a1 ,..., a6 are the non-zero coefficients.

The plastic admissibility zone enveloped by the sixteen-facet polyhedron [Eqs.(3.3a) and
(3.3b)] may be expressed as:
Ys s 0 ,
(3.4)
where matrix Y contains the coefficients a1 ,...a 6 ; s collects the vector of internal forces
(algebraic values); the column matrix s 0 contains the corresponding terms S0. System (3.4)
includes sixteen-inequations that will be written in detail in Chapter 4 (Section 4).
The advantages and difficulties of both nonlinear and piecewise linearization yield
surface for general engineering structures were highlighted in Maier (1976)[100]. However, one
can probably say that Orbisons yield surface is very suitable to the elastic-plastic analysis by
step-by-step method for 3-D steel frames, it has been widely applied (see Orbison (1982)[126],
Liew (2000)[88], Kim (2001, 2002, 2003, 2006)[77, 81, 79, 80, 78], Choi (2002)[27], Chiorean
(2005)[28], among others). On the other hand, the polyhedrons (e.g. the sixteen-facet
polyhedron) obviously are the unique way allowing the use of the linear programming technique
in the plastic analysis.
3.1.2. Normality rule
When the effects of two bending moments and axial force are taken into account on the
yield surface, the associated generalized strains are: the two rotations and the axial displacement
of section (Fig.3.2a). The normality rule was originally proposed by Von Mises in 1928, it may
be applied for this case as follows:
27
p
/ N
p
y = / M y ,
p
z
/ M z
(3.5)
ep = NC .
(3.6)
or, symbolically:
where is the plastic deformation magnitude; N C is a gradient vector at a point of the yield
surface ; e p collects the plastic generalized strains. Fig.3.2b describes the normality rule.
Fig.3.2. Plastic hinge modelling (a-generalized strains at plastic hinges; b-normality rule)
Clearly, each facet of the linearized yield surface is described by one raw of Eq.(3.4);
three terms of the same raw of matrix Y constitutes the outward of this facet (Fig.3.3). In the
rigid-plastic analysis where the linearized yield surface is adopted, the active facet is not known
a priori. Therefore, we may express the generalized strains rate by a linear combination of
outward normal of all facets:
e = Y T = N C
(3.7)
where is the vector whose components are equals to the number of facets of the polyhedron.
Note that N C in Eqs.(3.6) and (3.7) have the same mathematical signification but have the
different forms. N C in Eq.(3.6) is the gradient vector at a point of the yield surface while N C in
Eq.(3.7) is a matrix of which each column is a gradient vector of each facet of the linearized
yield surface.
Fig.3.3. Normal vector of a facet
28
3.1.3. Plastic incremental forces-generalized strains relation

When the plastic loading occurring, the point force is on the yield surface (or
subsequence yield surface) = 0 . In taking the derivative of this relationship, we obtain:
d =
dN +
dM y +
dM z = 0 .
N
M y
M z
(3.8)
By use of Eqs.(3.5), the equation (3.8) becomes:

-1s T e p = 0 .
(3.9)
Since in Eq.(3.9) is arbitrary, one obtains:

s T e p = 0 .
(3.10)
Eq.(3.10) shows the normal relation between the vector of plastic generalized strains
increments ( e p ) and the vector of internal force increments ( s ) (Fig.3.4). This relationship is
applied in the elastic-plastic analysis by step-by-step method (Chapter 6).
Fig.3.4. Plastic forces-generalized strains relation
3.1.4. Plastic dissipation

In the rigid-plastic analysis, the plastic dissipation conception is defined as follows:
D = s T e .
(3.11)
The plastic dissipation given by Eq.(3.11) is not convenient to apply the kinematic
formulation using linear programming, because the vector of internal forces is not a priori
known. It was modified. As the plastic deformation occurs only if the yield condition is satisfied
at the corresponding facet, one obtains:
T (Ys s 0 ) = 0 .
(3.12)
From Eqs.(3.7), (3.11) and (3.12), the plastic dissipation may be rewritten in the term of
plastic deformation magnitude:
D = s T0
(3.13)
Eq.(3.13) shows that the plastic dissipation is uniquely depending on because s 0 is a

given constant vector for each critical section.
29
3.2. Thirteen-DOF element formulation

Generally, twelve-DOF element may be used in the global elastic-plastic analysis of 3-D
framework. However, when the axial plastic deformation is taken into account in rigid-plastic
analysis, twelve-DOF are not enough to describe the deformation of a beam-column element.
Since CEPAO program is a computer code for elastic-plastic and rigid-plastic analysis, thirteenDOF element must be adopted such that the fundamental compatibility and equilibrium
relationships may be applied in every algorithm. Therefore, we present hereafter the thirteenDOF element formulation.
As both adopted yield surfaces neglect the torsional moment (Eqs.(3.1) and (3.2)), two
possibilities remain in the descriptions of the element:
1. Take into account the torsional stiffness of the elements but we neglect the torsional
moment in the plastic conditions.
2. Neglect the torsional stiffness of the element then the torsional moment disappears in
the frame.
Both above solutions are approximations. However, in our opinion, the second choice
has three advantages in comparison with the first one:
1. It leads to the reductions of the problem size;
2. It leans towards secure, because the bending moment are augmented due to the
torsional stiffness of the element are ignored;
3. It is suitable to the rigid-plastic analysis.
3.2.1. Compatible and equilibrium relations
Let d Tk = [d1 d 2 d3 d 4 d5 d 6 d 7 d8 d 9 d10 d11 d12 d ek ] be the vector of member independent
displacements in the global coordinate system OXYZ, as shown in Fig.3.5. Assembling for the
whole frameworks we obtain the vector d.
Fig.3.5. Thirteen-DOF element
Let = [ N A M yA M zA N B M yB M zB ] be the vector of the axial force and bending moments of

member end nodes (Fig.3.6a). Assembling in the whole frameworks, it is denoted by s.
s Tk
Let e Tk = [ A yA zA B yB zB ] be the vector of the associated generalized trains at the

member end nodes (Fig.3.6b). Assembling for the whole frameworks, it is denoted by e.
30
Fig.3.6. Member k (a- internal forces; b-generalized strains)
The compatibility equation is defined as the relationship between the vector of

generalized strains and the vector of displacements:
(3.14)
ek = B k d k ,
where B k is called the kinematic matrix defined below:

(3.15)
B k = A k Tk .
where
0
1
0
0
A k = 0 1 / l
0
0
0
0
0 1 / l
0
1/ l
0
0
1/ l
0
0 0
1 0
0 1
0 0
0 0
0 0
C k
Tk =
Ck
0
0
0
0
0 1/ l
1
0
0
0
0 1/ l
Ck
Ck
0
1/ l
0
0
1/ l
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0 1
0 0
0 0 ,
0 1
0 0
1 0
(3.16)
(3.17)
In Eqs.(3.16) and (3.17), l is the length of element k; C k is the matrix of direction cosines of
element k:
c11 c12
C k = c21 c22
c
31 c32
c13
c23
c33
c
c
Ck = 21 22
c
31 c32
c23
.
c33
For the whole frame, the compatible relation is written [Eq.(2.4)]:

e = Bd
(3.18)
B = Bk Lk
(3.19)
with
k
where Lk is a localization Boolean matrix of element k.

As the discussion in Chapter 2 [Eq.(2.5)], the equilibrium is determined as the follows:
s = B T f
B T is
called the equilibrium matrix.
31
(3.20)
Remark: In the sense of limit analysis, one may think that: d1, d2, d3, d7, d8, d9 are the
displacements corresponding to the deflection mechanisms (beam and sideways mechanisms)
(Fig.3.7a). d4, d5, d6, d10, d11, d12 are the displacements showing the joints mechanisms
(Fig.3.7b). dek is the displacement in the longitudinal direction of middle-point of the span, it
describes the bar mechanisms (the bar translates along its axis) (Fig.3.7c). Since the torsional
stiffness of the elements is neglected, we must eliminate the degree of freedoms that only
provoke pure torsion in the bars (Fig.3.7d). Those degrees of freedom correspond to the columns
of matrix B in which the all terms are zeros.
Fig.3.7. Three types of mechanics and the degree of freedom eliminated
3.2.2. Constitutive relation

For the element k, Hooks law is written as follows:
(3.21)
s k = D k (e k e pk ) ,
(e pk ) T = [e pk,A e pk,B ] is the plastic part of the generalized strains at the element ends; they are
determined by Eq.(3.6);
Dk is called the linear elastic matrix of the element k:
0
2 EA
4 EI y
0
1 0
0
Dk =
0
l 0
2 EI y
0
0
0
0
0
4 EI z
0
0
2 EI z
0
0
2 EI y
0
0
0
2 EA
0
0
4 EI y
0
0
0
0
2 EI z
,
0
0
4 EI z
(3.22)
where E is the Youngmodulus; A, Iy, Iz are, respectively, the area, the moment of inertias of the
cross-section about y and z axes, respectively;
For the whole structure, we have:
s = D(e e p ) ,
where
32
(3.23)
D = Dk
k
(3.24)
The elastic-plastic matrix taking into account P- effect will be present in Chapter 6.
33
Chapter
Limit and shakedown analysis of 3-D

steel frames by linear programming
A systematic treatment of the application of linear programming in plastic analysis can
be found in a lot of texts (e.g. Cohn (1979)[32] and Smith (1990)[140]). In this chapter, we
restrict ourselves to describing some practical aspects of the CEPAO package applied to the case
of 3-D steel frames. They are: the further reduction of the kinematic approach (Sections 4.2.2
and 4.3.2), and the direct calculation of the internal force (or residual internal force) distribution
(Sections 4.2.3 and 4.3.3). Those techniques were originally proposed by Nguyen-Dang [117]
for the 2-D bending frames. In this work, they are extended to 3-D frames. Beside, the
determination the specific displacement is originally presented in Section 4.4. Several numerical
will demonstrate the efficiency of the proposed algorithm.
Keywords: Limit analysis; Shakedown analysis; Plastic-hinge; Space frames; Linear
programming.
4.1. General formulation

In CEPAO, the canonical formulation of the linear programming problem is considered
as below:
Min = c T x Wx = b .
(4.1)
where is the objective function; x, c, b are respectively the vector of variables, of costs and of
second member. W is called the matrix of constraints. The objective function may have a state
variable, and the matrix formulation is arranged such that a way the basic matrix of the initial
solution is appeared clearly under the form:
c1T
W
1
x
1 c T2 1 = 0 .
0 W2 x b
2
(4.2)
The basic matrix of initial solution is:

1 c T2
X0 =
.
0 W2
(4.3)
Eq. (4.1) can be then written under a general form:

W * x* = b* .
34
(4.4)
The matrices W*, x*, b* and X0 for both limit and shakedown analysis problems will be
concretely formulated in the next sections. The relationship (4.4) will be established in Chapter
5 for the plastic design problems.
4.2. Limit analysis by kinematic formulation

The first part of this section reminds the principal ideas of the standard kinematic
formulation using simplex method. Some practical techniques used in CEPAO are presented in
the second part. Finally, the advantages of the proposed techniques are highlighted.
Based on the upper bound theorem of limit analysis (see Section 2.4.2.2 in Chapter 2)
one may state that: among the licit mechanisms that provide the same external power, the actual
mechanism absorbs the minimal dissipation. Therefore, the kinematical formulation of limit
analysis can be stated as a linear programming problem [see Eqs. (2.8), (3.7), (3.13) and (3.18)]:
Min =
s T0
N C Bd = 0
f T d =
.
0
(4.5)
By consequence, the safety factor is obtained by:

+ = / .
In Eq.(4.5), is the vector of the plastic deformation magnitude rate; B is the kinematic
matrix defined in Chapter 3; d , f are, respectively, the vector of independent displacement rates
and the vector of external load; is a positive constant.
The unknowns in Eq.(4.5) are the plastic deformation magnitude rate, (positive), and
the independent displacement rate, d (negative or positive). Simplex method requires that all
variables must be non-negative. By consequence, the following change of variables is generally
adopted:
d = d + d with d + 0, d 0 .
(4.6)
The simplex procedure is a series of the automatic choice of the admissible basis (basic
matrix). However, the initial basis should be pre-selected. The initial admissible solution is
such that the initial value of any variable (except the objective function) must be non-negative.
To satisfy this requirement, one uses frequently the unity matrix (E) for the initial admissible
solution; it is added to the matrix of constraints (see Fig.4.4a in Section 4.2.2.3).
4.2.2.1. Change of variables
Instead of the change of variables shown in Eq.(4.6), the following change of variables is
adopted in CEPAO:
d = d + d 0 so that d 0 .
(4.7)
Section 4.4 will present a way to fix the value of specific displacement (d0), which
depends on the actual structure, such that d are always non-negative. Now, problem of Eq.(4.5)
becomes:
35
Min =
s T0
N C Bd = Bd 0
f T d = + f T d 0 .
, d 0
(4.8)
By consequence, vector of variables, vector of right-hand and matrix of constraints

corresponding to the problem of Eq. (4.4) for limit analysis are given below:
x*T = [
xT
] = [
d T
T
1
W = 0
0
*
] ; b*T = [0 b T ] = [0 Bd 0 + f T d 0 ] ;
0T
B
fT
s T0
NC
0T
0
0 ;
where is an artificial variable which must be taken out of the basic vector in the simplex
process.
4.2.2.2. Automatic choice of initial admissible solution
To avoid the addition of the unity matrix to the matrix of constraints, it appears that the
following arrangement is appreciated for automatic calculation.
The linearized condition of plastic admissibility for the ith section (Eq. (3.4) in Chapter 3)
may be expanded as follows:
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
a1i
i
a1
a1i
i
a1i
a1
ai
i1
a1
ai
i1
a4
ai
4i
a4
a 4i
i
a 4
a 4i
i
a4
a 4i
a2i
a2i
a2i
a2i
a2i
a2i
a2i
a2i
a5i
a5i
a5i
a5i
a5i
a5i
a5i
a5i
S 0i
a3i
i
i
a3
S 0
S 0i
a3i
i
i
a3
S 0i
i
S 0
a3
S i
a3i
0
i
a3 N i S 0i
a3i i S 0i
M y i
a6i
S0
i
a6i M z S 0i
i
a6i
S 0
i
S 0i
a6
S i
i
a6
0i
i
a6
S 0
S i
a6i
0i
i
a6
S 0
(4.9)
Fig.4.1 describes the projection of the sixteen-planar facets of the yield surface
corresponding to the sixteen-inequalities numbered on Eq. (4.9).
Fig. 4.1.Projection of the yield surface on the plan MyOMz
36
Eq. (4.9) can be written under symbolic formulation [See Eqs.(3.4) and 3.7)]:
(4.10)
i
i
N iT
C s s0 .
Fig.4.2 shows the structure of the global matrix N C in Eq.(4.5) assembled from the
matrix N iC of ith plastic hinge in Eq.(4.10).
Fig.4.2.The form of matrix N C (ns is the number of critical sections)
Put:
a1i
~i i
N C = a2
ai
3
a1i
a2i .
a3i
a1i
a2i
a3i
Let us note that N iC is always non-singular because a1i , a2i , a3i are positive.
Then, matrix N iC in Eq. (4.10) may be decomposed into three sub-matrices:
~
N iC = [N iC
~
N iC
(4.11)
N Ci ] ,
with N Ci is the rest of N iC after deducting N iC and N iC .

The decomposition of matrix N iC leads then to the following form:
~ iT
s iT
0 = [ s0
~s iT
0
s0iT ] = [ S 0i " S 0i ] ;
~
iT = [ iT
~ iT
+3
iT ] ,
where:
~ iT
= [1i i2
i3 ] ;
~ iT
+ 3 = [ i4
i6 ] ;
i5
i
i = [ i7 ... 16
].
Let E be a unity matrix of dimension 3x3; and let S i be a diagonal matrix, such that:
( )
S i = diag 1 x sign of N iC
b ,
1 i
with:
(b i ) T = [b 3(i 1) +1 b 3(i 1) + 2
b 3(i 1) + 3 ] ;
Consider now the distribution of the new plastic deformation magnitude:

~
( i ) T = [( i ) T
~
( +i3 ) T
in which:
37
( i ) T ] ,
~ i
~
~
= 0.5(E + S i ) i + 0.5(E S i ) +i 3 ;
~ i
~
~
+ 3 = 0.5(E S i ) i + 0.5(E + S i ) +i 3 .
(4.12)
(4.13)
Fig.4.3. Choice of the initial basic
Fig.4.3 explains the arrangement of the columns of constraint matrix allowing to obtain
the initial base as described by Eqs.(4.12) and (4.13). With mentioned arrangement, if the case
~
~
~ /
of initial basis of variables is [( 1' ) T ( 2 ) T ...( ns ) T ] , the initial basic matrix may be determined as
follows:
1 ~s01T
~1 1
0 N C S
0
0
X0 =
#
#
0
0
0
0T
~s02T
...
~s0n s T
0
~2 2
N CS
...
...
#
0
0T
#
...
~
... N Cn s S ns
...
0T
0
0
,
#
0
1
(4.14)
in which, ns is the number of critical sections.

Easily, we may demonstrate that the initial solution:
x 0 = X 01b
is certainly non-negative.
4.2.2.3. Advantages of proposed techniques
Fig.4.4. shows the matrix of constraints [W* in Eq.(4.4)] in the standard and reduced
formulation. With ns and nm are respectively the number of critical sections and the number of
independent mechanism. In comparison with standard approach, the number of columns of
constraint matrix reduces from (19ns+2nm+1) to (16ns+nm+2).
Fig.4.4. Matrix of constraints (a- standard formulation; b- reduced formulation)
4.2.3. Direct calculation of internal force distribution

4.2.3.1. Primal-dual technique
The generalized strain rates at critical sections are chosen as variables in kinematic
approach. The load factor and the collapse mechanism are given as output. To obtain the internal
38
force distribution while avoiding the static approach, the dual properties of linear programming
are used. The physical meaning of the dual variables may be established as follows:
The canonical dual form of the linear programming problem of Eq.(4.1) is:
Max
WTy + h = c
(b T y + 0 T h)
h0
(4.15)
in Eq. (4.15), y T = [s T ] are the internal forces and the load factor, h are the non-negative
slack variables, vector c collects the values S0
h T = [0 T
h1T
h 2T
~
...h n s T ] , with h iT = [h iT
~
h +iT3
hi ] .
The constraints in Eq.(4.15) are the plastic conditions. At the optimal solution (in the
convergence state) the plastic conditions are written for ith critical sections as follows:
N iCs i + h iop = s i0 ,
it allows to determinate the internal forces from the slack variables hop:
( ) (~s
~
s i = N iC
i
0
~i
h op
.
(4.16)
Let us note that the slack variables hop are identified exactly as the reduced cost vector
c of the primal problem of Eq.(4.5) (Fig.4.5):
*
h op = c = X -1
op (1, :) W
1
where X op
(1, :) is the first row of the inverses basic matrix at the optimal solution (final solution).
The reduced costs c necessary for the convergence test of the simplex algorithm are
variables in the output of the primal calculation. The automatic computation by Eq.(4.16) of the
internal forces distribution is independent of the type of collapse: partial, complete or overcomplete. However, it is necessary to notice that the internal force distribution given by this way
is the static licit field (equilibrium and the plastic condition are respected). It may not coincide
with the internal force distribution given by the elastic-plastic analysis where the physical
condition is included.
Fig.4.5. Primal-dual technique
39
4.2.3.2. Advantages of the primal-dual technique

For instance, the direct calculation of the internal force distribution has two advantages:
1. One may obtain the internal force from output of the kinematic approach without reanalyzing by static approach (or by elastic-plastic analysis).
2. The internal forces obtained by this technique are used in the plastic design leading to
an important reduction of the problem size (Chapter 5).
4.3. Shakedown analysis by kinematic method

Fortunately, the mentioned techniques may be similarly applied in the kinematic
formulation of shakedown analysis. Hereafter, we note only the formulas applied in the case of
shakedown analysis without the intermediate explanations (presented in the previous section).

Based on the upper bound theorem of shakedown analysis [Eq.(2.24)], the safety factor
can be determined by minimizing the kinematic admissible multiplier. Since the service load
domain is specified by linear constraints, the kinematic approach leads to a linear programming
problem:
Min =
s T0
N C Bd = 0
s TE N C = ,
0
(4.17)
where s E is the envelope of the elastic responses of the considered loading domain.
Then, the safety factor is obtained by:
s+ = / .

As in the limit analysis, by an appropriate choice of d0 such that:
d = d + d 0 0 .
Using the new plastic deformation magnitude distribution, the vector of variables, matrix
of constraints and vector of second member corresponding to the problem of Eq.(4.4) for
shakedown analysis. We obtain then the following form:
x*T = [
d ] ; b*T = [0 Bd 0 ] ;
1
W = 0
0T
B
0T
s T0
NC
s TE N C
0
0 .
With initial basic matrix:

1
~s01T
~
N1CS1
0
0
X 0 = 0
#
#
0
0
~1 1
0 s1T
E N CS
~s02T
0
~2 2
N CS
#
0
~2 2
s 2T
E N CS
...
~s0n s T
...
0
...
0
#
...
~
...
N Cn s S n s
~
... s nEs T N Cn s S n s
40
0
0 .
#
0
1
(4.18)
~
~
~
The corresponding initial variables: [ 1'T 2'T ... n s 'T ] .
Let us notice that the problems of Eqs. (4.5) and (4.17) are similar except for the choice
of the initial admissible point in the permissible domain and the shakedown analysis requires
preliminary calculation of elastic responses.
4.3.3. Direct calculation of residual internal force distribution

Again the dual form of Eq.(4.15) is re-used with:
y T = [ T
s ] ; h T = [0 T h1T h 2T ...h n s T ]
where is the residual internal force vector; s is the load factor.

~
h iT = [h iT
~
h +iT3
hi ] .
As the Eq.(4.16) in limit analysis, the relationship between the residual internal forces
and the slack variables is:
( ) (~s
~
i = N iT
C
i
0
~
~i
s N iCs E h op
.
As hop is identified to be the reduced costs of the primal problem of Eq.(4.17), the
distribution of the residual internal force is directly obtained without performing a second static
analysis.
4.4. Determination of specific displacement

d0 is some positive number satisfying Eq.(4.7). A method to fix this quantity with the
necessary proof is presented below.
Let us suppose that d is the actual displacement field (the actual mechanism), where
d max is the largest absolute value. In limit analysis, the safety factor is determined by the
equilibrium between the internal power and the external power [see Eq.(4.5)]:
+ = s 0T / f T d = / .
(4.19)
where the symbols are defined as in Eq.(4.5).

Based on the upper bound theorem of limit analysis, we have:
+ * ,
(4.20)
with * is a load factor of any licit mechanism. By giving any licit displacement field d* (for
example, only one component equals unity, and every other components are null), * may be
easily obtained.
From the Eqs.(4.19) and (4.20), one has:
/ * .
(4.21)
On the point of view of geometry (kinematic), with the actual mechanism, d , it exists at
least a plastic deformation component, e , such that:
e d max / H max ,
with H max is the maximum dimension of the structure.

Therefore, a lower bound of the internal power may be evaluated:
41
s p min d max / H max ,
(4.22)
in which, s p min is the smallest among the plastic capacity ( N P , M py , M pz ) of all the sections of
the structure.
From the Eqs.(4.21) and (4.22), the maximum displacement is constrained by an upper
bound:
d max * H max / s p min .
Then, any value of d 0 that satisfies:

d 0 * H max / s p min d max ,
will lead to d' = d + d 0 is always non negative.

With the similar argument, the d 0 value for the shakedown analysis may be obtained.

According to the authors knowledge, there is not available benchmark for limit and
shakedown analysis of large 3-D steel frames with I or H-shaped sections in the open literatures.
In this section, three examples are selected. Two firsts are the 3-D steel frames that are the
current benchmarks in the advanced nonlinear analysis of steel frames (e.g. Orbison
(1982)[126], Liew (2000, 2001)[88, 89], Kim (2001)[81], Jiang (2002)[71], Chiorean
(2005)[28] and Cuong (2006)[35]). The last example is a series of 2-D bending frames that
already studied by Casciaro (2002)[14].
The results of two 3-D steel frames will be re-evaluated in Chapter 6 by step-by-step
method. In addition, various other examples of limit and shakedown analysis will be also
presented in Chapter 8 (semi-rigid frames).
Example 4.1a Six-story space frame: Fig.4.6 shown Orbisons six-story space frame.
The yield strength of all members is 250 MPa and Youngmodulus is 206 GPa. Uniform floor
pressure of 4.81 kN/m2; wind loads are simulated by point loads of 26.72 kN in the Ydirection at every beam-column joint. In which, 1, 2 are the factors that define the loading
domain.
Example 4.1b Twenty-story space frame: Twenty-story space frame with dimensions
and properties shown in Fig.4.7. The yield strength of all members is 344.8 MPa and
Youngmodulus is 200 GPa. Uniform floor pressure of 4.81 kN/m2; the wind loads =0.962
kN/m2 are acting in the Y direction.
Concerning the loading domain (for two examples 4.1a and 4.1b), two cases are
considered for shakedown analysis: a) 011, 021 and b) 011, -121. For fixed or
proportional loading, we obviously must have: 1=2=1. The uniformly distributed loads are
lumped at the joints of frames.
The load multipliers are shown on Table 4.1 while the collapse mechanisms are reported
on Figs. 4.8 and 4.9. The load factor and the collapse mechanisms given by limit analysis will
be compared with which of step-by-step method in Chapter 6.
It appears that in the case of symmetric horizontal loading (seismic load or wind load),
the alternating plasticity occur; and corresponding load factors are very small in comparison
with the case of one-sign load (load domain a).
42
For the case where the alternating plasticity occur; one may verify the result by a simple
verification. For example, with the six-story frame with the load domain b, alternating plasticity
occur at section B (Fig.4.6), the necessary parameters are:
Elastic envelop: M y+ = M y = 186.42 (kNm); N + = N = 13.46 KN; M z+ = M z = 1.22 (KNm);
one may verify those value by the linear elastic analysis with the load factor equal 1.67.
Plastic capacity (W12x53): M py = 318.70 (kNm); N p = 2525.00 KN; M pz = 119.50 (KNm);
With this simple case (elastic envelop is symmetric), load multiplier is calculated by
(Fig.4.10): = OA / OB = 1.670 ; it is agree with the value given in Table 4.1.
Table 4.1: Examples 4.1 - ultimate strengths of the frames given by CEPAO
Load multiplier
Type of analysis
Limit state
Example 4.1a
Example 4.1b
Limit analysis
2.412
1.698
Formation of a mechanism
Shakedown analysis, domain load a
2.311
1.614
Incremental plasticity
Shakedown analysis, domain load b
1.670
0.987
Alternating plasticity (*)
(*) alternating plasticity at section B (Figs. 4.6 and 4.7).
Fig.4.6. Example 4.1a- Six story space frame (a perspective view, b- plan view)
43
Fig.4.7. Example 4.1b- Twenty story space frame (a- perspective view; b- plan view)
Fig.4.8. Example 4.1a-deformation at limit state given by CEPAO

(left to right: limit analysis; shakedown analysis, load domain a; shakedown analysis, load domain b)
Fig.4.9. ample 4.1b-deformation at limit state given by CEPAO

(left to right: limit analysis; shakedown analysis, load domain a; shakedown analysis, load domain b)
44
Fig.4.10. State of section B of six-story frame with load domain b
Example 4.2-Limit and shakedown analysis for 2-D bending frame: A series of frames
with different numbers of story and bay being already considered by Casciaro (2002)[14] are
shown on the Fig.4.11 (the units was not mentioned in [14]). A constant story height of 300 and
a constant bay length of 400 are assumed for the sake simplicity. Three loading cases are
considered: two distributed vertical loads p1 and p2 and a seismic action defined as transversal
force linearly increasing by P3 from the ground to the top floor (see Fig.4.11). Some mechanical
properties are reported in Table 4.2, and the load domain is defined by:
9p110; 0p25; -500P3500.
Table 4.3 presents the comparison of load multipliers for both limit and shakedown
analysis of the series frames.
The load multipliers obtained by Casciaro and by CEPAO in agreement for the limit
analysis for all frames and for the shakedown analysis for 34 frame. While the differences are
respectively: -10,5%, -6,4% and -6,5% for 46 frame, 59 frame and 610 frame in the
shakedown analysis.
Table 4.4 presents the load multipliers in the case of shakedown analysis for 46, 59,
610 frame, with the following assumption: the alternating plastic occurs in the sections A, B, C
using the envelope of bending moment calculated by software SAP2000. Clearly, the load
multipliers in the Table 4.4 are the upper bounds. The actual load multipliers cannot exceed
these values. The differences between the results obtains by CEPAO and the above-mentioned
values is about from 3,5% to 6,4% while those of Casciaro [14] are from 9,4% to 15,3%. It is
useful to note that the differences of the value of the envelope of the bending moment between
SAP2000 and CEPAO is due to the lumping of the uniformly distributed load at the central
point and the two ends of each element in CEPAO.
45
Fig.4.11. Example 4.2 - geometry and loads for the series frames
(a- 3x4 frame; b- 4x6 frame; c- 5x9 frame; d- 6x10 frame)
Table 4.2: Example 4.2 Mechanical properties for the series of frames
Young modulus (E)
Moment of inertia (I)
Plastic capacity (MP)
Column
300000
540000
1800000
Beam
300000
67500
450000
46
Table 4.3: Example 4.2 Comparison of load multipliers

Type of frame
Limit analysis
Shakedown analysis
Ref. [14]
CEPAO
Difference
Ref. [14]
CEPAO
Difference
34 frame
2.4612
2.4612
0.0%
2.0134
2.0102 (*)
0.0%
46 frame
1.8610
1.8610
0.0%
1.3993
1.2655 (**)
-10.5%
59 frame
1.2000
1.2000
0.0%
0.7533
0.7076 (**)
-6.4%
610 frame
1.1532
1.1532
0.0%
0.7209
0.6771 (**)
-6.5%
(*): incremental plasticity; (**): alternating plasticity at section A, B, C (see Fig.4.11)

Table 4.4: Example 4.2 Some upper bound of load multipliers
Envelope of bending moment
Plastic capacity
Load Multiplier
M+
M-
(Mp)
=2Mp/(M + + M -)
Section A (Fig.4.11b)
282717
477057
450000
1.1846
Section B (Fig.4.11c)
563240
757155
450000
0.6816
Section C (Fig.4.11d)
591835
785758
450000
0.6533
Sections
4.6. Conclusions
It appears that the canonical formulas in the both limit and shakedown analysis using
linear programming for 3-D steel frames may be reduced by a special change of the variables
and by a natural choice of the initial basic matrix used in the simplex algorithm. The distribution
of the internal forces may be directly calculated by the application of duality aspects in the
linear programming technique. This allows to avoid expensive static analysis of the primal
problem. The above mentioned techniques are very suitable for automatic computation. By
consequence, they were completely implemented in CEPAO package. By the way, the problem
of ultimate strengths of the large-scale 3-D steel frames under fix or repeated loading, in the
sense of respectively limit and shakedown analysis, can be solved now by the CEPAO package
in an automatic manner look like any finite element algorithm devoted to 3-D frame structures.
This chapter shows also that the simplex technique still is a necessary tool in the automatic
plastic analysis of 3-D steel frameworks after a less eventful period of the application of linear
programming in the analysis of frame structures.
47
Chapter
Limit and shakedown design of 3-D steel

frames by linear programming
In Chapter 4, the number of variables in both limit and shakedown analysis by kinematic
approach using linear programming are considerably reduced. In duality, in this chapter, the
number of constraints in both limit and shakedown design by static approach using linear
programming are strongly reduces. Two techniques are proposed: the fixed- push and the
standard-transformation technique, where the second technique was dealt with by NguyenDang [117] for 2-D bending frames. The mentioned techniques lead to the semi-direct
algorithm. The stiffness and stability constraint are not yet considered in the present work.
Keywords: Limit design; Shakedown design; Plastic hinge; Space frames; Linear
programming.
5.1. Weight function

Let us consider a steel frame with the node layout has been selected and fixed. One
strives to find the optimum selection of profile presented in the database. Generally, the member
sizes of a frame are grouped by the technological condition. In each group, the members are
made with the same profile. Because the plastic axial capacity is proportional to the area of the
member, the weight (or the volume) of each group is proportional to the product of the plastic
axial capacity and the total length (of group). Therefore, the objective function of the frame may
be written as:
Z = npT l ,
where np , l are, respectively, the vector of plastic axial capacity and the vector of group lengths.
The vector of plastic axial capacity of the critical sections ( n p ) may be recovered from
the vector np as follows:
n p = L np ,
(5.1)
with L is a Boolean matrix.
5.2. Limit design by static approach

Section 5.2.1 will briefly present the traditional algorithm. The difficulties of the latter,
the idea of improvement and the detail formulation of a new algorithm with the reduction of
constraints are described in Sections 5.2.2.
48
5.2.1. Direct algorithm (traditional algorithm)

The licit field of internal force (s) must satisfy the equilibrium condition and the plastic
condition, so that the static approach to the limit design problem leads to the following
formulation:
Min Z( np , s) n pT l
(5.2)
B Ts = f ;
N Tc s n p ,
(5.3)
(5.4)
subject to
where: f is the vector of the given load; B T is the equilibrium matrix defined in Chapter 3.
Eq.(5.4) is Eq.(4.9) when s 0 = n p .
When the coefficients a1 ,..., a6 [in matrix N c of Eq.(5.4)] are given in advance by the
choice of the initial member size, the problem described by Eqs. (5.2-5.4) has a linear
programming formulation. However, if this problem is only solved by unique iteration,
mentioned coefficients in the input may be different from themselves in the output. Therefore,
an iterative process shown on Fig.5.1 needs to be adopted. Because Eqs.(5.2-5.4) are directly
solved, the algorithm is called the direct algorithm.
Fig.5.1. Direct algorithm

As ns is the number of the critical sections, nm is the number of independent mechanisms
(independent equilibrium equations). If the sixteen- facet polyhedron is used to indicate the
plastic admissibility then the number of the constraints in Eqs.(5.3) and (5.4) equal (Fig.5.2):
n = nm + 16ns .
(5.5)
We observe that n is very large respect to a large-scale frame, it may become an obstacle
in the computational procedure. To reduce the value n, fixed-push technique and standard-
49
transformation technique are respectively presented in the following (Sections 5.2.2.1 and
5.2.2.2). It leads to the semi-direct algorithm that is described in Section 5.2.2.3.
Fig.5.2.The constraints in the plastic design problem using static approach

With the direct algorithm (Fig.5.1), the initial structure is successively improved during
the iteration procedure. Consider now a structure at any time of the above procedure, two
parallel operations are imagined:
1. Optimizing this frame by Eqs.(5.2-5.4), one has the distribution of the internal force, s,
in the output. It may be decomposed into two parts:
s T = [s Tm
s Tn ] ,
where s m collects the bending moments and s n indicates the axial forces.
2. Analyzing the same structure by the limit analysis algorithm presented in Chapter 4.
With the primal-dual technique (Section 4.2.3 in Chapter 4), one obtains other licit field of
internal force:
sT = [smT
snT ] .
We may agree that: (1) the difference between the structures in two successive iterations
of the design procedure (Fig.5.1) is progressively reduced; (2) the axial force is less sensible (in
comparison with the bending moments) with the variation of the member size. Therefore, one
may believe that:
s n sn .
Based on this observation, the following assumption is made: during each iteration of the
design procedure (Fig.5.1), the axial force is considered as a fixed quantity:
s n = sn .
(5.6)
In the other word, the axial force is not yet the variables in the simplex process, it is
approximated in advance by Eq.(5.6). With the supplementary condition of Eq.(5.6), the
constraints of the problem of Eqs.(5.2-5.4) are modified as follows.
Firstly, at the ith critical section, if the axial force ( N i ) is given in advance, the plastic
admissibility of sixteen-facet polyhedron becomes a quadrilateral that may be arranged as
follows (Fig.5.3):
N i
a2i (5) a3i ( 6)
p
a2i (5) a3i (6) M iy N ip
a2i (5) a3i (6) M zi N ip
a2i (5) a3i (6)

N ip
50
a1i( 4) i
i
i
a1( 4) N
,
a1i( 4) N i
a1i( 4) N i
or, symbolically:
~ iT i
~ iT i
i i
N
cm s m D N p N cn N
;
~ iT i
~
i
N
N cm s m Di N pi N iT
cn
(5.7)
where:
a2i (5)
~
=
N iT
cm
a2i (5)
a3i ( 6)
;
a3i ( 6)
DiT = [1 1] ;
~
N icn = [a1i( 4)
a1i( 4) ] .
Eq.(5.7) may be written for the whole structure as:

~T
~T ~
N
cm s m Dn p N cn sn
~T
~T ~ ;
N cms m Dn p N cn sn
(5.8)
with:
~
N Tcm
~ 1T
N
cm
~ 2T
N cm
;
"
~ nsT
N cm
D1
2
D
;
D=
"
D n s
~
N Tcn
~ 1T
N
cn
~ 2T
N cn
;
"
~ nsT
N cn
~s T = N 1 , N 2 , " , N n s .
n
Secondly, the equilibrium relation of Eq.(5.3) is rewritten as:

B Tm s m = f B Tn sn .
(5.9)
Because sn is a subset of a licit field of internal force, certain equations in the system of
Eq.(5.9) are auto-satisfied. Therefore, Eq.(5.3) contains nm independent equations (independent
mechanisms) but Eq.(5.9) contains only nm independent equations, nm nm .
Let us note that the form Eq.(5.8) may be applied to other yield surface, for example
with the yield surface of eight-facet polyhedron. The fixed-push technique is illustrated on
Fig.5.3.
The simplex method requires that all variables must be non-negative. To make the best
of this, the following change of variables is adopted:
51
~
s*m = N Tcms m + Dn p N Tcn ~sn .
(5.10)
Since the matrix N Tcm is always non-singular, drawing s m from Eq. (5.10), one obtains:
( ) (s
~
s m = N Tcm
1 *
m
Dn p + N Tcn ~sn .
(5.11)
Using the value of s m from Eq. (5.11), the system (5.8) becomes:
~T ~
s*m 2Dn p 2N
cn sn
.
*
s m 0
(5.12)
The inequalities s*m 0 in Eq.(5.12) are self-satisfying in the simplex process. Therefore,
the plastic admissibility of Eq.(5.4) is reduced to 2ns inequalities:
~
s*m + 2Dn p 2N Tcn ~sn .
(5.13)
Let us return to the equilibrium relation, substituting Eq.(5.11) in Eq.(5.9), one obtains:
~ T *
~ T
~ T ~ T ~
B Tm N cm
s m B Tm N cm
Dn p = f B Tn sn B Tm N cm
N cn sn .
(5.14)
The change of variables the so-called standard-transformation may be also illustrated on Fig.5.3.
Fig .5.3. Fixed-push and Standard-transformation techniques

With the plastic condition of Eq.(5.13) and the equilibrium equation (5.14), taking into
account Eq.(5.1), the problem of Eqs.(5.2-5.4) is reduced to the standard form of the simplex
method with fewer constraints:
Wx = b
,
x0
Min Z = c T x
(5.15)
where:
x T = [s*m
c T = [0 T
~
b T = [2N Tcn ~sn
E
W = T ~ 1 T
B m N cm
2ns
np
PT
RT
QT ] ;
lT
0T
0T
0T ] ;
~ T ~ T ~
f B Tn sn B Tm N cm
N cn sn ] ;
2DL
~ T
B Tm N cm
DL
ng
52
E1 E1 0 2ns
0
0 E 2 nm ;
2ns 2ns nm
where P is the slack variables; R and Q are the artificial variables; E1, E2 indicate the unity
matrices; ng is the number of groups of member sizes (technology condition).
The initial basic matrix of the simplex method is evidently chosen as:
E
.
X0 = 1
E 2
From aforementioned discussions, the direct algorithm (Fig.5.1) for the limit plastic
design may be modified into another shown on Fig.5.4, so-called the semi-direct algorithm.
Fig.5.4. Semi-direct algorithm
5.3. Shakedown design by static approach

The form of this section is similar with which of Section 5.2, but the formulation devotes
to the shakedown design problem.

The residual interne force distribution ( ) must satisfy the self-equilibrium equation and
the plastic condition, so that the static approach to the shakedown design problem leads to the
following formulation:
Min Z( np , ) npT l
(5.16)
B T = 0 ,
(5.17)
(5.18)
subject to
N Tc (s e + ) n p ,
53
where s e is the envelope of the elastic internal forces of the considered loading domain. It
involves two extreme values, positive ( s emax ) and negative ( s emin ).
The direct algorithm for the shakedown design is similar to the Fig.1 except the
shakedown design requires preliminary calculation of elastic response and the Eqs.(5.2-5.4) are
replaced by Eqs.(5.16-5.18). It is not necessary to be presented herein.

The number of constraints in the Eqs.(5.17) and (5.18) is the same with which of
Eqs.(5.3) and (5.4), it is together given by Eq.(5.5). In the following, as the limit design
problem, fixed-push technique and standard-transformation technique for the shakedown design
problem are described. To avoid the repeat of the arguments, herein we present only the
necessary formulas for the case of shakedown design.
The distribution of residual axial forces ( n ) is prescribed in advance by n that is given
by primal-dual technique in shakedown analysis problem (Chapter 4). At the ith critical section,
the system of inequalities (5.18) for the case of shakedown design becomes now:
~ iT i
~ iT i
i i
i
N
cm m D N p N cn N s + em
,
~ iT i
~ iT i
i i
i
N cm m D N p N cn N s- em
where
(5.19)
N i = max i N i e , i + N i e ;
a2i (5) M +i ye + a3i ( 6) M +i ze
;
s+i em =
a2i (5) M i ye + a3i ( 6) M +i ze
si em
a2i (5) M i ye + a3i (6) M i ze

;
=
a2i (5) M +i ye + a3i (6) M i ze
N + e , M + ye , M + ze s emax ;
N e , M ye , M ze s emin .
For the whole structure, Eq.(5.19) may be rewritten:

~T
~T
N
cm m Dn p N cn sn s + em
,
~T
~T
N cm m Dn p N cn sn s em
where:
~
~
N Tcm , N Tcn ,
D have been defined above (see Section 5.2.2.1);

snT = [ N 1 , N 2 ,..., N n s ] ;
s
s +Tem = [ s 1+em , s +2em ,..., s +nem
];
s
sTem = [ s1 em , s2em ,..., snem
].

The following change of variables is adopted:
54
(5.20)
~
~
*m = N Tcm m + Dn p N Tcn sn s em .
The system of Eq.(5.19) becomes then:

~T
*m 2Dn p 2N
cn s n s + em s em
.
*
m 0
With new mentioned variables, the self-equilibrium equation of Eq.(5.17) may be

written:
~ T *
~ T
~ T ~ T
~ T
B Tm N cm
m B Tm N cm
Dn p = B Tn n B Tm N cm
N cn sn B Tm N cm
s- em .

The formulation applied to the simplex algorithm of the shakedown design is similar to
the Eq.(5.15) in limit design, with the following vectors and matrices:
x T = [*m
np
PT
RT
QT ] ;
c T = [0 T
lT
0T
0T
0T ] ;
2N Tcn N + s+ em + s- em
b=
;
T
T ~ T ~ T
T ~ T
B n n B m N cm N cn sn B m N cm s- em
E
W = T ~ 1 T
B m N cm
2ns
2DL
~ T
B Tm N cm
DL
ng
E1 E1 0 2ns
0
0 E 2 nm ;
2ns 2ns nm
X0 = 1
.
E 2
We observe that the matrix of constraints, W, is identified with the case of limit design,
it is an advantage to implement in the computer program.
Consequently, similar to the case of limit design (Fig.5.4), the semi-direct algorithm for
shakedown design problem is easy to be outlined. It does not need to be presented herein.
5.4. Advantage of semi-direct algorithm

Let us recall that both limit and shakedown analysis of 3-D steel frame by linear
programming technique contains (3ns+1) constraints, it indicates the licit mechanism (see
Eq.(4.5) or (4.17)). Then, instead of a problem with ( nm + 16ns ) constraints (step 1 on Fig.5.1),
one solve respectively an analysis problem of ( 3ns +1) constraints (step 1a on Fig.5.4) and a
design problem with ( nm + 2ns ) constraints (step 1b on Fig.5.4). That leads to a considerable
reduction of the memory and the computational time. Indeed, to solve a rigid-plastic problem by
linear programming technique, the following phases are needed:
- Phase 1: Building the necessary matrix for the simplex technique: the vector of second
member (b); the matrix of constraint (W); basic matrix (X0).
- Phase 2: Realizing the simplex process;
- Phase 3: Calculating the necessary quantity (load factor, internal force, etc.) from the
output in the convergence of the simplex algorithm.
On the point of view of quantity, almost mathematical operation belong Phase 2, because
it is an iterative procedure. Whereas the number of the constraints (number of row of the matrix
55
of constraints) is the dimension of the basic matrix that strongly influences the memory and the
computational time in the simplex method. Therefore, in some measure, the reduction of the
basic matrix size of simplex technique may represent the reduction of the whole algorithms for
rigid-plastic problem by linear programming. With the semi-direct technique, the reduction of
the basic matrix size is:
r=
(nm + 16ns ) 2
.
(3ns + 1) 2 + (nm + 2ns ) 2
(5.21)
The value r depends on each structure, but one may observe that it is signification. That
will be affirmed in the numerical examples.

The examples in this section aim to point out two messages: (1) the reduction of the
computational time in the plastic design problem allowing the large-scale 3-D frames may be
carried out; (2) although the stiffness and stability constraint are not yet considered but the
member configurations given in the output may be the interesting references for engineers.
Two 3-D frames that have been considered in Chapter 4 are examined in this section:
Example 5.1 Limit minimum weight: A twenty-story space frame of which the
dimensions and the design variables are shown in Fig.5.5. The yield strength of all members is
344.8 MPa and Youngmodulus is 200 GPa. Uniform floor pressure of 4.8 kN/m2; wind loads
=0.96 kN/m2, acting in the Y direction. The uniformly distributed loads are lumped at the
joints of frames.
Example 5.2 Shakedown minimum weight: Fig.5.6 shows the dimension and the
member size group of six-story space frame. The yield strength of all members is 250 MPa and
Youngmodulus is 206 GPa. Uniform floor pressure of 4.81 kN/m2; wind loads are simulated
by point loads of 26.72 kN in the Y-direction at every beam-column joint. With 011 and 121, that define the loading domain.
The initial configurations of frames in the design process (Tables. 5.1 and 5.2) were
considered in Chapter 4 and in various references [28, 35, 71, 81, 88, 89]. The results of both
limit and shakedown analysis of initial frames given by CEPAO were presented on Table 4.1.
Some values that concern the rigid-plastic design are quoted herein: Load factor of limit analysis
of example 5.1 equal 1.698; whereas shakedown analysis gives the load factor 1.670 for
example 5.2. For the sake of comparison the initial configuration with the optimal configuration,
the mentioned number (=1.698 and 1.670) are considered as the safely factor in the
corresponding design problems (see Tables 5.1 and 5.2).
The mentioned choices of initial configuration and safely factors aim to make the
relation with the results available from the literature. In principle, any initial member size and
any safely factor may be used.
The results of the optimal problem are shown on Tables 5.1 and 5.2. Some discussions
are pointed out:
- The optimal solution is obtained after a few iterations.
- The mathematical operations are powerfully reduced against the initial formulation,
about 15 times (Table 5.3).
- After each optimal process (step 1b on Fig.5.4, ith iteration) the total weight is
considerable reduced while the safe factor given by the next analysis process (step 1a on Fig.5.4,
i+1th iteration) is not always violated (Tables 5.1 and 5.2). Finally, the convergence is reached.
56
So, semi-direct algorithm not only reduces the cost of computation but also makes an autocontrolled procedure.
- In principle, the optimal configurations given in the output cannot use in practice
without the verification by the effective standards, specially, the stiffness and stability
requirements. The latter are a subject of the next works. However, for instance, the results given
by proposed technique may be interesting references for engineers working on design of steel
frame. The engineers have an extra selection among their solutions. For example, on the point of
view of global behaviour, the optimal configuration of six-story frame (Table 5.2) is a rational
frame. Both initial and optimal configuration of six-story frame are analyzed by CEPAO with
various models, the results are shown on Table 5.4, Figs. 5.7 and 5.8. With the optimal
configuration, although the load factor and the ductile degree are little less than which of the
initial member size but the weigh is considerably reduced. Based on this optimal member size,
with some modifies if necessary, one may obtain the economized frames that responds the safe
requirements. The elastic-plastic analysis (see Table 5.4, Figs. 5.7 and 5.8) will be presented in
Chapter 6.
Fig.5.5. Example 5.1- Twenty story space frame (a- perspective view; b- plan view)
Fig.5.6. Example 5.2- Six-story space frame (a perspective view, b- plan view)
57
Table 5.1: Member sizes, total weight and safely factor of twenty-story space frame
Design variable
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
Weight (kN)
Safely factor
Initial
W14x176
W14x159
W14x145
W14x132
W12x106
W12x87
W10x60
W8x31
W12x26
W16x36
W21x57
2089.3
1.698
First iteration
W40x215
W33x152
W36x135
W30x116
W12x106
W12x79
W12x53
W16x31
W12x21
W16x36
W24x55
1984.5
1.868
Second iteration (optimal)

W40x183
W40x149
W33x130
W30x99
W12x96
W18x71
W16x45
W12x26
W10x12
W16x31
W24x55
1695.6
1.699
Table 5.2: Member sizes, total weight and safely factor of six-story space frame
Design
variable
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Weight (kN)
Safely factor
0 (initial)
W12X87
W12X120
W12X87
W10X60
W12X26
W12X53
W12X87
W12X53
W12X53
W12X87
295.2
1.670
1
W16X89
W21X101
W24X55
W18X60
W12X21
W18X60
W14X61
W14X48
W14X43
W18X45
244.1
2.283
2
W16X67
W24X76
W18X55
W18X40
W12X14
W18X50
W18X46
W12X21
W14X30
W18X35
178.0
1.785
Iteration
3
W16X67
W24X76
W21X44
W16X40
W12X14
W18X50
W21X44
W12X19
W16X26
W16X31
170.8
1.784
4
W18X65
W24X76
W21X44
W16X40
W12X14
W18X50
W18X50
W12X19
W16X26
W16X26
170.4
1.767
5 (optimal)
W21X62
W24X76
W21X44
W16X40
W12X14
W18X50
W18X50
W12X19
W16X26
W16X26
169.4
1.754
Table 5.3: Comparison of basic matrix size in the simplex method
twenty-story frame
six-story frame
Proposed technique
(analysis + design)
(2761 x 2761) + (3040 x 3040)
(379 x 379) + (432 x 432)
Initial
formulation
(16380 x 16380)
(2259 x 2259)
Reduced mathematical
operation (Eq.(5.21))
15.9 times
15.5 times
Table 5.4: Load factors given by CEPAO for initial and optimal configuration of six-story frame
Elastic-plastic first order
Initial member size (Table 2)

(weight = 295.2 kN)
2.489
Optimal member size (Table 2)

(weight = 169.4 kN)
2.253
Elastic-plastic second order
2.033
2.022
Limit analysis
2.412
2.215
Shakedown analysis
1.670
1.754
Model
58
Initial member size

Optimal member size
a) Elastic-plastic analysis, first-order analysis
Initial member size

Optimal member size
b) Elastic-plastic analysis, second-order analysis
Fig.5.7. Deformation at limit state of six-story frame
59
Fig.5.8. Load-deflection in Y direction results at point A of six-story frame (Fig.5.6)
5.6. Conclusions
It appears that in the proposed algorithm the so-called semi-direct algorithm, the
dimension of basic matrix in the simplex method is considerably reduced, about 15 times. This
feature is due to the following techniques: fixed- push and standard-transformation. The first
technique makes the best of the primal-dual technique in rigid-plastic analysis problem (Chapter
4), while the second technique makes the best of a permanent requirement of the simplex
method (all variables must be non-negative). By semi-direct algorithm, the linear programming
technique may now apply in the limit and shakedown design of the large-scale 3-D steel frames.
How to take into account the stiffness and stability constraints is the objective of the next works.
On the practical aspect, with any initial member size, under limit or shakedown constraints the
proposed algorithm gives an optimal configuration that may be interesting references for
engineers working on design of steel frames.
60
6
Second-order plastic-hinge analysis of
3-D steel frames including strain
hardening effects
Chapter
The geometric nonlinearity is taken into account when the equilibrium and kinematic
relationships are written with respect to the deformed configuration of structures. The
conventional second-order approach is a simple case of the geometric nonlinearity analysis. It is
widely adopted for building frames. The conventional second-order analysis takes into account
the secondary bending moment which arise as the result of the axial force applying on the lateral
displacement of the member. The lateral displacement of the member may be divided into two
parts: relative displacement to its chord (Fig.6.0a) and relative displacement of two ends
(Fig.6.0b). In short, conventional second-order/P-delta approach is the geometric linearity
adding the P- and P- effects.
During the last 10 years, many researchers focus on the second-order plastic-hinge
analysis of 3-D steel frames under the subject of the nonlinear advanced analysis of steel
frames, e.g. Liew (2000, 2001)[88, 89], Kim (2001, 2002, 2003, 2006)[81, 79, 80, 78], Choi
(2002)[27], Landesmann (2005)[85], Cuong (2006)[35], among many others. These researches
aim to model one physical member by one element while the complex behaviours may be taken
into account (e.g. distributed plasticity, initial imperfections). However, the strain hardening is
not adequately highlighted in this direction.
For a long time ago, the general physical relation for plastic hinges taking into account
strain hardening were discussed, e.g. in Maier (1973, 1976)[98, 100]. However, they are the
general formulation; to apply for the practical engineering, the more detail researches are
needed.
In the recent years, the practical models that consider the strain hardening behaviour of
steel fames have been developed by Davies (2002, 2006)[36, 37] and Byfiled (2005)[10].
However, it is only applicable for the case of 2-D bending steel frames.
This chapter propose a new algorithm for the second-order plastic-hinge analysis of 3-D
steel frames accounting strain hardening behaviour.
Keywords: Strain hardening; Plastic-hinge; Second-order; Steel frames.
61
Fig.6.0. P-delta effect
6.1. Modelling of plastic-hinge accounting strain hardening

Section 3.1 of Chapter 3 presents the constitutive law at 3-D plastic-hinges with the
elastic-perfectly plastic material hypothesis. This section enlarges this relation to consider strain
hardening effects.
6.1.1. Strain hardening rule

When the strain hardening is taken into account in elastic-plastic analysis, the diagram
shown on Fig.6.1a is generally adopted. In principle, from this diagram, one may deduce a
yield surface that is written in the space of internal forces (axial force and bending moments).
However, the obtained yield surface may be too complicated and not suitable for global plastichinge analysis. For the practical purpose, an isotropic strain hardening rule is proposed as
below:
= H
p
if p = 0 ;
p
if 0 < l ;
= H l = 0 if p > l p ;
= H
=0
p
(6.1a)
(6.1b)
(6.1c)
Fig.6.1. Hardening rule
In Eqs.(6.1), is the Orbisons yield surface [see Eq.(3.1)]. H is called the strain hardening
modulus (or plastic modulus), it is considered as a constant (linear hardening low); p is the
effective strain that is defined below; l p is the limit effective strain.
Eqs.(6.1) describe, respectively, the elastic range, the hardening range, and the flowed
range (Fig.6.1b). It shows that a nonlinear hardening rule is approximated by bi-linear
procedures [Eqs.(6.1b) and (6.1c)]. In the space of internal forces, and have the same shape,
i.e. is an expansion of .
62
With a 3-D plastic-hinge, the plastic deformations are described by three components: p ,
, ; they are plastic axial displacement and two net plastic rotations with respect to y and z
axes. The effective strain may be intuitively defined as follows:
yp
zp
p
l
yp h
2l
zp b
2l
(6.2)
in which: h and b are, respectively, the depth and the wide of the section; l is the length of the
element.
How to determine the limit effective strain ( l p ) and the strain hardening modulus (H) is
described in Section 6.3.
6.1.2. Incremental deformation-force relation

With the yield surface given by Eq.(6.1), Eq.(3.8) is rewritten as:
d =
dN +
dM y +
dM z Hd
N
M y
M z
=0.
(6.3)
From Eqs.(3.5) and (6.2), one has:

d
/ N
1
= [1 h / 2 b / 2] / M y d
l
/ M z
(6.4)
Substituting Eq.(6.4) in Eq.(6.3), one obtains the incremental deformationforce relation:

/ N
1
[dN dM y dM z ] / M y H [1
l
/ M z
/ N
h / 2 b / 2] / M y d = 0 .
/ M z
(6.5)
Eq.(6.5) is suitable to build-up the elastic-plastic constitutive relation for whole structure
that is mentioned below (Section 6.2).
6.2. Global plastic-hinge analysis formulation

In comparison with linear elastic analysis, the second-order plastic-hinge analysis must
be modified to treat the present of plastic-hinges and of P-delta effect. In the following, an
algorithm for global plastic-hinge analysis is presented.
6.2.1. Elastic-plastic constitutive equation

Let e C and e R be the vectors of increment of net displacement at the yielded sections
(plastic hinges), and at the elastic sections, respectively. Elastic constitutive equation [the
Hookes law Eq.(3.23)] for the structure may be written as:
s R D RR
s C = D T
RC
D RC e R 0
,
D CC e C e Cp
(6.6)
in which, e Cp are the plastic parts of the incremental net displacement at plastic hinges; s R and
s C are, respectively, the vectors of incremental internal forces at elastic sections and plastichinges. D is the elastic stiffness matrix of the frame given by Eq.(3.24) but the D k is modified to
include the P effect:
63
0
2 EA
S1EI y
0
1 0
0
Dk =
0
l 0
S 2 EI y
0
0
0
0
0
S3 EI z
0
0
S 4 EI z
0
0
0
S 2 EI y
0
0
2 EA
0
0
S1EI y
0
0
0
0
S 4 EI z
0
0
S3 EI z
where E is the Youngmodulus; A, I y , I z are, respectively, the area, the moment of inertias of the
cross-section with respect to y and z axes respectively; l is the length of the considered
element; S1 , S 2 , S3 , S 4 are the stability functions with respect to y and z axes. The formulas of
these functions may be found in various texts among references (e.g. Chen (1996)[19]):
S1(3)
S 2( 4)
y ( z ) l sin( y ( z ) l ) ( y ( z )l ) 2 cos( y ( z )l )
2 2 cos( y ( z ) l ) y ( z ) l sin( y ( z ) l )
=
2
( y ( z ) l ) cosh( y ( z ) l ) y ( z ) l sinh( y ( z ) l )
2 2 cosh( l ) + l sinh( l )
y( z)
y( z)
y( z)
for
( y ( z ) l ) 2 y ( z ) l sin( y ( z ) l )
2 2 cos( y ( z ) l ) y ( z ) l sin( y ( z ) l )
=
y ( z )l sinh( y ( z )l ) ( y ( z ) l ) 2
2 2 cosh( l ) + l sinh( l )
y( z)
y( z)
y( z)
N 0
for
N >0
for
N 0
for
(6.7a)
(6.7b)
N >0
where y ( z ) = N / EI y ( z ) , N is the axial force, taken as positive in tension.
In fact, Eqs. (6.7a) and (6.7b) are indeterminate when the axial force is zero. To
circumvent this problem, in the case of 1.0 1.0 , the following approximation of the
stability functions are used (see Chen (1996)[19]):
S1(3) = 4 +
2 2 y ( z )
S 2( 4) = 2
15
2 y ( z )
30
where y ( z ) = N /( 2 EI y ( z ) l 2 ) .
(0.01 y ( z ) + 0.543) y2( z )

4 + y( z)
(0.01 y ( z ) + 0.543) y2( z )
4 + y( z)
(0.004 y ( z ) + 0.285) y2( z )

8.183 + y ( z )
(0.004 y ( z ) + 0.285) y2( z )
8.183 + y ( z )
;
.
In some research (e.g. Kim (2002)[79]), the above
approximations are used in the case of 2.0 2.0 .

Clearly, in the first order analysis, S1 = S3 = 4; S 2 = S 4 = 2 .
Return now the physical relation at plastic hinges, under form of matrix, Eqs.(3.6) and
(6.5) may be written, respectively:
e Cp = N C ,
N TC s C
HFNC = 0 .
(6.8)
(6.9)
In Eqs.(6.8) and (6.9), N C is a gradient matrix of the yield surface ; NC contains the
absolute value of gradient of the yield surface [see Eq.(6.5)]. And
F = Fi
i
with
Fi =
1
[1 hi / 2 bi / 2] .
li
64
Using (6.7), (6.8) and (6.9), the plastic deformation magnitude may be deduced:
0 e R .
R 2 e C
0 = 0
R1
(6.10)
with
R1 = (N TC D CC N C + HFNC ) 1 N TC DTRC ,
R 2 = (N TC DCC N C + HFNC ) 1 N TC DCC .
Eq. (6.8) may be rewritten in the following form:

0 0 0 0
e Cp = 0 N C
(6.11)
Substituting (6.10) in (6.11), one obtains:

0 0
0 e R
e Cp = N C R1 N C R 2 e C
(6.12)
From (6.7) and (6.12), one finally obtains the elastic-plastic constitutive relation:
s R D RR D RC N C R1
s C = D T D N R
CC C 1
RC
D RC D RC N C R 2 e R
D CC D CC N C R 2 e C
(6.13)
6.2.2. Elastic-plastic stiffness matrix

Due to the decomposition (6.6), the compatibility relation (3.18) and equilibrium relation
(3.20) (under form of increment) may be rearranged as:
e R B R
e C = B C d ,
(6.14)
s
B TC ] R .
s C
f = [B TR
(6.15)
The Eqs.(6.13), (6.14) and (6.15) may be rewritten as:

(6.16)
(6.17)
(6.18)
s = D e ;
e = B d
f = B T s .
From Eqs.(6.16), (6.17) and (6.18), one obtains:

d = K 1f
where
(6.19)
K = B T DB
is the elastic-plastic stiffness matrix of the frame.
6.2.3. Taking into account
effect
When the relative lateral displacement of the two ends of the member is considered, an
additional axial force and shear force will be induced in the member ends (Fig.6.2). The relation
between those additional forces with the vector of displacement of the frame may be written as:
(6.20)
s s = Ud .
In Eq.(6.20),
s s = s sk ; U = H k Tk ,
k
with
s sk is
secondary force (additional force) on
k th element:
65
s
s sT
k = [N A
s
Q yA
s
QzA
N Bs
0
0
0
0
0
0
0 b
0 c
0 0
0 b
0 d
0 0
s
Q yB
s
QzB
].
and
a
0 b
0 c
0
c
H k = 0 0
0 b a
0 d
0
0 0
d
where:
a=
M yA M yB
l
0
0
0
0
0
0
;b =
a
0
c
a
0
d
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0 ,
0
0
0
M zA M zB
N
N
;c = A ;d = B
2
l
l
l
Fig.6.2. Additional forces at and B of considered element
From Eq.(6.20), one obtains the increment of secondary force as follows:

s s = Ud + Ud + Ud .
We can calculate the vector of increment of external force that is equilibrium with the
additional forces:
f s = B sT s s = B sT Ud + B sT U (d + d) ,
(6.21)
where
B s = Tk
k
Using Eqs.(6.19) and (6.21), the nonlinear relation between the increment of external
forces and the increment of displacements is written as:
f = (K + K s )d + V ,
with
K s = B sT U ,
and
V = B sT U (d + d) .
66
(6.22)
6.2.4. Global solution procedure

Through the above formulation one observes that the material nonlinearity is completely
taken into account by elastic-plastic constitutive matrix [see Eq.(6.13)]. Unless the elastic
constitutive matrix is replaced by the elastic-plastic constitutive matrix, all procedures are
identical to any global elastic analysis procedures. In present work, Eq.(6.22) is solved by
Newton-Raphson method. The elastic-plastic constitutive matrix is updated once a plastic-hinge
occurs. At plastic hinges, where the effective strain reached the limit value ( l p ), the strain
hardening modulus (H) needs to be vanished.
6.3. Limit effective strain and strain hardening modulus

6.3.1. Stress-hardened and limit effective strain
Some interesting results on the strain hardening behaviour for 2-D bending beams are
presented in Byfileld (2005)[10]. In this reference, a simple beam under variable loading types
has been examined, the required end-rotation to achieve the value 1.0Mp, 1.10Mp, 1.15Mp are
evaluated, it is rewritten in the present work by Table 6.1. To exceed plastic moment (Mpy) the
normal stress on the section must surpass the yield strength (fy). The augmentation of stress
against yield strength is called stress-hardened. To extend to the 3-D plastic hinges, the bending
moment-hardened and the required rotation notions are needed to be changed into the stresshardened and the required strain notions. For this purpose, the stress-hardened at the limit state
is assumed be linear distribution, as the show of Fig.6.3.
Table 6.1: Required rotation (mrad) to achieve 1.00 M p , 1.10 M p , 1.15 M p [10]
Grade
l/h =10
l/h =20
l/h =30
l/h =40
1PL UDL 2PL
1PL UDL 2PL
1PL UDL 2PL
1PL
UDL 2PL 1PL
28.6 56.5 84.6
32.8
75.4 112.9 47.8 94.1
S275 1.00 M p 9.6
18.8 28.3 19
37.5 56.5
S275 1.10 M p 21.6 58.3 82.9 43.3 116.6 165.5 65.1 175.1 248.7 86.7
S275 1.15 M p 30.9 81.3 108.4 61.8 162.5 216.6 92.7 243.8 325
S355 1.00 M p 11.3 23.6 44
22.9 47.1 88
l/h =50
UDL
l/h =60
2PL 1PL
UDL 2PL(*)
141.2 57.4 113.1 169.5
233.4 331.4 108.4 291.6 414.5 130
349.9 497.2
123.7 325.2 433.4 154.5 406.3 541.6 185.5 487.6
34.2 70.7 131.8 45.7
94.4
175.8 57.1 118
219.7 68.6 141.5 263.7
S355 1.10 M p 27.4 74.7 106.6 54.8 149.4 213.3 82.2 224.1 319.9 109.8 298.8 426.6 137.2 373.3 533.2 164.6 448
S355 1.15 M p 39.4 104.4 139.5 78.7 208.7 278.9 118.2 313.1 418.5 157.6 417.5 558
650
639.8
196.9 521.9 697.4 236.3 626.2 836.9
(*): 1PL=Single point load case; UDL: Uniformly distributed load case; 2PL: Two point load case [10].
Considering the case of bending about y axes (major-axes), we examine separately three
states of stress as shown in Fig.6.4. Plastic moment Mpy, elastic moment Mey and momenthardened Mhy are respectively equilibrium with those states of stress. One has the following
relations:
M py = 1.15M ey ,
(6.23)
M hy = ( h / f y ) M ey .
(6.24)
The value 1.15 in Eq.(6.23) is well agreed with I-shaped sections (see Massonnet
(1976)[106]). From Eqs.(6.23) and (6.24), one obtains:
M py + M hy = [1 + 0.869( h / f y )]M py .
In present work, the value 1.15Mpy is considered as the limit state, one obtains:
1 + 0.869 h / f y = 1.15 ,
67
or:
h = 0.173 f y .
(6.25)
It shows that instead of moment-hardened 0.15Mpy, one may use stress- hardened
h=0.173fy.
Fig.6.3. Assumption of stress-hardened distribution
Fig.6.4. Stress distribution in the case of bending about y axes
We convert the required rotation into required effective strain. In the plastic-hinge
analysis, the end-rotation to achieve 1.0Mp clearly is the limit of elastic end-rotation, y,ende .
Therefore, the required plastic rotation to achieve 1.15Mpy is calculated by:
end
yp , end = yend
,1.15 y , e .
Based on the geometric relations of the considered beams in Byfiled (2005)[10], one
may take the plastic rotation at plastic hinges (in middle of beams) are twice as the plastic endrotations:
yp = 2 yp , end .
If the notion of the effective strain is adopted, the requirement of plastic rotation may be
transferred to the requirement of the effective strain. In the case of 2-D bending, from Eq.(6.2),
the required effective strain to reach 1.15Mp is:
ylp
yp h
2l
(6.26)
This is the limit effective strain. We note from the data on Table 6.1 that the required
end-rotation increases linearly with l/h ratio. In other words, the ratio yp h / l only depends on the
68
grade of steel and the type of load. Consequently, the limit effective strain ( ylp ) may be shown
on Table 6.2, independent with the depth-to-span ratio.
With a section under axial force and bi-bending moments (3-D plastic hinge), the state of
stress is still uniaxial. One supposes that in both 2-D and 3-D plastic hinges, when the effective
strain reached the values given on Table 6.2 the maximum stress-hardened achieves 0.173fy.
They are the limit effective strain ( l p ) and the limit stress-hardened (h).
Table 6.2: Value ylp (x10-2)
Load (*)
Grade
S275
S355
(*): see Table 6.1.
1PL
UDL
2PL
0.213
0.625
0.801
0.281
0.808
0.955
6.3.2. Strain hardening modulus

At the limit state, with each location of the neutral axis, the distribution of stress over the
section may be determined (Fig.6.5a). By consequence, one obtains the corresponding internal
forces by equilibrium equations (Fig.6.5b). The internal forces are described by a point so-called
limit point force as the show of Fig.6.5b. With variable location of neutral axis, one has the
locus of the limit point forces that constitutes a bounding surface ( ). However, this bounding
surface ( ) is not the same shape with the yield surface ( = 0). It does not agree with the
hardening rule given by Eq.(6.1) where the hardening is modelled by the expansion of the yield
surface. Therefore, it needs to find a surface (the same shape with ) that approximates to .
The following limit surface is proposed (Fig.6.5b):
= 0.3225 = 0 .
(6.27)
This limit surface corresponds exactly to the case of bending about y axes, i.e.: n= mz=0,
my=1.15 (point A on Fig.6.5b). Furthermore, it may be verified that almost limit point forces
locates the outside of the limit surface. For example, one verifies two particular cases:
Fig.6.5. a) Limit state of tress; b) Limit point force, yield surface and limit surface
69
-Bending about z axes: Under bending about z axes the I-shaped sections may be considered
as the rectangular sections (Fig.6.6). Similar to the case of bending about y axes, we have the
following relations:
M pz = 1.50 M ez ,
(6.28)
M hz = ( h / f y ) M ez .
(6.29)
The value 1.50 in Eq.(6.28) is deduced for rectangular sections.
Fig.6.6. Bending about z axes
From Eqs.(6.25), (6.28) and (6.29), one has:

M pz + M hz = 1.12M pz ,
its position is the outside of the limit surface (point B on Fig.6.5b).

-
Compression (or tension): It is simple to obtain:

N p + N h = 1.730 N p ,
it also locates at the outer space of the limit surface (point C on Fig.6.5b).
From Eqs.(6.1c), (6.27) one obtains the strain hardening modulus:
H = 0.3225 / l p ,
(6.30)
with the limit effective strain given on Table 6.2.

In this section, five examples are examined. In which, two 3-D steel frames considered
in Chapter 4 [examples 4.1 (Fig.4.6) and 4.2 (Fig.4.7)]; they are renamed, respectively, by frame
6.1 (six-story) and frame 6.2 (twenty-story). Example 6.3 shown on Fig.6.7 that was analyzed
by Orbison (1982)[126]. Examples 6.4 and 6.5 are respectively reported on Figs.6.8 and 6.9.
Tow aims are underlined: (1) evaluate the techniques in this chapter in comparison with
various available results in the literatures; (2) comparison the load multiplier given by the stepby-step method and of the direct methods.
Concerning the strain hardening parameters, one determines the value of l p and H for
each example. Grade of steel S275 and S355 may be assigned to the frame 6.1 and frame 6.2,
respectively. From Table 6.2, one has: l p = 0.213 x10 2 for frame 6.1 and l p = 0.281x10 2 for frame
2. From Eq.(6.30), one obtains: H = 151.41 for frame 6.1 and H = 114.77 for frame 6.2.
Different models have been adopted by some researches to capture the both material
inelasticity and geometric nonlinearity [28, 35, 71, 81, 88, 89]. Although the used models are
different but the value of load ratios are well accordant (see Table 6.3).
70
In Chiorean (2005)[28], the Ramberg-Osgood shape parameter ( a = 1; n = 30 ) are used for

both frame 6.1 and frame 6.2 to take into account the hardening effect that makes increasing the
load factor by 6.3% for frame 6.1 and 5.7% for frame 6.2. With CEPAO, when the strain
hardening is taken into account, the ultimate strength of the frames increases by 5.7% and 2.6%
for frame 6.1 and frame 6.2, respectively. Clearly, the hardening effect decreases when the
second-order effect is dominant (frame 6.2).
Table 6.3: Load multiplier
Author
Model
Liew JYR- 2000 [88]

Kim SE -2001[81]
Cuong NH - 2006 [35]
Liew JYR- 2001 [89]
Jiang XM - 2002 [71]
Chiorean CG-2005 [28]
Plastic hinge
Plastic hinge
Fiber plastic hinge
Plastic hinge
Fiber element
Distributed plasticity, n = 300 (hardening ignored)
Distributed plasticity, n = 30 (hardening considered)
Plastic hinge, hardening ignored
Plastic hinge, hardening considered
Present work -CEPAO
Fig.6.7. Twelve-story frame (frame 6.3)
71
Load multiplier
Frame 6.1
2.010
2.066
2.040
1.998
2.124
2.033
2.149
Frame 6.2
1.003
1.031
1.000
1.005
1.062
1.024
1.051
Fig.6.8. Six-story seven-bay frame (frame 6.4)
Fig.6.9. Seven-story six-bay frame (frame 6.5)
Figures 6.10 and 6.12 show the load-deflection relation results at a referential node.
Figure 6.11 reports the deformation at limit state and distribution of plastic-hinge of frame 6.1.
The behaviours of these frames by various type of analysis are outlined on Fig.6.13.
Figures 6.14 - 6.18 show the collapse mechanisms and corresponding load multipliers of
the frames by the direct method and by the step-by-step method. Herein (Fig.6.13 -Fig.6.18), the
strain hardening behaviours are ignored. It appears that an expectable coincidence of results
calculated by direct method and step-by-step method. That allow to deduce: the good
convergence between the dual methods in the CEPAO (kinematic and static method); and the
good correlation between the Orbisonyield surface and this in AISC-LRFD. This statement will
be confirmed again in Chapter 8.
72
2.5
Load multiplier
1.5
1
Hardening considered
0.5
Hardening ignored
0
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3
Displacement (m)
Fig.6.10. Frame 6.1- Load-deflection results at node A in Y direction (Fig.4.6) given by CEPAO
Hardening considered
Hardening ignored
Fig.6.11. Frame 6.1 Deformation at limit state and distribution of plastic-hinges
Fig.6.12. Frame 6.2-Load-deflection results at node A in Y direction (Fig.4.7) given by CEPAO
73
Fig.6.13. Load-deflection results at point A (Figs. 4.6 and 4.7) given by CEPAO
Direct method (load multiplier = 2.412)

Step-by-step method method (load multiplier = 2.489)
Fig.6.14. Frame 6.1-collapse mechanism

Step-by-step method (load multiplier = 1.689)
74

Step-by-step method (load multiplier = 2.175)
Fig.6.17a. Frame 6.4-collapse mechanism given by the direct method (load multiplier = 2.469)
Fig.6.17b. Frame 6.4-collapse mechanism given by the step-by-step method (load multiplier = 2.402)
75
Fig.6.18a. Frame 6.5-collapse mechanism given by the direct method (load multiplier = 2.226)
Fig.6.18b. Frame 6.5-collapse mechanism given by the step-by-step method (load multiplier = 2.264)
6.5. Conclusions
The proposed algorithm allows take into account the strain hardening effects in the
plastic-hinge analysis of 3-D steel frames. It appears that the plastic hinge analysis procedure is
76
identical to the elastic analysis procedure unless only elastic physical matrix is replaced by
elastic-plastic physical matrix. This is an advantage when developing the multi-functions
computer program, as CEPAO package. The values of the hardening parameters are reliable
because it is based on the recent research on the hardening behaviours of steel structures.
Through the numerical examples, a good agreement between our results and other benchmark
results from the literature is obtained, it allows us demonstrate the achievement of the present
model. This work may be considered as a contribution in the structural system approach to
design of steel frames (see Chen (2008)[25]).
77
7
Local buckling check according to
Eurocode-3 for plastic-hinge analysis of
3-D steel frames
Chapter
With an I or H-shaped section, local buckling may occur in outstanding flanges or webs
under compressed stress. At the plastic-hinge with a large rotation, cross-sections are in at risk
of local buckling, even with rolled sections that are generally considered as compact sections
(see Massonnet (1976)[106]). Therefore, local buckling needs be taken into account in the
analysis and design procedure of structures, especially, with the plastic design. There are two
directions for the consideration of local buckling, either by plastic- zone analysis or by the
application of Standards. The first direction leads to an increase in computation time. A way of
the last direction is presented in Kim (2003)[80], in which practical equations of Load and
Resistance Factor Design specification of American Institute of Steel construction are applied.
Aside from this research, almost all plastic-hinge analysis assumes that all sections are compact,
and local buckling will be examined last in the design procedure.
The local buckling phenomenon of the steel frames is considered in Eurocode-3 [46] by
the concept of classification of cross-section. The classification of cross-sections depends on the
width-to-thickness ratio of parts subject to compression. It is only achieved when the stress
distribution on cross-sections is determined. However, we observe that engineers still need an
efficient way to determine the position of the neutral axis of a yielded I or H-shaped section (in
space behaviour). Furthermore, the local buckling needs to be automatically verified throughout
the process of global analysis of structures.
This chapter present an algorithm for determination of the stress distribution at a plastichinge with the special behaviour such a way that the concept of classification of cross-section in
Eurocode-3 is directly applied.
Keywords: Local buckling; Plastic-hinge; Space frames.
7.1. Conception of local buckling in Eurocode-3

Based on local buckling resistance, Eurocode-3 [46] provides a classification for beams
and columns in four classes:
- Class 1 cross-section permits the formation of a plastic hinge with the rotation capacity
required from plastic analysis;
- Class 2 cross-section allows the development of a plastic hinge but with limited
rotation;
78
- Class 3 cross-section where local buckling is liable to prevent development of plastic

moment resistance;
- Class 4 cross-section where local buckling will occur before the attainment of yield
stress in one or more parts of the cross-section.
The classification of a cross-section depends on the width-to-thickness ratio of parts
subject to compression. Table 7.1 presents the limited width-to-thickness ratios for compression
parts (outstand flanges or webs) in which stress distribution is shown on Fig.7.1.
Table 7.1: Classification of cross-section
Flange
when > 0.5
b0 / t f 9 /
Class
1
Web
d / t w 396 /(13 1)
d / t w 36 /
d / t w 456 /(13 1)
when 0.5
when > 0.5
d / t w 41,5 /
d / t w 42 /(0,67 + 0.33 )
when 0.5
when > 1
d / t w 62 (1 )
when 1
b0 / t f 10 /
b0 / t f 21 0,57 0,21 + 0,07 2 when 3 1
4
A parts which fails to satisfy the limit for Class 3 should be taken as Class 4
Remarks: = 235 / f y , d , b0 , t f , t w , , are indicated in Figs.7.1 and 7.2.
Fig.7.1. Stress distribution on outstand flanges and web
When a local buckling check is taken into account, the procedure for analysis of a steel
frame includes four steps as follows:
1. Selecting member sizes for the structure and assuming that all cross-sections have
Class 1.
2. Analyzing the structure by the plastic-hinge method and determining the internal
forces at the cross-sections.
3. Determining stress distribution at the cross-sections.
4. Classifying cross-sections; and checking local buckling based on the cross-section
requirements for plastic global analysis.
Step 3 and Step 4 may be realized at any time of the analysis procedure as long as
internal forces at cross-sections are computed. In Sections 7.2 and 7.3, Step 3 and Step 4 will be
described in detail, respectively.
7.2. Stress distribution over a cross-section

In principle, the stress distribution over a cross-section may be deduced from equilibrium
and compatibility conditions. However, the problem becomes complicated due to the inherent
79
form of I or H-shaped sections and the inelastic properties of the material. Therefore, it is
interesting to establish a simple and clear algorithm for this problem.
7.2.1. At yielded sections (plastic-hinges)

7.2.1.1. Plastic-hinge concept
Under the combined effects of axial force and bending moments, only the normal stress
is effected on the cross-section. The plastic-hinge concept indicates that a cross-section is fully
yielded by compression ( f y ) or tension ( f y ) separated by a neutral line. In the global plastic
analysis of structure, the plastic-hinge is assumed to be resulted when the force point reaches the
yield surface: ( N , M y , M z ) = 0 . In the present work, passive plastic-hinges define the plastichinges without plastic deformation. Conversely, one has the active plastic-hinges.
7.2.1.2. Assumptions
In Eurocode-3s guidance, stress distributions over sections are simplified (see Fig.7.1);
it does not include all possibilities of locations of the neutral axis of a section in space
behaviour. Moreover, it is complicated to determine the real stress state over sections.
Therefore, the following assumptions are made in the present work.
1- The neutral axis is a straight line, it divides the cross-section into two parts, one is in
compression and other is in traction.
2- The cross-section is idealized as a section composed of three rectangular strips
(Fig.7.2a).
3- The area of the compressed zone and the tensional zone are approximated as shown in
Fig.7.2b.
4- The bending moment with respect to the weak axis, M z , is only supported by two
flanges.
5- Residual stress is neglected.
Fig.7.2. Simplified shape and simplified stress distribution
7.2.1.3. Formulation
Since the neutral axis is a straight line, its position may be determined by two geometry
parameters. In principle, the distribution of the stress on the cross-section must satisfy three
equilibrium conditions according to N, My, Mz. However, one equilibrium equation among them
is constrained by (N,My,Mz)=0. Therefore, two necessary parameters to locate the position of
neutral axis are determined by two suitable equilibrium equations. A way to find the formulas is
summarized as follows:
80
- First, grouping the location of the neutral axis and writing the corresponding
equilibrium equations (equilibrium between the stress and internal forces), they are reported in
Table 7.2. The description of the location of neutral axis is abbreviated to: NA1 or NA2 or NA3.
Table 7.2: Location of neutral axis (NA) and corresponding equilibrium equations
Location of NA
Notation Unknowns
Equilibrium equations
NA passes through two
NA1
b1 , b2
M y = f y t f (b1 b2 )h'
flanges (Fig.7.3a)
M z = f y t f [b1 (b b1 ) + b2 (b b2 )]
NA passes through the

web and a flange
(Fig.7.3b)
NA passes through the

web and two flanges
(Fig.7.3c)
NA2
NA3
b1 , z1
b1 , b2
(a1)
(a2)
N = f y [2t f (b b1 b2 ) + hi t w ]
(a3)
M z = f y t f b1 (b b1 )
(b1)
N = f y (2 z1t w + 2b1t f )
(b2)
M y = f y [ht f (b b1 ) + (hi2 / 4 z12 )t w ]
(b3)
M z = f y t f [b1 (b b1 ) + b2 (b b2 )]
(c1)
N = f y [h' t w (b1 b2 ) /(b b1 b2 ) + 2(b1 b2 )t f ]

f y [ht f (b b1 b2 ) + (hi2
My =
/4
z12 )t w ]
(c2)
(c3)
Note: with NA1, b2 may be disappeared; with NA2, b1 or z1 may be disappeared.
Fig.7.3. Location of the neutral axis
- Next, let us introduce the following non-negative parameters in accordance with the
given dimensions of the profile (Fig.7.2a) and the given internal forces.
cy =
cz =
My
f y h(b / 2)t f
Mz
f y (b 2 / 4)t f
N
cn =
f y hi t w
;
;
= h / hi ;
=
bt f
hi t w
- Finally, the equilibrium equations are solved, taking into account the existential
solution condition, we obtain the following results:
81
Case 1:
If
c y 1
.
2
2c y c y + c z 2
(7.1a)
then the NA1 is accorded, and:
b = b 1 + c y 1 c z c y
1 2
2
2
4
2
c
c
c
b
b2 = 1 y 1 z y
2
2
2
4
(7.1b)
Case 2:
If
c z 1
1 c z (c n + ) + c n
cz
(7.2a)
then the NA2 is agreed, and:
(
[
b1 = 2 1 1 c z
z = hi c (1 1 c )
z
1 2 n
(7.2b)
Case 3:
If the both conditions (7.1a) and (7.2a) are not satisfied, the NA3 is adopted, and:
b = b 1 1 c + c
z
z
1 2
b2 = 1 1 c z
2
h ( 1 c z 1 c z + c z
z1 = i
2 ( 1 c z + 1 c z + c z )
(
(
(7.3a)
with:
=
1
1
2
2
1 1 2 ( x 2 + c z ) + 4c z 4
2
cz
] ,
(7.3b)
while x must satisfy the following equation:

2 x 4 + 2 x 3 + (cn2 + 2 4 2 + 2 2 c z ) x 2 + (4 c z 8 ) x + 2 2 c z 4 2 = 0.
(7.3c)
Eq. (7.3c) may be solved by the Newton-Raphson iteration; it becomes better with the
following bounds:
2 c z x 2 2 c z when c z 1
2( 1 c z + 1) c z x 2 2 c z when c z < 1
82
(7.3d)
Remark: The derivation of Eq.(7.1a) to Eq.(7.3d)

- Without losing generality, we assume that b1 b2 (Figs.7.3a and 7.3c). If z > 2 then one
takes z = 2 , it agrees with fourth assumption that is above mentioned.
- The values b1 and b2 in Eq.(7.1b) are the solution of the system of Eqs.( a1) and (a2) in
Table 7.2, while Eq.(7.1a) is obtained by the condition of 0 b2 b1 b / 2 .
- Solving the system of Eqs.(b1) and (b2) in Table 7.2 one obtains the values b1 and z1 in
Eq.(7.2b). Eq.(7.2a) is deduced from the condition of b* b / 2 , with b* (Fig.7.3b) is calculated by
the geometric relation with b1 and z1:
b* = (b / 2 b1 )(h / 2 + z1 ) /(h / 2 z1 ) .
- The bending moment Mz may be decomposed into two parts M z and (1 ) M z , each
part is supported by each flange. By Consequence, Eq.(c1) in Table 7.2 is equivalent to the
following system:
b(b b2 ) f y t f = M z
b(b b1 ) f y t f = (1 ) M z
it gives the values b1 and b2 in Eq.(7.3a). Substituting the values b1 and b2 in the geometric
relation of (Fig.7.3c)
z1 =
1
b1 b2
h
2 b (b1 + b2 )
one obtains value z1 in Eq.(7.3a).

The value in Eq.(7.3b) obtained by the following put:
x = 1 c z + 1 c z + c z .
Writing b1 and b2 in Eq.(7.3b) under formulation of x and substituting then in Eq.(c2)

(Table 7.2), one obtains Eq.(7.3c). Because b1 b2 , one has 0 1 / 2 , it leads to Eq.(7.3d).
If the value of x obtained by (7.3c) violates the condition (7.3d) the real value in Eq.
(7.3b) is then not found. This statement may be due to the force point exceeding the real yield
surface with a considerable amount. We can say that it very rarely occurs with the practical yield
surfaces.
7.2.1.4. Particular cases

There are two particular cases of the location of the neutral axis as the shown in Fig.7.4;
they are noted by NA4 and NA5. Those cases rarely happen with the steel frames in practice,
and they are not indicated in Eurocode-3. In the following, some treatments of the cases are
proposed.
NA4 is a particular case of NA1 when b2(b-tw)/2, with b2 is determined by Eq.(7.1b).
To apply the classification of the rule of cross-sections in Eurocode-3, one considers that the
whole web is in compression if N is compression and cn0.5 (Table 7.3). Contrarily, the web is
in traction (no local buckling).
NA5 is the particular case of NA2 when b1=0 and z1>hi/2, with b1 and z1 are calculated
by Eq.(7.2b). In the case where N is compression, there is always a flange is in compression.
Contrarily (N is traction), the following rule may be adopted (Table 7.3): (1) If cy1.5 then one
83
flange is in compression and other is in traction. (2) When cy<1.5 the whole section is in traction
(no local buckling).
Fig.7.4. Particular cases of the location of neutral axis
7.2.1.5. Coefficient (see Fig.7.1)

Table 7.3 presents the values of this coefficient according to the stress distribution at the
plastic-hinges. The coefficient is used to classify the cross-sections (see Section 4).
Location of NA
NA1
Table 7.3: Coefficient (see Figs.7.1 and 7.3)

Flange
Web
= 1 if N > 0
= 1 if N > 0
= 0 if N 0
= b1 / b0 if N 0
NA2
=1
= (d / 2 + z1 ) / d if N > 0
= (d / 2 z1 ) / d if N 0
NA3
=1
= (d / 2 + z1 ) / d if N > 0
= (d / 2 z1 ) / d if N 0
NA4
=1
= 1 if N > 0 and cn 0.5

= 0 if N 0 or cn < 0.5
NA5
= 1 if N > 0 or c y < 1.5
= 1 if N > 0
= 0 if N 0 and c y 1.5
= 0 if N 0
Note: N > 0 : compression; N < 0 : tension; take = 1 if > 1 .
7.2.1.6. Verification
The mentioned formulas are completely deduced by analytic way. However, they are
only considered as exact solutions when a real yield surface is used. Unfortunately, most
yield surfaces for an I-shaped section (in space behaviour) are established by the approximate
way (see Chen (1977)[20]). Therefore, a post-process of verification is then necessary. From
the location of NA obtained by proposed formulas, the axial force and two bending moments
( N , M y , M z ), the absolute values, may be determined by three corresponding equilibrium
equations (Table 7.2). The following coefficient:
=
N 2 + M y2 + M z2 N 2 + M y2 + M z2
2
N +
M y2
(7.4)
M z2
permits to evaluate the degree of precision of the solution. The value of this coefficient need be
reported in the output so that the exceptional cases are eliminated. Analysis on a large number of
plastic-hinges will highlight this coefficient.
84
In two particular cases (NA4 and NA5), Eqs.(a3) and (b3) in Table 7.2 are not valid.
Therefore, in the case of NA4 (or NA5), N (or M y ) and N (or M y ) in Eq.(7.4) are ignored.
7.2.2. At elastic sections

Since the residual stress is ignored, cross-sections work in the elastic range when their
internal forces are limited by the elastic surface:
e =
N
A
My h Mz b
+
fy = 0 ,
Iy 2
Iz 2
in which, A, I y , I z are the area, and the moment of inertia of the cross-section, respectively.
The coefficient (Table 7.1 and Fig.7.1) may be deduced from the elastic stress at the
points A1, A2, A3, A4 (Fig.7.1). The elastic stress state is easily determined; it does not need to
be presented herein.
7.2.3. At elasto-plastic sections

This kind of section is indicated by the force point that is bounded by the elastic surface
and the yield surface (i.e. e>0 and <0). It is complicated to determinate the exact position
of the neutral axis in this case. Moreover, Eurocode-3 only gives two types of stress distribution:
elastic and plastic. Therefore, the position of the neutral axis in this case may be approximately
determined as the yielded cross-sections (plastic-hinges) with a modified value of the internal
forces: N, My, Mz. In which, is a coefficient such that: (N,My,Mz)=0, it shows that
> 1 . Thus, instead of considering the sections under N, My, Mz, we examine the sections
subjected toN, My, Mz.
To discuss above way, one may agree two following remarks: (1) if a section is compact
under N, My, Mz then it is compact under N, My, Mz; (2) if a section is non-compact under
N, My, Mz then it is either compact or non-compact under N, My, Mz. Therefore, the proposed
way is strict right in the case where the sections are compact under N, My, Mz. In the other
case, if the sections are non-compact under N, My, Mz, the way reserves some securities.
Let us note that the internal force state of N, My, Mz is a fictive state for examination the real
state (N, My, Mz). In fact, from the elasto-plastic state to the plastic state of sections, the
components of internal force changes non-proportionately.
7.3. Classification of cross-sections and local buckling check

7.3.1. Classification of cross-sections
With the parameter for yielded and elasto-plastic sections (see Section 7.2.1.5 and
Section 7.2.3) or the parameter for elastic sections (see Section 7.2.2), cross-sections are
classified by Table 7.1. Class 1 or Class 2 or no class are three possibilities for yielded and
elasto-plastic sections while elastic sections have Class 3 or Class 4.
7.3.2. Local buckling check

Applying the cross-section required for plastic global analysis in Eurocode-3 [46], the
following rule may be adopted:
- Cross-sections in which the active plastic hinge occurs must be Class 1.
- At the passive plastic-hinge and the elasto-plastic sections, only Class 1 or Class 2 is
allowed.
- Cross-sections working in the elastic range must be Class 3.
85
When above requirements are satisfied, the sections resist the local buckling
phenomenon. Conversely, the sections are in the risk of local buckling.

The proposed rule for local buckling detection was implemented in CEPAO computer
program. Second-order plastic-hinge analysis for two 3-D steel frames (six-story and twentystory frames) is chosen to illustrate the technique. The local buckling check is realized
throughout the computation time.
Frame 7.1 Six-story space frame (Fig.7.5): It is the example 4.1 but the member sizes
and the loading cases are varied (Table 7.4). There are two loading cases: (1) Uniform floor
pressure of 4.8 kN/m2; wind loads are simulated by point loads of 26.7 kN in the Y-direction at
every beam-column joint; (2) Four nodal load of 25 kN with negative x direction that apply at
the four nodes of the highest level of the frame. Three cases are examined: Frame-7.1a:
configuration of member size 1 subjects the loading case 1; Frame-7.1b: configuration of
member size 2 supports the loading case 1; Frame-7.1c: configuration of member size 1 with the
loading case 2. In which, the frame-7.1a were analysed in precedent chapters.
Frame-7.2 Twenty-story space frame shown on Fig.4.7 (example 4.2) is analyzed by
the elastic-plastic second-order subroutine under checking the risk of local buckling.
Configuration
Table 7.4: Frame 7.1 Configuration of member size

Group of member size (Fig.7.5)
1
W12x87
W12x120
W10x60
W12x26
W12x53
W18x86
W12x120
W10x60
W12x26
W12x53
Some following points are discussed:
- Load factor at limit state: In Chapter 6, it appears that load ratios according to the
second-order plastic-hinge analysis given by CEPAO are in agreement with other benchmarks
results available from the literature (see Table 6.3). It shows that the data for the process of local
buckling checks are objective data and practical data. The distribution of plastic-hinges of
frame-7.1 is reported on Fig.7.6 while the load-deflection result at referent nodes is reported on
Fig.7.7. There is no space behaviour in the frame-7.1c.
- Local buckling detection: It is realized after each computational step. In Frames 7.1a,
7.1c and 2, all sections satisfy the cross-section requirements for plastic global analysis. It is in
agreement with other research in which the compact sections are assumed. Table 7.5 details the
necessary information of local buckling check for the active plastic-hinges at the limit state of
Frame-7.1a. The particular location of neutral axis (NA4) happens at the plastic hinges in the
frame-1c (Table 7.6). In the other context, at the section 7 of the frame-7.1b (Fig. 7.6b), the risk
of local buckling happens at the web of the section when the load factor reached 2.13 while
plastic-hinge has been already formed with a load factor of 2.08. During the force point moves
on the yield surface, the neutral axis transfers on the cross-section leading to the risk of local
buckling in the web. Developments of this process are described in Table 7.7 and Fig.7.9. It
shows the degree of refinement of present analysis.
- Position of the neutral axis: The value of the coefficient [see Eq. (7.4)] of 103 active
plastic-hinges (both two frames) is summarized on the Table 7.8. This points out: (1) the
Orbisons yield surface (Eq.(3.1)) is in good correlation with the actual yield surface; (2)
86
stress distributions at the plastic-hinges obtained by proposed technique may be applied in

practice with high-level of reliability.
Fig.7.5. Frame-1: Six-story space frame (a perspective view, b- plan view)
a) Frame-7.1a (load factor = 2.033)
b) Frame-7.1b (load factor = 2.254)
c) Frame-7.1c (load factor = 2.161)
Fig.7.6. Frame-7.1: Deformation and distribution of plastic-hinges at the limit state
87
Load multiplier
Risk of local buckling
Risk of local buckling
Frame-7.1b (X direction)
Frame-7.1b (Y direction)
2
Frame-7.1c (Y direction)
Frame-7.1a (X direction)
Frame-7.1c (X direction)
Frame-7.1a (Y direction)
Displacement (m)
0
-0.4
-0.35
-0.3
-0.25
-0.2
-0.15
-0.1
-0.05
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
Fig.7.7. Frame-7.1: Load-deflection results at node A (Fig.7.5) given by CEPAO
Fig.7.8. Frame-7.2: Deformation and distribution of plastic-hinges at the limit state (load multiplier = 1.024)
88
Fig.7.9. Frame-7.1b: behaviour of section 7 (Fig.7.6b indicates the section 7)

Table 7.5: Frame-7.1a: Local buckling check for the active plastic-hinges at the limit state (load factor = 2.032)
Section Given forces
S* P**
1
3
7
9
38
42
44
86
88
97
98
103
104
105
106
109
110
115
116
Location of neutral axis Verified-forces
Mz
My
(kN) (kNm) (kNm)

485.59 528.56 -4.65
539.54 662.91 -97.36
1081.82 463.86 6.06
1820.08 565.43 102.55
295.75 -282.76 25.31
488.98 -267.85 -30.10
603.97 -224.60 -65.58
-12.41 75.24
29.16
13.29
-80.55 28.09
11.44
317.71 4.94
11.44
-317.67 -5.01
25.09
313.83 10.47
25.09
-313.96 -10.38
29.06
536.97 14.11
29.06
-536.94 -14.18
25.51
305.69 17.65
25.51
-305.53 -17.79
18.07
287.60 29.04
18.07 -287.79 -28.96
1
2
1
2
3
3
3
4
4
5
5
5
5
1
1
5
5
5
5
NA
NA2
NA3
NA2
NA2
NA2
NA2
NA3
NA3
NA3
NA3
NA3
NA3
NA3
NA3
NA3
NA3
NA3
NA3
NA3
b1
b2
z1
(mm) (mm)
2.96 38.71 10.72
3.87 57.03 25.37 30.92 62.16 12.80
54.84 53.83
51.23 50.08
3.28 2.10
3.32 2.15
7.07 4.51
7.02 4.46
5.61 3.43
5.63 3.45
11.20 8.63
11.28 8.70
17.67 15.87
17.62 15.82
(mm)
69.48
16.19
159.08
113.20
14.26
41.40
33.09
2.68
2.73
0.69
0.69
1.54
1.54
1.08
1.08
1.60
1.60
1.19
1.19
(kN)
485.59
538.99
1081.82
1820.08
295.75
488.98
603.96
12.66
13.55
11.59
11.59
25.43
25.43
29.56
29.56
25.87
25.87
18.33
18.33
My
Mz
(kNm)
514.12
649.56
465.81
576.80
275.52
265.65
221.07
71.62
76.98
306.57
306.48
299.98
300.09
520.62
520.55
291.20
291.03
276.62
276.72
(kNm)
4.65
97.36
6.06
102.55
25.31
30.10
65.58
29.16
28.09
4.94
5.01
10.47
10.38
14.11
14.18
17.65
17.79
29.04
28.96
Width to thickness ratios

(limit and real)of the web and
compressed outstand flange
[d / t w ] d / t w [b / t f ] b / t f
(%)
1.47
1.23
0.07
0.18
1.21
0.19
0.19
4.02
3.80
3.50
3.52
4.37
4.37
3.03
3.04
4.68
4.68
3.76
3.78
41.91
60.44
31.99
33.49
59.71
46.83
50.14
71.20
68.20
69.35
69.35
68.79
68.79
69.09
69.09
68.75
68.75
69.02
69.02
18.84 8.73
13.71 8.73
18.84 8.73
13.71 8.73
18.64 8.73
18.64 8.73
18.64 8.73
47.34 8.73
47.34 8.73
28.05 8.73
28.05 8.73
28.05 8.73
28.05 8.73
18.84 8.73
18.84 8.73
28.05 8.73
28.05 8.73
28.05 8.73
28.05 8.73
6.43
4.72
6.43
4.72
6.34
6.34
6.34
7.38
7.38
7.37
7.37
7.37
7.37
6.43
6.43
7.37
7.37
7.37
7.37
Remarks: (*): S= Section (see Fig.7.6a), (**): P=Profile (see Table 7.4);
[d / t w ] and [b0 / t f ] are the limited ratios.
Table 7.6: Frame-1c: Local buckling check for the active plastic-hinges at the limit state (load factor = 2.161)
Section Given forces
My
Mz
(kN)
-121.54
-121.54
40.61
-37.93
40.61
-37.93
-0.21
-0.21
-0.21
-0.21
-1.89
-1.89
-1.89
-1.89
(kNm)
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
-152.95
152.95
-152.95
152.95
-152.95
152.95
-152.95
152.95
(kNm)
-143.55
-143.55
143.62
143.62
143.62
143.62
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
S* P**
39
43
54
56
58
60
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
3
3
3
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
Location of neutral axis Verified-forces
NA
b1
b2
z1
My
(mm) (mm) (mm) (kN)

(kNm)
NA4 128.00 128.00 0.00
NA4 128.00 128.00 0.00
NA4 128.00 128.00 0.00
NA4 128.00 128.00 0.00
NA4 128.00 128.00 0.00
NA4 128.00 128.00 0.00
NA2 0.00
0.00
0.07 0.21 150.77
NA2 0.00
0.00
0.07 0.21 150.77
NA2 0.00
0.00
0.07 0.21 150.77
NA2 0.00
0.00
0.07 0.21 150.77
NA2 0.00
0.00
0.65 1.89 150.77
NA2 0.00
0.00
0.65 1.89 150.77
NA2 0.00
0.00
0.65 1.89 150.77
NA2 0.00
0.00
0.65 1.89 150.77
Remarks: (*): S= Section (see Fig.7.6c), (**): P=Profile (see Table 7.4);
[d / t w ] and [b0 / t f ] are the limited ratios.
89
Mz
Width to thickness ratios

(limit and real)of the web and
compressed outstand flange
[d / t w ] d / t w [b / t f ] b / t f
kNm)
141.72
141.72
141.72
141.72
141.72
141.72
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
(%)
0.16
0.16
0.16
0.16
0.16
0.16
1.43
1.43
1.43
1.43
1.43
1.43
1.43
1.43
Infinit
Infinit
Infinit
Infinit
Infinit
Infinit
69.84
69.84
69.84
69.84
70.14
70.14
70.14
70.14
18.64
18.64
18.64
18.64
18.64
18.64
47.34
47.34
47.34
47.34
47.34
47.34
47.34
47.34
8.73
8.73
8.73
8.73
8.73
8.73
8.73
8.73
8.73
8.73
8.73
8.73
8.73
8.73
6.34
6.34
6.34
6.34
6.34
6.34
7.38
7.38
7.38
7.38
7.38
7.38
7.38
7.38
Table 7.7: Frame-7.1b Developments at the section 7 from plastic-hinge occurs to the risk of local buckling
Step
load Given forces

factor
My
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
2.080
2.089
2.097
2.103
2.109
2.116
2.130
Location of
the neutral axis
Mz
(kN)
(kNm)
(kNm)
1170.12
1173.99
1177.23
1179.14
1180.93
1182.96
1186.42
634.17
633.55
633.03
633.11
633.18
633.23
633.14
10.52
10.34
10.19
9.12
8.02
6.69
4.62
NA
b1
Verified-forces
b2
z1
(mm) (mm) (mm)

NA2
NA2
NA2
NA2
NA2
NA2
NA2
7.83
7.70
7.58
6.77
5.93
4.93
3.39
179.24
180.09
180.82
182.43
184.07
186.01
189.05
My
Width-to-thickness
ratios the web
Mz
(kN)
(kNm)
(kNm)
(%)
1170.12
1173.99
1177.23
1179.14
1180.93
1182.96
1186.42
642.61
641.97
641.44
641.42
641.43
641.43
641.33
10.52
10.34
10.19
9.12
8.02
6.69
4.62
0.30
0.30
0.30
0.30
0.29
0.29
0.29
[d / t w ] d / t w
34.24
34.15
34.08
33.93
33.77
33.59
33.31
33.43
33.43
33.43
33.43
33.43
33.43
33.43(*)
(*) Risk of local buckling; [d / t w ] is the limited ratio; position of the section 7 is indicated on Fig.7.6b.
Table 7.8: Evaluation of coefficient for 103 active plastic- hinges

0 1
1< 2
2< 3
3< 4
4 < 4,68
(%)
Number
of case
16
(=15.53%)
39
(=37.86%)
19
(=18.45%)
17
(=16.51%)
12
(=11.65%)
7.5. Conclusions
Proposed technique may be installed in any plastic global analysis procedure, such as
elastic-plastic analysis by the step-by-step method or by the rigid-plastic analysis by
mathematical programming. The risk of local buckling at critical sections is eliminated
according to Eurocode-3s requirements. The present of this subroutine does not influence other
results (e.g. multiplier load), it only points out confident signs about local buckling, and the final
decision belongs to the engineers (e.g. add a stiffener or change the member size). The
robustness of this algorithm is proved by numerical computations. While respecting the rule of
Eurocod-3, it is then an efficient implementation of local buckling detection into automatic
computer code.
90
Chapter
Plastic-hinge analysis of semi-rigid

frames
The terminology semi-rigid frame is used to underline that the behaviours of
connexions/joints are taken into account. In the traditional analysis, rigid or pinned connexions
is adopted, they are the extreme cases of the semi-rigid behaviour. Obviously, the connexion
behaviours influence to the frame responses, such as displacements, internal force distributions.
Therefore, beside member size, we have another parameter to vary our structural solutions. By
consequence, we may obtain economical benefits from the utilization of semi-rigid joints (see
Jaspart (1991)[68], Colson (1992)[34], Guisse (1993)[57]).
The first investigation into semi-rigid connexions of steel frames was dealt with ninety
years ago. A useful history of the domain may be found in the state-of-the-art report by Jones
(1983)[73]. During the last twenty years, the studies on the semi-rigid frames occupy an
important position of the building steel research domain. A large number of authors have been
devoted their efforts to this direction, e.g. Chen (1989, 1991, 1996)[23, 24, 19], Kishi
(1990)[82], Bjorhovde (1990)[8], Maquoi (1991, 1992)[105, 104], Jaspart (1991, 1997, 1998,
2000, 2008)[68, 70, 66, 69, 67], Kim (2001)[77], Cabrero (2005, 2007)[11, 12], among many
others. On the research point of view, there are two principal fields: (1) Modelling of
connexions into forces-net displacements relationships; (2) Global analysis of frames including
the semi-rigid connexions.
This chapter concerns the second field where we present how CEPAO takes into account
the effects of connexions in the global plastic-hinge analysis of steel frames. Various semi-rigid
frames are analyzed by CEPAO; the results are compared with other researches.
Keywords: Semi-rigid frames; Plastic-hinge analysis.
8.1. Practical modelling of connexions

On the one hand, in comparison with other components, the bending moment is
dominant in beam-to-column connexions. On the other hand, according to actual forms of beamto-column joints, the rotational stiffness is the most weak compared with axial and shear
stiffness. Therefore, among all deformation components of joints, the rotational deformation is
the most important (Fig.8.1.a). By consequence, the behaviour of connexions is generally
described by the moment-rotation relationship (Fig.8.1b). Both experiment and numerical
simulation demonstrates that this relationship is nonlinear with the slope depends on the actual
form of assemblages (see Jaspart (1991)[68], Chen (1991)[24]). For the practical purpose, a lot
of simple expressions have been proposed to approximate actual moment-rotation curves. In the
plastic global analysis, the elastic-perfectly plastic modelling is widely adopted (Fig.8.1c) (see
Jaspart (2000)[69]). Two necessary parameters for this modelling are the connexion initial
91
stiffness (R) and the ultimate moment capacity (Mj,p). These parameters of various connexion
types have been introduced in Standards (e.g. Eurocode-3 Part 1-8 [454]).
Fig.8.1. Modelling of beam-to-column connexions
8.2. Effects of semi-rigid connexions

This section deals with the taking into account effects of semi-rigid connexions in
plastic-hinge analysis of steel frames. This question has been examined by many authors, e.g.
Tin-Loi (1993, 1996)[145, 144], Xu (1993)[149], Kim (2001)[77], Hasan (2002)[58], Sekulovi
(2004)[138], Gizejowski (2006)[52], Kaveh (2006)[76], Liu (2008)[91], among others.
Generally, the spring-ends are used to consider effects of initial stiffness while the partial-yield
surfaces are adopted to examine the effects of ultimate strengths.
We suppose that axial and two rotational deformations of joints are considered
(Fig.8.2a). Under effects of axial force and two bending moments, the joint behaviours may be
modelled by a yield surface (Fig.8.2b). The behaviour shown on Fig.8.1c is a particular case of
which in Fig.8.2. In the following, the effects of joints are taken into account in global plastichinge analysis using the connexion yield surface notion.
Fig.8.2. Yield surface of joints
8.2.1. Initial connexion stiffness effect

In the space, a connexion may be modelled as a three-directional spring (axial and two
rotational directions) that is attached in corresponding end of beam-column elements, as the
92
show of Fig.8.3. With spring-ends, the physical relationship of beam-column elements

[Eq.(3.22)] becomes Eq.(8.1):
Fig.8.3. Beam-column element with spring-ends (a: initial configuration; b: deformed configuration; c: spring-ends)
RnA
0
2 EA
RnA + 2 EA / l
0
S1*A EI y
1
0
0
D k =
l
0
0
S 2* EI y
0
0
0
S 2* EI y
S3*A EI z
RnB
2 EA
RnB + 2 EA / l
0
S1*B EI y
S 4* EI z
S 4* EI z
S3*B EI z
0
(8.1)
with :
S1*A = S1 +
S1*B = S1 +
EI y S 22 *
/ Ry ;
lR yB
lR yB
EI y S12 EI y S 22 *
/ Ry ;
lR yA
lR yA
EI y S12
(8.2a)
(8.2b)
EI S 2 EI S 2
S3*A = S3 + z 3 z 4 / Rz* ;
lRzB
lRzB
(8.2c)
EI S 2 EI S 2
S3*B = S3 + z 3 z 4 / Rz* ;
lRzA
lRzA
(8.2d)
(8.2e)
S 2* = S 2 / R*y ;
(8.2f)
S 4* = S 4 / Rz* ;
EI y S1
EI S EI
1 + y 1 y
R *y = 1 +
lR yA
lR yB l
S 22
R R
yA yB
(8.2g)
EI S
EI S EI
S 42
;
Rz* = 1 + z 3 1 + z 3 z
lRzA
lRzB l RzA RzB
(8.2h)
in Eqs. (8.1-8.2h): S1, S2, S3, S4 are the stability functions (Eqs. (6.7a) and (6.7b)); R yA , R yB are
the stiffness in the Y-direction (strong axis) of spring A and B, respectively; RzA , RzB are the
93
stiffness in the Z-direction (weak axis) of spring A and B, respectively; RnA , RnB are the axial
stiffness of spring A and B, respectively; normally, RnA = RnB = .
8.2.2. Ultimate strength effect

Let M j , py , M j , pz , N j , p be respectively the plastic moment in Y-direction, the plastic
moment in Z-direction and the squash load of connexions. As the cross-sections, in principle, we
have yield surfaces for connexions:
j ( N / N j , p , M y / M j , py , M z / M j , pz ) = 0 .
The partial-yield surface ( ) is the surface that envelope the intersection zone. The latter
is constituted by the intersection between the cross-section yield surface and the joint yield
surface (Fig.8.4a).
However, for the practical purpose, one may use the simple partial-yield surface. It is
deduced from the cross-section yield surface but the plastic moments of sections ( M py , M pz ) are
replaced by which of joints ( M j , py , M j , pz ) (Fig.8.4b).
( N / N p , M y / M j , py , M z / M j , pz ) = 0
Fig.8.4. Partial-yield surface
8.2.3. Function objective including connexion cost

Clearly, there is a correlation between the properties (stiffness, strength) and the cost of
connexions. Some authors were mathematized this relationship to take into account the
connexion cost in optimization problems (e.g. Xu (1993)[149], Simes (1996)[139], Hayalioglu
(2005)[59]). In present work, we utilise the cost function proposed by Simes (1996)[139].
According to this reference, the total weight (cost) of a member i including its connexions may
have the following form:
Z i = g i + 0.2 g i 0.8 g i i + 1.6 g i i2
(8.3)
where gi is the member weight, coefficient i is the scale factor defined as:
i = 1 /(1 + 3Ei I yi / R yi li )
94
(8.4)
Where Ei, Iyi, li are respectively the Youngmodulus, the inertia moment and the length
of the member; Ryi is the initial stiffness of connexion about strong axis. It is evident that:
01, in which =0 at the pinner-connexions and =1 at the rigid-connections. We observe in
Eq.(8.4) that the cost of a steel member is increased by 20% if it has pinner-connection; and by
100% if its end-connection is fully rigid.
Coming back to the rigid-plastic design problem, but with the new objective function
Eq.(8.4), for the plastic design problem, it is convenient to define the conventional length
calculating by
li = li + 0.2li 0.8li i + 1.6li i2
(8.5)
It replace the actual length in the function objective of optimization problems (Eq.(5.1)).

For instant, it seem that no available benchmark for 3-D semi-rigid frames in the open
literature; the following examples are the planar frames. The aims of this section are: (1)
comparing the results given by CEPAO with the other researches; (2) observing the behaviour
of semi-rigid frames; (3) confirming again the good convergence between the direct method and
the step-by-step method.
8.3.1. Example 8.1

Shakedown analysis of semi-rigid bending frames: These examples have been already
analysis by Tin-Loi (1993)[145]. In this reference, the relation between the initial stiffness and
the plastic moment of connexions are chosen according to the classification system that was
proposed by Bjorhovde (1990)[8]. The relationship plastic moment-rotation of connexions is
defined as:
M j , p = ( EI y /h) j ,
(8.6)
where is a constant; h is the connecting beam depth. The graphical illustration of this
behaviour is shown in Fig.8.5 where the ranges for rigid, semi-rigid and flexible behaviour are
shown. Let s be the connexion strength, s=Mj,p/Mp where Mp is the plastic moment of the beam.
Intermediate values of plastic moment for given stiffness are interpolated in accordance with the
dashed line (Fig.8.5). Some values of s and corresponding values of are shown on Table 8.1.
Fig.8.5. Moment rotation relationship for connexions
95
Table 8.1: Relation between s and

s
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
25.0000 10.0000 6.2667 4.4000 3.2800 2.5333 2.0000 1.1667 0.5185 0.0000
Note that the relation between R yA , R yB (Eqs.(8.2a) and (8.2b)) and is:
R y = EI y /h .
Fig.8.6. Example 8.1 frame geometry and loading (a-frame 8.1a; b-frame 8.1b)
These examples aim to find the difference between shakedown and collapse limits for
varying connection strengths. Two following mechanical and geometric data (in tonne and meter
units) are examined:
Frame-8.1a: The frame geometry and loading are shown in the Fig.8.6a, the properties of all
elements are: E = 2.1107; I = 118.510-6; MP = 20; h = 0.3;
Frame-8.1b: The frame geometry and loading are shown in the Fig.8.6b, with the following
properties: for the column: E = 2.1107; I = 85.210-6; MP = 10; for the beams: E = 2.1107; I =
118.510-6; MP = 20; h = 0.3.
Table 8.2 and Figs. 8.7a and 8.7b show that the results given by CEPAO are well
agreement with which of Tin-Loi [145]. With the frame 8.1a, the alternating plasticity occurs in
the shakedown analysis with connexion strength s = 0.1 and 0.2.
96
Table 8.2: Example 8.1 Load Multipliers

Connection strengths (s)
Type of analyse
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
Frame 8.1a
Collapse by Tin-loi
3.70
4.01 4.36 4.67
5.05 5.22 5.43
5.60 5.81 6.02
Collapse by CEPAO
3.67
4.00 4.33
5.00
5.20 5.40
5.60 5.80 6.00
Shakedown by Tin-Loi [145]
2.42
3.04 3.77 4.01
4.25 4.53 4.77
5.01 5.29 5.57
Shakedown by CEPAO
2.54
3.28 3.78
4.28
4.67
4.03
4.54
4.81
5.06 5.30
5.56
Frame 8.1b
Collapse by Tin-Loi
0.53
0.80 1.02 1.14
1.25 1.34
1.42
1.49 1.49 1.49
Collapse by CEPAO
0.53
0.80 1.02 1.14
1.25 1.33
1.42
1.48 1.48 1.48
Shakedown by Tin-Loi [145]
0.50
0.71 0.91 1.00
1.12 1.18
1.25
1.31 1.35 1.35
Shakedown by CEPAO
0.50
0.71 0.91
1.12
1.26
1.32 1.35 1.35
1.01
1.19
Fig.8.7. Example 8.1-Variation of load multiplier with connection strength

(a: frame-8.1a; b: frame-8.1b)
8.3.2. Example 8.2

Analysis and optimization for semi-rigid bending frame by CEPAO: A twenty- story
three-bay semi-rigid frame with geometry and loading shown on the Fig.8.8 is analysed by
CEPAO with the following studies: elastic analysis; first-order elastic-plastic analysis; secondorder elastic-plastic analysis; rigid-plastic analysis; shakedown analysis; optimization-limit;
optimization-shakedown. The ultimate strength-initial stiffness relationship of connexions are
defined again by Fig.8.5.
Concerning loading domain, for shakedown problems, two cases are considered: a)
01, 02 and b) -11, 02. For fixed or proportional loading obviously we must
have: 1=2=;
For the optimal problem, forty different groups of elements are chosen as conception
variables (Fig.8.8) and the load factor is fixed = 0.25. The cost of semi-rigid connections are
considered by the conventional length (Eq.(8.5)). In the optimal-shakedown problem, the results
of the iterative process consisting of updating the inertia moments depending on the plastic
capacity: Ik/Imax = (Mpk/Mpmax)1.4.
97
For the analysis problems, seven different groups of elements are considered (Table 8.3).
Tables 8.4 and 8.5 and Figs.8.9 - 8.11 present some results, in which the units are kN and m.
Table 8.3: Example 8.2 Profile used for analysis problems
Groups
1-5
6-10
11-15
16-20
21-25
26-30
31-35
36-40
Profile
IPE550
IPE500
IPE450
IPE330
HE600A
HE550A
HE450A
HE360
Fig.8.8. Example 8.2-frame geometry, group of element and loading
CEPAO has given a picture on the frame behaviour, some remarks are pointed out:
The frame behaviours are regularly reflected by connexion properties (Figs.8.9 and
8.10a). There is a similar between Fig.8.5 and Fig.8.9.
98
Table 8.4 shows that the load factors given by the direct method and the step-by-step
method are exactly coincided. This has not completely obtained in space frames where some
small differences exist. Because in the 2-D bending frames, two plastic conditions are the same
in two methods (bending frame).
In the case of small connection strengths or symmetric loading, the load multipliers
determined by shakedown analysis are the smallest (alternating plasticity occurs). In the design
problems, there exists a value of connection strength (s=0.7 in Fig.8.11b) corresponding to the
minimum weight of the frame (including connections cost). Mentioned value depends on the
conventional length (Eq.(8.5)). En fact, the latter depends on a lot of parameters: the material
cost, the fabrication cost, etc.
Table 8.4: Example 8.2 Load Multipliers of analysis problems
Connection strengths
Type of analyse
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
Rigid-Plastic
0.080 0.121 0.162 0.202 0.244 0.284 0.324 0.360 0.396 0.432
Elastic-plastic first order
0.080 0.121 0.162 0.202 0.244 0.284 0.324 0.360 0.396 0.432
Elastic-plastic second order
0.053 0.088 0.127 0.167 0.205 0.241 0.280 0.316 0.354 0.392
Shakedown, load domain (a)
0.065* 0.110 0.145 0.181 0.217 0.253 0.288 0.324 0.359 0.394
Shakedown, load domain (b)*
0.037 0.070 0.096 0.134 0.166 0.198 0.229 0.260 0.290 0.320
(*) alternating plastic occurs.
Table8.5. Example 8.2 Results of optimal problems

Connection strengths (s)
Type of optimization
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
Theoretical weight (x106)

Optimal Limit (*)
0.280
0.242
0.215
0.196
0.180
0.168
0.158
Optimal Shakedown (*)
0.315
0.260
0.230
0.208
0.192
0.192
0.169
Optimal Limit (**)
0.408
0.385
0.378
0.378
0.383
0.393
0.405
Real weight (tonne) after stability checks

Optimal-Limit (*)
62.13
59.84
56.80
52.18
51.73
49.83
49.41
Optimal-Limit (**)
67.73
66.53
64.53
61.00
64.32
66.93
71.99
(*) member weight considered, (**) member + semi-rigid connections weight considered.
Fig.8.9. Example 8.2-Load-deflection result of step-by-step analysis (a First-order; b Second-order)
99
Fig.8.10. Example 8.2 (a- load multiplier; b- load-deflection result)
Fig.8.11. Example 8.2-Variation of weight according to connection strengths

(a -Theoretical weight; b-Real weight of optimal-limit)
8.3.3. Example 8.3: Limit analysis of semi-rigid frames: a series of semi-rigid frames have been
already considered by Jaspart (1991)[68] (Chapter 9) using FINELG software. The frames are
grouped into three classes B, C and D as the show of Figs.8.12-8.14. Figures 8.15-8.17 reports
the loading types. With limit analysis that gives load multipliers, only the ultimate strengths of
connexions are necessary, the joints initial stiffness are not used.
Fig.8.12. Example 8.3- structure of type B
100
Fig.8.13. Example 8.3- structure of type C
Fig.8.14. Example 8.3- structure of type D
Fig.8.15. Example 8.3- loading for structure of type B
Fig.8.16. Example 8.3- loading for structure of type C
Fig.8.17. Example 8.3- loading for structure of type D
101
On the point of view of semi-rigid connexion research, the discussions were underlined
in Jaspart (1991)[68], they are not rewritten herein. Tables 8.6-8.8 show the load multipliers
given by FINELG and CEPAO. The mechanic collapses of the structures are respectively
reported on Figures 8.18-8.20. The results of two programs are in agreement except the case of
structures DP5 and DP6; it seems that the axial force effects are neglected in [68]. The results
point out again the convergence between two methods in CEPAO.
Table 8.6: Example 8.3- load multiplier given by FINELG (Table 9.4 [68]) and CEPAO (structure B)
Structures
BP1
BP2
BP3
BP4
BP5
BP6
BP7
BP8
BP9
BP10
BP11
BP12
BP13
BP14
Connexionstrength (Fig.8.12)
Loading (Fig.8.15)
Load multipliers
Type
F(kN)
P(kN)
Pc(kN)
H/V
Mj,p1
(kNm)
Mj,p2
(kNm)
FINELG
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
1
12.0
12.0
12.0
12.0
12.0
12.0
12.0
12.0
12.0
12.0
12.0
12.0
12.0
12.0
12.0
12.0
12.0
12.0
12.0
12.0
12.0
12.0
12.0
12.0
12.0
12.0
12.0
6.0
36.0
36.0
36.0
36.0
36.0
36.0
36.0
36.0
36.0
36.0
36.0
36.0
36.0
18.0
0.11
0.11
0.11
0.11
0.11
0.11
0.11
0.11
0.11
0.11
0.11
0.11
0.11
0.22
147.7
147.7
147.7
105.0
77.0
105.0
0.0
39.0
105.0
77.0
147.7
147.7
147.7
77.0
105.0
77.0
39.0
77.0
105.0
147.7
147.7
147.7
39.0
77.0
39.0
77.0
105.0
147.7
2.98
2.96
2.59
2.79
2.69
2.82
2.05
2.51
2.59
2.66
2.74
2.96
2.98
3.43
CEPAO
Step-bystep
method
2.96
2.93
2.59
2.78
2.67
2.78
2.17
2.50
2.59
2.65
2.72
2.94
2.96
3.41
Direct
method
2.91
2.90
2.58
2.75
2.64
2.77
2.06
2.47
2.58
2.62
2.67
2.90
2.91
3.35
Table 8.7: Example 8.3- load multiplier given by FINELG (Table 9.5 [68])and CEPAO (structure C)
Structures
CP1
CP 2
CP 3
CP 4
CP 5
CP 6
CP 7
CP 8
Connexionstrength (Fig.8.13)
Loading (Fig.8.16)
Type
F(kN)
P(kN)
Pc(kN)
H/V
Mj,p1=Mj,p2=Mj,p3
(kNm)
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
10.0
10.0
10.0
10.0
10.0
10.0
2.0
20.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
40.0
50.0
50.0
50.0
50.0
50.0
50.0
50.0
80.0
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.10
25.0
50.0
75.0
100.0
125.0
147.58
100.0
100.0
Load multipliers
CEPAO
FINELG Step-bystep
method
1.35
1.32
1.50
1.47
1.65
1.61
1.80
1.75
1.96
1.90
2.09
2.03
1.98
1.98
1.88
1.77
Direct
method
1.31
1.46
1.60
1.74
1.88
2.00
1.97
1.75
Table 8.8: Example 8.3- load multiplier given by FINELG (Table 9.6 [68])and CEPAO (structure D)
Connexionstrength (Fig.8.14) Load multipliers
StrucLoading (Fig.8.17)
tures
CEPAO
Type F(kN) q1
q2
H/V
Mj,p1==Mj,p6
FINELG Step-by- Direct
method
(kN/m) (kN/m)
(kNm)
step
method
DP1
1
5.0
40.0
0.0083 25.0
1.38
1.38
1.38
DP2
1
5.0
40.0
0.0083 37.5
1.48
1.48
1.47
DP3
1
5.0
40.0
0.0083 51.6
1.59
1.59
1.58
DP4
1
5.0
40.0
0.0083 120.0
1.89
1.87
1.85
2.04
1.99
20.0
0.083
120.0
2.30
DP5
1
25.0
DP6
2
20.0
20.0
40.0
0.222
120.0
2.14
1.78
1.75
102
BP1
BP3
BP2
BP4
BP5
BP6
BP7
BP8
BP9
BP10
BP11
BB12
BP13
BP14
Fig.8.18. Example 8.3- collapse mechanic of structure B given by CEPAO (direct method)
103
CP1
CP2
CP3
CP4
CP5
CP6
CP7
CP8
Fig.8.19. Example 8.3- collapse mechanic of structure C given by CEPAO (direct method)
104
DP1
DP2
DP3
DP4
DP6
DP5
Fig.8.20. Example 8.3- collapse mechanic of structure D given by CEPAO (direct method)
8.4. Conclusion
This chapter demonstrates that the global plastic analysis with the plastic-hinge model is
suitable to take into account the semi-rigid behaviour of connexions. The numerical examples
show that CEPAO is a useful tool for analysis and optimization of semi-rigid steel frames.
105
Chapter
CEPAO package: application aspect

9.1. Introduction
The previous chapters have presented the algorithms for various approaches of plastichinge analysis and design of 3-D steel frames. They were completely implemented in CEPAO
using FORTRAN language. Fig.9.1 shows the global organization of CEPAO package. As the
any computer program, the organization may be divided into three principal parts: input data,
black box and output data.
The black box is the treatment centre that transfers the input data into the output date.
It is the kernel and was formulated in previous chapters for 3-D steel frames and in NguyenDang (1984)[117] for the 2-D bending frames. Many techniques are utilized to improve the
computer capability (time and/or storage); however, they are not presented in this thesis.
On the application aspect, the input and output systems are very important. In some
measure, they show the automatic level of computer programs. Although the input and output
systems are not the aim of this thesis but we strive to minimize burden to users. It is
demonstrated in the following sections.
9.2. Input data

9.2.1. Discretization of frames
As the discussion in Chapter 3, the element used in CEPAO must satisfy the following
condition: straight, prismatic (the area is constant), no load. Therefore, the distributed load must
be lumped; with the global analysis, the uniform load applies on the beam may be divided into
three concentrated load as the show of Fig.9.2. The frames are discretized by a node layout that
are and only are the following positions (Fig.9.3): intersections of beam-to-column, under
concentrated load and variation of sections (rare).
9.2.2. Input file (see Table 9.1)
9.3. Output data

In CEPAO, there are two types of output data: text file and graphic image. In principle,
the text file may furnish all information during the computational procedure. However, the text
file does not us give the intuitive views, without that we have difficult to giving the discussions.
In the numerical examples of previous chapters, some graphics furnished by CEPAO have been
presented. To have a systematic view, Fig.9.5 (the captions written in French) shows an example
that is completely described by graphic-language. This example was realized by the 2-D
version of CEPAO. In these figures, the unit is not appeared, the number indicate the ratio
between the quantities. This example also confirms that CEPAO is a package; we may find in
these images almost keywords of framework plastic analysis domain.
106
Fig.9.1. Global organization of CEPAO (version 2007)
Fig.9.2. A simple method to lump the distributed load
107
Fig.9.3. Discretization of frames

Table 9.1: Description of the input file
Bloc
1
Description
General definitions
General information
Node
information
Element
information
Data (to be inputted)

-Type of frame: 2-D bending/3-D
-Type of problem: analysis/design;
-Type of method:
limit/shakedown/first-order/secondorder
-Number of: node, element, profile
used, fixed node, loading case, load
-Co-ordinate (X, Y, Z)
-End-nodes; local axis definition

(Fig.9.4); material referenced; semirigid information of its nodes (initial
stiffness, ultimate strength).
5
Material
European /American profile (E/A);
information
Its order in the database (see Tables 9.1
and 9.2); Youngmodulus; yield
strength; Hardening parameter.
6
Loading
-Number of loads of the loading case 1
information
-Domain (for shakedown analysis)
Node; direction; value of the loads
(Fig.9.3).
-Number of loads of the loading case 2
-Domain (for shakedown analysis)
Node; direction; value of the loads
7
Bound condition
Fixed nodes
Remark: (*) 0.8=Mj,p/Mp(IPE300) = 118.2/147.7.
Example (Fig.9.3)
PLANNE/SPATIA
ANALYS/OPTIMA
LIMITE/ADAPTA/PASAPA/
PDELTA...
5 4 2 2 2 4
0.0 0.0 0.0
6.0 0.0 0.0
0.0 0.0 4.0
3.0 0.0 4.0
6.0 0.0 4.0
1 3 1 1 1.0 1.0
2 5 1 1 1.0 1.0
3 4 3 2 0.8(*) 1.0
4 5 3 2 1.0 1.0
E 56 2.0E8 2.35E5
E 53 2.0E8 2.35E5
1
-1 1
3 1 10
3
0 1
3 3 -25; 4 3 -50; 5 3 -25
1 2
Fig.9.4. Convention of local axis and of load direction
108
1.0 1.0
1.0 1.0
1.0 1.0
0.8 1.0
151.4
151.4
Table 9.2: European profiles

Profile
IPE 80 A
IPE 80
IPE A 100
IPE 100
IPE A 120
IPE 120
IPE A 140
IPE 140
IPE A 160
IPE 160
IPE A 180
IPE 180
IPE O 180
IPE A 200
IPE 200
IPE O 200
IPE A 220
IPE 220
IPE O 220
IPE A 240
IPE 240
IPE O 240
IPE A 270
IPE 270
IPE O 270
IPE A 300
IPE 300
IPE O 300
IPE A 330
IPE 330
IPE O 330
IPE A 360
IPE 360
IPE O 360
IPE A 400
IPE 400
IPE O 400
IPE A 450
IPE 450
IPE O 450
IPE A 500
IPE 500
IPE O 500
IPE A 550
IPE 550
IPE O 550
IPE A 600
IPE 600
IPE O 600
IPE 750 x 137
IPE 750 x 147
IPE 750 x 173
IPE 750 x 196
IPN 80
IPN 100
IPN 120
IPN 140
Order
1
2
4
5
7
8
9
13
12
17
16
22
25
21
28
31
27
33
37
32
39
43
40
46
52
48
53
61
57
60
70
62
71
79
73
80
90
81
94
110
97
107
124
108
122
135
125
136
159
146
155
172
187
3
6
10
14
Profile
IPN 160
IPN 180
IPN 200
IPN 220
IPN 240
IPN 260
IPN 280
IPN 300
IPN 320
IPN 340
IPN 360
IPN 380
IPN 400
IPN 450
IPN 500
IPN 550
IPN 600
HE 100 AA
HE 100 A
HE 100 B
HE 100 M
HE 120 AA
HE 120 A
HE 120 B
HE 120 M
HE 140 AA
HE 140 A
HE 140 B
HE 140 M
HE 160 AA
HE 160 A
HE 160 B
HE 160 M
HE 180 AA
HE 180 A
HE 180 B
HE 180 M
HE 200 AA
HE 200 A
HE 200 B
HE 200 M
HE 220 AA
HE 220 A
HE 220 B
HE 220 M
HE 240 AA
HE 240 A
HE 240 B
HE 240 M
HE 260 AA
HE 260 A
HE 260 B
HE 260 M
HE 280 AA
HE 280 A
HE 280 B
HE 280 M
Order
19
26
34
41
47
51
59
67
75
82
91
100
111
130
149
167
190
11
18
24
50
15
23
35
65
20
30
42
78
29
38
56
92
36
45
64
106
44
54
77
119
49
63
86
132
58
74
98
162
68
83
112
170
76
93
120
183
Profile
HE 300 AA
HE 300 A
HE 300 B
HE 300 M
HE 320 AA
HE 320 A
HE 320 B
HE 320 M
HE 340 AA
HE 340 A
HE 340 B
HE 340 M
HE 360 AA
HE 360 A
HE 360 B
HE 360 M
HE 400 AA
HE 400 A
HE 400 B
HE 400 M
HE 450 AA
HE 450 A
HE 450 B
HE 450 M
HE 500 AA
HE 500 A
HE 500 B
HE 500 M
HE 550 AA
HE 550 A
HE 550 B
HE 550 M
HE 600 AA
HE 600 A
HE 600 B
HE 600 M
HE 600 x 337
HE 600 x 399
HE 650 AA
HE 650 A
HE 650 B
HE 650 M
HE 650 x 343
HE 650 x 407
HE 700 AA
HE 700 A
HE 700 B
HE 700 M
HE 700 x 352
HE 700 x 418
HE 800 AA
HE 800 A
HE 800 B
HE 800 M
HE 800 x 373
HE 800 x 444
HE 900 AA
Order
85
104
131
202
87
115
140
204
96
121
145
206
99
128
152
208
109
138
161
210
117
148
168
213
123
160
182
214
134
166
191
216
142
175
193
217
229
244
147
184
199
220
232
245
157
192
203
223
235
248
169
198
211
226
238
254
188
Profile
HE 900 A
HE 900 B
HE 900 M
HE 900 x 391
HE 900 x 466
HE 1000 AA
HE 1000 x 249
HE 1000 A
HE 1000 B
HE 1000 M
HE 1000 x 393
HE 1000 x 415
HE 1000 x 438
HE 1000 x 494
HE 1000 x 584
HL 920 x 342
HL 920 x 365
HL 920 x 387
HL 920 x 417
HL 920 x 446
HL 920 x 488
HL 920 x 534
HL 920 x 585
HL 920 x 653
HL 920 x 784
HL 920 x 967
HL 1000 AA
HL 1000 A
HL 1000 B
HL 1000 M
HL 1000 x 443
HL 1000 x 483
HL 1000 x 539
HL 1000 x 554
HL 1000 x 591
HL 1000 x 642
HL 1000 x 748
HL 1000 x 883
HL 1100 A
HL 1100 B
HL 1100 M
HL 1100 R
HD 260 x 54.1
HD 260 x 68.2
HD 260 x 93.0
HD 260 x 114
HD 260 x 142
HD 260 x 172
HD 320 x 74.2
HD 320 x 97.6
HD 320 x 127
HD 320 x 158
HD 320 x 198
HD 320 x 245
HD 320 x 300
HD 360 x 134
HD 360 x 147
Order
209
219
228
242
257
196
207
215
225
234
243
247
252
260
267
230
236
240
249
255
259
263
268
273
277
281
221
227
237
246
253
258
264
266
269
272
276
279
231
241
251
261
69
84
113
129
151
171
88
116
141
164
189
205
222
144
154
Profile
HD 360 x 162
HD 360 x 179
HD 360 x 196
HD 400 x 187
HD 400 x 216
HD 400 x 237
HD 400 x 262
HD 400 x 287
HD 400 x 314
HD 400 x 347
HD 400 x 382
HD 400 x 421
HD 400 x 463
HD 400 x 509
HD 400 x 551
HD 400 x 592
HD 400 x 634
HD 400 x 677
HD 400 x 744
HD 400 x 818
HD 400 x 900
HD 400 x 990
HD 400 x 1086
HP 200 x 43
HP 200 x 53
HP 220 x 57
HP 260 x 75
HP 260 x 87
HP 305 x 79
HP 305 x 88
HP 305 x 95
HP 305 x 110
HP 305 x 126
HP 305 x 149
HP 305 x 180
HP 305 x 186
HP 305 x 223
HP 320 x 88
HP 320 x 103
HP 320 x 117
HP 320 x 147
HP 320 x 184
HP 360 x 84
HP 360 x 109
HP 360 x 133
HP 360 x 152
HP 360 x 174
HP 360 x 180
HP 400 x 122
HP 400 x 140
HP 400 x 158
HP 400 x 176
HP 400 x 194
HP 400 x 213
HP 400 x 231
Order
165
176
186
181
195
201
212
218
224
233
239
250
256
262
265
270
271
274
275
278
280
282
283
55
66
72
89
102
95
103
114
127
139
156
177
180
197
105
118
133
153
179
101
126
143
158
173
178
137
150
163
174
185
194
200
Remark: the profiles are arranged according to their areas. The necessary parameters (geometric and mechanic) of
all profile were installed in CEPAO.
109
Table 9.3: American profiles

Profile
W4x13
W5x16
W5x19
W6x12
W6x15
W6x16
W6x20
W6x25
W6x9
W8x10
W8x13
W8x14
W8x15
W8x18
W8x21
W8x24
W8x28
W8x31
W8x35
W8x40
W8x48
W8x58
W8x67
W10x100
W10x112
W10x12
W10x15
W10x16
W10x17
W10x19
W10x22
W10x26
W10x30
W10x49
W10x54
W10x60
W10x68
W10x77
W10x88
W12x106
W12x120
W12x136
W12x14
W12x152
W12x16
Order
5
12
18
4
9
14
21
28
1
2
6
8
11
17
23
27
33
37
41
45
56
71
79
110
121
3
10
15
16
20
25
29
36
58
65
73
81
92
100
116
127
139
7
149
13
Profile
W12x170
W12x19
W12x190
W12x21
W12x210
W12x22
W12x230
W12x26
W12x30
W12x35
W12x40
W12x45
W12x50
W12x53
W12x58
W12x65
W12x72
W12x79
W12x87
W12x96
W14x109
W14x120
W14x132
W14x145
W14x159
W14x176
W14x193
W14x211
W14x22
W14x233
W14x257
W14x26
W14x283
W14x30
W14x311
W14x34
W14x342
W14x370
W14x38
W14x398
W14x426
W14x43
W14x455
W14x48
W14x500
Order
157
19
165
22
172
26
179
30
34
42
48
52
60
63
70
77
86
93
99
106
119
128
136
142
151
161
167
173
24
180
184
32
192
35
197
39
203
206
44
211
212
50
215
57
216
Profile
W14x53
W14x550
W14x605
W14x61
W14x665
W14x68
W14x730
W14x74
W14x82
W14x90
W14x99
W16x100
W16x26
W16x31
W16x36
W16x40
W16x45
W16x50
W16x57
W16x67
W16x77
W16x89
W18x106
W18x119
W18x130
W18x143
W18x158
W18x175
W18x35
W18x40
W18x41
W18x45
W18x46
W18x50
W18x55
W18x60
W18x65
W18x71
W18x76
W18x86
W18x97
W21x101
W21x111
W21x122
W21x132
Order
64
219
221
74
223
82
224
88
94
102
109
111
31
38
43
46
54
62
69
80
91
101
117
126
133
141
150
159
40
47
49
53
55
59
66
72
78
85
89
98
107
112
120
129
135
Profile
W21x147
W21x166
W21x182
W21x201
W21x44
W21x50
W21x57
W21x62
W21x68
W21x73
W21x83
W21x93
W24x103
W24x104
W24x117
W24x131
W24x146
W24x162
W24x176
W24x192
W24x229
W24x279
W24x306
W24x335
W24x370
W24x55
W24x62
W24x68
W24x76
W24x84
W24x94
W27x102
W27x114
W27x129
W27x84
W27x94
W30x108
W30x116
W30x124
W30x132
W30x148
W30x99
W33x118
W33x130
W33x141
Order
144
154
162
170
51
61
68
76
83
87
95
103
114
115
124
134
143
152
160
166
176
190
196
201
207
67
75
84
90
96
105
113
122
131
97
104
118
123
130
137
145
108
125
132
140
Profile
W33x152
W33x169
W36x135
W36x150
W36x160
W36x170
W36x182
W36x194
W36x210
W36x230
W36x245
W36x260
W36x280
W36x300
W36x328
W36x359
W36x393
W36x439
W36x527
W36x650
W40x149
W40x167
W40x183
W40x199
W40x211
W40x215
W40x235
W40x249
W40x264
W40x277
W40x278
W40x297
W40x324
W40x331
W40x362
W40x392
W40x397
W40x431
W40x503
W40x593
W44x230
W44x260
W44x290
W44x335
Order
148
156
138
147
153
158
163
168
171
177
182
185
191
195
199
204
209
214
218
222
146
155
164
169
174
175
181
183
187
188
189
194
198
200
205
208
210
213
217
220
178
186
193
202
Remark: the profiles are arranged according to their areas. The necessary parameters (geometric and mechanic) of
all profile were installed in CEPAO.
Fig.9.5. Graphic images in the output of CEPAO for 2-D twenty-story frame (start)
110
111
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
121
122
123
124
125
Fig.9.5. Graphic images in the output of CEPAO for 2-D twenty-story frame (end)
9.4. Conclusions
On the application aspect, this chapter demonstrates the advantages of the plastic-hinge
model in generally and of CEPAO in particularly. With an input that similar to which of any
linear elastic analysis, one has a rather complete picture of the nonlinear analysis of frames
under static load. However, for the commercial purpose, the more improvement of the input and
output data system is needed.
126
10
Conclusions
Chapter
A rather complete picture of the automatic plastic-hinge analysis onto steel frames under
static loads is made in the present thesis. The one/two/three-linear behaviours of the mild steel
are considered. The frames are submitted to fixed or repeated load. The geometric nonlinearity
is taken into account. The connexions beam-to-column of structures could be rigid or semi-rigid.
The compact or slender cross-sections are examined. The investigation is carried out using
direct or step-by-step methods. Both analysis and optimization methodologies are applied. From
the fundamental theory to the computer program aspect are presented. Various benchmarks in
the open literatures are tested demonstrating the efficiency of the implementation. The final
remarks are summarized as follows:
Obtaining the actual behaviour of a steel frame by every price is not an optimal solution
because the time and the manpower become more and more rare. In our opinion, the application
of the plastic-hinge model for the global analysis of steel frames is a reasonable choice for
practical design. The plastic-zone methods are suitable to the research offices or to the
design/study of the separate components of the frames, as the beam, the column, the connexions,
etc.
By combining the normality-rule application for the plastic hinges with the formulation of
thirteen-degree-of-freedom-beam-column element (Chapter 3), one has obtained a flexible
algorithm. The fundamental relationship may be applied in both direct and step-by-step method.
The internal forces are associated to the net displacements at the plastic hinges. The strain
hardening behaviour may also be taken into account. The possibility to consider the axial
deformation of the connexions is open.
The standard formulations of the application of linear programming in the classic plastic
problems have been presented the specialized literature. However, without the necessary skills,
it would be not feasible to perform the analysis of large real-world structures. Currently, five
additional necessary techniques are proposed in the present work (Chapters 4 and 5): change of
variables, automatic choice of the initial solution in the simplex algorithm, primal-dual
technique, push-fixed technique and standard-transformation techniques. Those techniques have
played the significant role and their effects are illustrated. Thank to these suggested techniques,
direct method using linear programming technique becomes robust to solve large-scale
problems, even under repeated loading (the shakedown problem).
The idea of the step-by-step methods is always adopted by most people because it is close to
the natural process of thought. There are many texts that present the algorithms for the
conventional elastic-plastic second-order of the steel frames. However, the approach described
in Chapter 6 constitutes an innovative formulation. It deals with a high degree of automatization
and minimizing the breaks in the program process. It allows taking into account the strain
hardening behaviour in plastic-hinge analysis and seems to be a new progress for the plastichinge methodology.
127
Concerning local buckling check, there is the guidance in Standards. However, the
formulation in Chapter 7 would be useful for researches and mostly consultant engineers
because it leads to an extended application of direct analysis to frame design including semicompact and slender cross-sections.
It appears from the numerical results that: The nonlinear Orbisons yield surface [126] has
good correlation with the sixteen-facet polyhedron of AISC-LRFD [1]. The utilizations of the
two yield surfaces, respectively, in the step-by-step and direct methods converge at the ultimate
state. In the case of symmetrical horizontal loading, the alternating plasticity is generally occurs
with a small load multiplier. However, the number of load cycle leading to the fatigue is not
considered in the shakedown theory. For the popular frames, the augmentation of the strength
may reach, at the ultimate state, from 2% to 6% due to the strain hardening effect.
Even if the formulations discussed in present work are not familiar to practical engineers, the
utilisation of CEPAO should not be very difficult for them. Within two hours, a student with the
elementary knowledge about the mechanic of structures could become a good user of CEPAO.
Its input file is similar to those of every computer program for the linear elastic analysis of
frames. On the other hand, CEPAO is an auto-control program. Indeed, with the multi-results
giving by multi-methods, we may confirm the results by the verifications using alternative
computation. The list of 283 European beams (IPE, IPN, HE, HL, HD, HP) and 224 American
beams (W) in Arcelor Sections Commercial is introduced in the database of CEPAO.
Due to the limitation of times, although we have already certain ideas for the shape of its
solutions, the following problems must be tackled in the close future:
It is necessary to consider automatically the stability and stiffness constraints in the plastic
optimization problem for the 3-D steel frames. The configurations given in the output of the
plastic design procedure become then more practice. The stability and stiffness conditions may
be directly considered as the initial constrains of the problem (see Kaneko (1981)[75], Tin-Loi
(2000)[146], Kaliszky (2002)[74], Romero (2004)[133] and Merkeviit (2006)[108]). Or by
other technique, they are taken into account as a post-process (see Nguyen-Dang (1984)[117]).
The first technique is original while the second technique is simple and efficient. However, there
are the gaps in the algorithm of the mentioned references, they need to be improved, for
example: the stability condition are less considered, the 3-D steel frames are not yet examined.
Another technique to optimize the structures is the optimal design of steel frames using
elastic-plastic second-order analysis. Generally, this algorithm is based on an iteration
procedure: selecting the initial configuration, analyzing the frame by second-order algorithm,
checking the stability and stiffness condition according to Standards, and re-selecting the new
configuration (see Choi (2002)[27]). The updating the second-order algorithm of CEPAO and
the requirements of Eurocode-3 in above algorithm will be considered.
The plates, shells and disks structures are also frequently used in construction. The
researches on the plastic analysis of these structures are abundant (e.g. Save (1972, 1995)[135,
134], Nguyen-Dang (1984)[122] and Morelle (1984, 1986, 1989) [111, 110, 109]). We will refer
to them to establish or/and improve the automatic algorithms.
Lige 19th May 2008.
128
References
[1] AISC - Load and Resistance Factor Design Specification for Steel Buildings. American
Institute of Steel Construction, Chicago, 1993.
[2] Argyris JH, Dunne PC, Scharpf DW. On large displacement-small strain analysis of
structures with rotational degrees of freedom. Computer Methods in Applied Mechanic and
Engineering 1978(14):401-451, 1978(15):99-135.
[3] Baset S, Grierson DE, Lind NC. Second-Order Collapse Load Analysis: a LP Approach.
Solid Mechanics Division University of Waterloo, Canada, N117, 1973.
[4] Bathe KJ. Finite element procedures. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1996.
[5] Bathe KJ. Finite element procedures in engineering analysis. Prentice-Hall, Englewood
Cliffs, NJ, 1982.
[6] Battini JM, Pacoste C. Co-rotational beam elements with warping effects in stability
problems. Computer Methods in Applied Mechanic and Engineering 2002(191):1755-1789.
[7] Beckers P. Les fonctions de tension dans la mthode des lments finis. Thse de doctorat,
Universit de Lige, 1972.
[8] Bjorhovde R, Colson A, Brozzetti J. Classification system for beam-to-column connections.
Journal of Structural Engineering-ASCE 1990(116-11):3059-3076.
[9] Bui-Cong T. Analyse directe des tats limites plastiques des structures par programmation
mathmatique et discrtisation par lments finis. Thse de doctorat, Universit de Lige,
1998.
[10] Byfield MP, Davies JM, Dhanalakshmi M. Calculation of the strain hardening behaviour of
steel structures based on mill tests. Journal of Constructional Steel Research 2005 (61):133150.
[11] Cabrero JM, Bayo E. Development of practical design methods for steel structures with
semi-rigid connections. Engineering Structures 2005(27):1125-1137.
[12] Cabrero JM, Bayo E. The semi-rigid behaviour of three-dimensional steel beam-to-column
steel joints subjected to proportional loading. Parts I and II. Journal of Constructional Steel
Research 2007(63):1241-1267.
[13] Cardona A, Gradin M. A beam finite element non-linear theory with finite rotations.
International Journal for Numerical Methods in Engineering 1988 (26):2403-2438.
[14] Casciaro R, Garcea G. An iterative method for shakedown analysis. Computer Methods in
Applied Mechanic and Engineering 2002 (191):5761-5792.
[15] Cescotto S. Etude par lment finis des grands dplacements et grandes dformations:
Application aux problmes spcifiques des matriaux quasi-incompressibles. Thse de
doctorat, Universit de Lige, 1978.
129
[16] Cescotto S, Zhu YY. Large strain dynamic analysis using solid and contact finite elements
based on the mixed formulation: application to metal forming. Journal of Materials
Processing Technology, 1994 (45):657-663.
[17] Charnes A, Greeberg HJ. Plastic collapse and linear programming. Bulletin of the American
mathematical Society 1951:p506.
[18] Chan SL, Chui PPT. A generalized design-based elastoplastic analysis of steel frames by
section assemblage concept. Engineering Structures 1997(19-8):628-636.
[19] Chen WF, Yoshiaki G, Liew JYR. Stability design of semi-rigid frames. John Wiley & sons,
inc, 1996.
[20] Chen WF, Atsuta T. Theory of beam-columns volume 2. McGRAW-HILL, 1977.
[21] Chen WF, Han DJ. Plasticity for structural engineers. Springer-Verlag, N.Y, 1988.
[22] Chen WF, Lui EM (eds). Handbook of structural engineering; Chapter 5: Steel frame design
using advanced analysis. CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida, 2005.
[23] Chen WF, Kishi N. Semi-rigid steel beam-to-column connexions: data base and modelling.
Structural Engineering - ASCE 1989 (115-1):105-119.
[24] Chen WF, Lui EM. Stability design of steel frames. Boca Raton, FL: CRS Press, 1991.
[25] Chen WF. Structural Engineering: Seeing the Big Picture. KSCE Journal of Civil
Engineering 2008(12-1):25-29.
[26] Chen WF. Structural stability: from theory to practice. Engineering Structures 2000(22):116122.
[27] Choi SH, Kim SE. Optimal design of steel frame using practical nonlinear inelastic analysis.
Engineering Structures 2002(24):1189-1201.
[28] Chiorean CG, Barsan GM. Large deflection distributed plasticity analysis of 3D steel
frameworks. Computers & Structures 2005(83):1555-1571.
[29] Cocchetti G, Maier G. Elastic-plastic and limit-state analysis of frames with softening
plastic-hinge models by mathematical programming. International Journal of Solids and
Structures 2003(40):7219-7244.
[30] Cohn MZ, Ghosh SK, Parimi SR. A unified approach to the theory of plastic structures.
Solid Mechanic Division Report 78, University of Waterloo, Canada, 1971.
[31] Cohn MZ, Grierson DE. An automatic approach to the analysis of plastic frames under fixed
or variable loading. Solid Mechanic Division Report 22, University of Waterloo, Canada,
1969.
[32] Cohn MZ, Maier G. Engineering Plasticity by Mathematical Programming. University of
Waterloo, Canada, 1979.
[33] Cohn MZ, Parimi SR. Optimal design of structures for fixed and shakedown loading. Solid
Mechanic Division Report 98, University of Waterloo, Canada, 1971.
[34] Colson A, Bjorhovde R. Intrt conomiques des assemblages semi-rigides. Construction
Mtallique 1992(2):37-41.
[35] Cuong NH, Kim SE, Oh JR. Nonlinear analysis of space frames using fibre plastic hinge
concept. Engineering Structures 2006(29):649-657.
[36] Davies JM. Second-order elastic-plastic analysis of plan frames. Journal of Constructional
Steel Research 2002 (58): 1315-1330.
130
[37] Davies JM. Strain hardening, local buckling and lateral-torsional buckling in plastic hinges.
Journal of Constructional Steel Research 2006 (62):27-34.
[38] de Saxc G, Ohandja LMA. Une mthode automatique de calcul de leffet P-Delta pour
lanalyse pas - - pas des ossatures planes. Construction Mtallique 9/1985(3).
[39] Dentzig GB. Application et prolongement de la programmation linaire. Dunord, Paris 1966.
[40] Doghri Issam. Mechanics of deformable solids: linear and nonlinear, analytical and
computational aspects. Springer 2000.
[41] Domaszewski M, Borkowski A. An automatic selection of redundancies. Computers &
Structures 1979(10):577-582.
[42] Domaszewski M, Stanislawska ES. Explicit solution of limit analysis problems as interval
linear programs. Engineering Analysis 1984(1-2):110-116.
[43] Domaszewski M, Stanislawska ES. Optimal shakedown design of frames by linear
programming. Computers & Structures 1985(21-3):379-385.
[44] Donald WW. Plastic-hinge methods for advanced analysis of steel frames. Journal of
Constructional Steel Research 1993(24):121-152.
[45] Eurocode-3: Design of steel structures Part 1-8: Design of connexions. European
Committee for Standardization, 1993.
[46] Eurocode-3: Design of steel structures Part 1-1: General rules and rules for building.
European Committee for Standardization, 1993.
[47] Foukle J. The minimum weight design of structural frames. Proc. Roy. Soc. London, srie
A, 1954 (223): p82.
[48] Fraijs de Veubeke B. Displacement and equilibrium models in the finite element method.
Stress Ananlysis, ed. Zienkiewics OC, Wiley and Sons, 1965:145-197.
[49] Franchi A, Grierson DE, Cohn MZ. An elastic-plastic analysis computer system. Solid
Mechanic Division Paper 157, University of Waterloo, Canada, 1979.
[50] Frey F. L'analyse statique non linaire des structures par la mthode des lments finis et son
application la construction mtallique. Thse de doctorat, Universit de Lige, 1979.
[51] Gradin M, Rixen D. Mechanical vibrations: theory and application to structural dynamics.
New York, NY: John Weily, 1997.
[52] Gizejowski MA, Barszcz AM, Branicki CJ, Uzoegbo HC. Review of analysis methods for
inelastic design of steel semi-continuous frames. Journal of Constructional Steel Research
2006(62):81-92.
[53] Gong Y, Xu L, Grierson DE. Sensitivity analysis of steel moment frames accounting for
geometric and material nonlinearity. Computer & Structures 2006(84):426-475.
[54] Grierson DE. Computer-based methods for the plastic analysis and design of building
frames. ASCE-IABSE Joint Committee on Planning and Design of Tall Building, Report to
Technical Committee 15, 1974.
[55] Grierson DE, Gladwell ML. Collapse load analysis using linear programming. Journal of the
Structural Division - ASCE 1971(5):1561-1573.
[56] Grierson DE. Deformation analysis of Elastic-plastic frames. Journal of the Structural
Division - ASCE 1972(98-10): 2247-2267.
131
[57] Guisse S. Quelle conomie attendre de la mise en oeuvre de noeuds semi-rigides?.

Construction Mtallique 1993(3):19-27.
[58] Hasan R, Xu L, Grierson DE. Push-over analysis for performance-based seismic design.
Computer & Structures 2002(80):2483-2493.
[59] Hayalioglu MS, Degertekin SO. Minimum cost design of steel frames with semi-rigid
connection and column bases via genetic optimization. Computers & structures
2005(83):1849-1863.
[60] Hoang-Van L, Nguyen-Dang H. Limit and shakedown analysis of 3-D steel frames.
Engineering Structures 2008(30):1895-1904.
[61] Hoang-Van L, Nguyen-Dang H. Plastic optimization of 3-D steel frames under fixed or
repeated loading: reduction formulation. Engineering Structures, under review 2008.
[62] Hoang-Van L, Nguyen-Dang H. Local buckling check according to Eurocode-3 for plastichinge analysis of 3-D steel frames. Engineering Structures 2008(30): 3105-3513.
[63] Hoang-Van L, Nguyen-Dang H. Second-order plastic-hinge analysis of 3-D steel frames
including strain hardening effects. Engineering Structures 2008(30): 3505-3512.
[64] Hodge PG. Plastic analysis of structures. McGraw Hill, New York, 1959.
[65] Izzuddin BA. Conceptional issues in geometrically nonlinear analysis of 3-D framed
structures. Computer Methods in Applied Mechanic and Engineering 2001(191):1029-1053.
[66] Jaspart JP, Vandegans D. Application of the component method to column base. Journal of
constructional steel research 1998(48):89-106.
[67] Jaspart JP, Demonceau JF. European design recommendations for simple joints in steel
structures. Journal of Constructional Steel Research 2008(64):822-832.
[68] Jaspart JP. Etude de la semi - rigidit des nuds poutre - colonne et son influence sur la
rsistance et la stabilit des ossatures en acier. Thse de doctorat, Universit de Lige, 1991.
[69] Jaspart JP. General report: section on connexions. Journal of Constructional Steel Research
2000(55):69-89.
[70] Jaspart JP. Recent advances in the field steel joints column - Bases and further
configurations for beam-to-column joints and beam splices. Professorship thesis, University
of Lige, 1997.
[71] Jiang XM, Chen H, Liew JYR. Spread-of-plasticity analysis of three-dimensional steel
frames. Journal of Constructional Steel Research 2002 (58):193-212.
[72] Jirsek M, Baant ZP. Inelastic Analysis of Structure. John Wiley & Sons, LTD, 2001.
[73] Jones SW, Kirby PA, Nethercot DA. The analysis of frames with semi-rigid connexion- a
state-of-the-art-report. Journal of Constructional Steel Research 1983(3-2):2-13.
[74] Kaliszky S, Lg J. Plastic behaviours and stability constraints in the shakedown analysis
and optimal design of trusses. Structural and Multidisciplinary Optimization 2002 (24):118124.
[75] Kaneko L, Maier G. Optimum design of plastic structures under displacement constraints.
Computer Methods in Applied Mechanic and Engineering 1981, (27-3):369-392.
[76] Kaveh A, Moez H. Analysis of frames with semi-rigid joints: A graph-theoretical approach.
Engineering Strcutures 2006(28):829-836.
132
[77] Kim SE, Choi SH. Practical advanced analysis for semi-rigid space frames. International
Journal of Solids and Structures 2001 (38):9111-9131.
[78] Kim SE, Cuong NH, Lee DH. Second-order inelastic dynamic analysis of 3-D steel frames.
International Journal of Solids and Structures 2006 (43):1693-1709.
[79] Kim SE, Lee J, Part JS. 3-D second - order plastic-hinge analysis accounting for lateral
torsional buckling. International Journal of Solids and Structures 2002 (39):2109-2128.
[80] Kim SE, Lee J, Part JS. 3-D second - order plastic-hinge analysis accounting for local
buckling. Engineering Structures 2003 (25):81-90.
[81] Kim SE, Park MH, Choi SH. Direct design of three-dimensional frames using advanced
analysis. Engineering Structures 2001(23):1491-1502.
[82] Kishi N, Chen WF. Moment-rotation relations of semi-rigid connexions with angles.
Structural Engineering - ASCE 1990 (116-7):1813-1834.
[83] Koiter WT. General theorem for elastic-plastic solids. Progress in Solid Mechanic, North
Holland, Amsterdam, 1960(1):165-221.
[84] Knig JA. Shakedown of elastic-plastic structures. Elsevier, Amsterdam, 1987.
[85] Landesmann A, Batista EM. Advanced analysis of steel buildings using the Brazilian and
Eurocode-3. Journal of Constructional Steel Research 2005 (61):1051-1074.
[86] Lescouarc'h Y. Calcul en plasticit des structures barres avec prise en compte de
linfluence moment de flexion - effort normal. Annales de linstitut technique de btiment et
des travaux publics, supplment au N0 326 mars 1975.
[87] Lescouarc'h Y. Programme de calcul en lasto-plasticit des structures planes. Construction
Mtallique 1976(1):40-50.
[88] Liew JYR, Chen H, Shanmugam NE, Chen WF. Improved nonlinear plastic hinge analysis
of space frame structures. Engineering Structures 2000(22): 1324-1338.
[89] Liew JYR, Chen H, Shanmugam NE. Inelastic analysis of steel frames with composite
beams. Journal of Structural Engineering - ASCE 2001; 127(2): 194-202.
[90] Liew JYR, White DW, Chen WF. Second order refined plastic hinge analysis for frame
design: parts 1 and 2. Journal of Structural Engineering-ASCE 1993; 119 (11): 3196-1237.
[91] Liu Y, Xu L, Grierson DE. Compound-element modelling accounting for semi-rigid
connexions and member plasticity. Engineering Structures 2008(30):1292-1307.
[92] Lubliner J. Plasticity theory. Macmilan Publising Company, 1990.
[93] Maier G. A matrix structural theory of piecewise linear elastoplastic with interacting yield
plan. Meccanica 1970 (5):54-66.
[94] Maier G, Garvelli V, Cocchetti G. On direct methods for shakedown and limit analysis.
European Journal of Mechanics/A: Solids 2000 (19):S79-S100.
[95] Maier G, Giacomini S, Paterlini F. Combined elastoplastic and limit analysis via restricted
basis linear programming. Computer Method in Applied Mechanics and Engineering 1979
(19):21-48.
[96] Maier G. Increment plastic analysis in the presence of large displacement and physical
instabilizing effects. International Journal of Solids and Structures 1971 (7):345-372.
[97] Maier G. Mathematical programming applications to structural mechanics: some
introductory thoughts. Key Note, Workshop of Lige, 1 june 1982.
133
[98] Maier G. Mathematical programming methods in structural analysis. Proc. Int. Symp. On
Variational Methods in Engineering (ed. by Brebbia C, Tottenham H), Southampton
Universiy Press, 1973.
[99] Maier G, Munro J. Mathematical programming applications to engineering plastic analysis.
Appl Mech Rev 1982(35):1631-1643.
[100] Maier G. Piecewise linearization of yield criteria in structural plasticity. SM Archives
1976(1):239-281.
[101] Maier G. Quadratic programming and theory of elastic-perfectly plastic structures.
Meccanica 1970 (3):121-130.
[102] Maier G. Shakedown theory in perfect elastoplasticity with associated and nonassocieted
flow-laws: A finite element linear programming approach. Meccanica 1969 (4):250-260.
[103] Maier G, Srininavan R, Save M. On limit design of frames using linear programming. Proc.
Int. On Computer-Aide Structural Design, University of Warwick, 1972.
[104] Maquoi R, Jaspart JP. Modelling of beam-to-column joints for the design of steel building
frames. Constructional Steel Design Conference: World developments, Edited by Dowling
PJ, Harding JE, Bjorhovde R and Martinez-Romero E, Elsevier Applied Science, 1992.
[105] Maquoi R. Semi-rigid joints: from research to design practice. In "Steel structures: Recent
research and development" ed. by Lee SL, Shanmugan NE, 1991.
[106] Massonnet Ch, Save M. Calcul plastique des constructions, Volume 1, Nelissen, Belgique,
1976.
[107] Massonnet Ch. Faut-il introduire l'hypothse de Bernoulli en rsistance des matriaux? Bull.
Soc. Roy. Des Sci., 12, 301, Lige 1947.
[108] Merkeviit D, Atkoinas J. Optimal shakedown design metal structures under stiffness
and stability constraints. Journal of Constructional Steel Research 2006 (62):1270-1275.
[109] Morelle P. Analyse duale de l'adaptation plastique des lments finis et la programmation
mathmatique. Thse de doctorat, Universit de Lge, 1989.
[110] Morelle P. Numerical shakedown analysis of axisymmetric sandwich shells: An upper bound
formulation. International Journal for Numerical Methods in Engineering 1986(23):20712088.
[111] Morelle P. Structural shakedown analysis by dual finite-element formulation. Engineering
Structures 1984(6):70-79.
[112] Mrz Z, Weichert D, Dorosz S (eds). Inelastic behaviour of structures under variable loads.
Kluwer, Dordrecht, The Netherlands, 1995.
[113] Munro J, Smith DL. Linear programming duality in plastic analysis and synthesis. Proc. Int.
Symp.Computer Aided Structural Design, Coventry, 1972.
[114] Neal BG. The plastic method of structural analysis. Chapman & Hall, London, 1956.
[115] Nguyen-Dang H, Knig JA. A finite element formulation for shakedown problems using a
yield criterion of the mean. Computer Methods in Applied Mechanics and Engineering 1976
(8):81-116.
[116] Nguyen-Dang H. Applications of mathematical programming method to structural analysis
and design. Proceeding of the Workshop of Lige, 1 june 1982.
134
[117] Nguyen-Dang H. CEPAO-an automatic program for rigid-plastic and elastic-plastic, analysis
and optimization of frame structure. Engineering Structures 1984 (6): 33-50.
[118] Nguyen-Dang H, de Saxc G. Frictionless contact of elastic bodies by finite elements
method and mathematical programming technique. Computer & Structures 1980(11):55-68.
[119] Nguyen-Dang H. Displacement and equilibrium methods in matrix analysis of trapezoidal
structures. Collection des publications de la Facult des Sciences Appliques, Universit de
Lige, N0 21, 1970.
[120] Nguyen-Dang H, Hoang Van L. A united algorithm for limit state determination of frames
with semi-rigid connexion. In: Collection of papers from Pro. Nguyen-Dang Hungs former
students (edited by de Saxc G and Mos N), Ho-Chi-Minh City 2006.
[121] Nguyen-Dang H. Plastic collapse of shells of revolution by non-linear programming and
finite element techniques. Journal of Engineering Mechanics Division - ASCE 1978 (104/3):
707-712.
[122] Nguyen-Dang H. Sur la plasticit et le calcul des tats limites par lment finis. Thse de
doctorat spcial, Universit de Lige, 1984.
[123] Nguyen-Dang H. Sur l'utilisation du simplexe dans le CEPAO. Rapport interne N133,
Laboratoire de Mcanique des Matriaux et Statique des Constructions, Universit de Lige,
1982.
[124] Nguyen-Dang H, Trapletti M, Ransart D. Bornes quasi-infrieure et bornes suprieures de la
pression de ruine des coques de rvolution par la mthode lments finis et par la
programmation non-linaire. International Journal of Non-linear Mechanics 1978(13):79102.
[125] Nguyen-Dang H. Une mthode automatique du calcul de dplacement lasto-plastique juste
avant la ruine. Construction Mtallique 1983(1):27-36.
[126] Orbison JG, McGUIRE W, Abel JF. Yield surface applications in nonlinear steel frame
analysis. Computer Method in Applied Mechanics and Engineering 1982(33):557-573.
[127] Parimi SR, Ghosh SK, Cohn MZ. The computer programme DAPS for the design and
analysis of plastic structures. Solid Mechanics Division Report 26, University of Waterloo,
Canada, 1973.
[128] Ponthot JP. Traitement unifi de la mcanique des milieux continus solides en grandes
transformations par la mthode des lments finis. Thse de doctorat, Universit de Lige,
1994.
[129] Ponthot JP. Unified stress update algorithms for the numerical simulation of large
deformation elasto-plastic and elasto-viscoplastic processes. International Journal of
Plasticity 2002(18):91-126.
[130] Rondal J. Contribution ltude de la stabilit des profils creux paroi minces. Thse de
doctorat, Universit de Lige, 1984.
[131] Rondal J, Maquoi R. Formulations d'Ayrton-Perry pour le flambement des barres
mtalliques. Construction Mtallique 1979(4):41-53.
[132] Rodrigues PFN, Jacob BP. Collapse analysis of steel jacket structures for offshore oil
exploitation. Journal of Constructional Steel Research 2005(61):1147-1171.
[133] Romero J, Mappa PC, Herskovits J, Mota Soares CM. Optimal truss design including plastic
collapse constraints. Structural and Multidisciplinary Optimization 2004(27):20-26.
135
[134] Save M. Atlas of limit loads of metal plates, shells and disks. ELSEVIER, 1995.
[135] Save M, Massonnet Ch. Calcul plastic des constructions, Volume 2. Nelissen, Belgique,
1972.
[136] Save M. On yield conditions in generalized stress. Quart. Of Applied Math 1961(XIX- 3).
[137] Sawczuk A. Yield surfaces. Solid Mechanic Division, Technical note 1, University of
Waterloo, Canada, 1971.
[138] Sekulovi M, Danilovi MN. Static inelastic analysis of steel frames with flexible
connexions. Theory. Appl. Mech. Belgrade 2004(31-2):101-134.
[139] Simes LMC. Optimization of frames with semi-rigid connections. Computers & structures
1996 (60-4):531-539.
[140] Smith DL (ed). Mathematical Programming Method in Structural Plasticity. Springer
Verlag, New York, 1990.
[141] Teh LH, Clarke MJ. Co-rotational and Lagrangian formulation for elastic three-dimensional
beam finite elements. Journal of Constructional Steel Research 1998(48):123-144.
[142] Timoshenko SP, Goodier JM. Theory of Elasticity. McGraw-Hill, New York, 1951.
[143] Timoshenko SP, Young DH. Element of Strength of Materials. Van Nostrand, Princeton,
New Jersey, 1962.
[144] Tin Loi F, Vimonsatit V. Nonlinear analysis of semi-rigid frames: a parametric
complementarity approach. Engineering Structure 1996 (18-2): 115-124.
[145] Tin Loi F, Vimonsatit V. Shakedown of frame with semi-rigid connections. Journal of
Structural Engineering-ASCE 1993(119-6):1694-1711.
[146] Tin-Loi F. Optimum shakedown design under residual displacement constraints. Structural
and Multidisciplinary Optimization 2000(19):130-139.
[147] Vu-Duc K, Yan YM, Nguyen-Dang H. A dual form for discretized kinematic formulation in
shakedown analysis. International Journal of Solids and Structures 2004 (41):267-277.
[148] Weichert D, Maier G (eds). Inelastic analysis of structures under variable repeated loads.
Kluwer, Dordrecht, The Netherlands, 2000.
[149] Xu L, Grierson DE. Computer- automated design of semi-rigid steel frameworks. Journal of
Structural Engineering- ASCE 1993(119-6): 1741-1760.
[150] Yan AM, Nguyen-Dang H. Limit analysis of cracked structures by mathematical
programming and finite element technique. Computational Mechanics 1999(23):319-333.
[151] Zienkiewicz OC. Elasto-plastic solutions of engineering problems. Initial stress, finite
element approach. International Journal for Numerical Methods in Engineering 1969 (1):75100.
[152] Zienkiewicz OC, Taylor RL. The finite element method. Vol. 1 Basic formulation and
linear problems, 4th edition, McGraw Hill Book Co., England, 1989.
[153] Zienkiewicz OC, Taylor RL. The finite element method. Vol. 2 Solid and fluid mechanics,
dynamics and nonlinearity, 4th edition, McGraw Hill Book Co., England, 1991.
136

Automatic Plastic-Hinge Analysis

Transféré par

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

Automatic Plastic-Hinge Analysis

Transféré par

Informations du document

Description originale:

Titre original

Copyright

Formats disponibles

Partager ce document

Partager ou intégrer le document

Options de partage

Avez-vous trouvé ce document utile ?

Ce contenu est-il inapproprié ?

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

Automatic Plastic-Hinge Analysis

Transféré par

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

UNIVERSIT DE LIGE

FACULT DES SCIENCES APPLIQUES

Automatic plastic-hinge analysis

Thse dfendue, avec succs, le 24 septembre 2008, pour lobtention du garde

Jury: J.P. JASPART, Professeur lUniversit de Lige, Prsident

An overview of the plastic-hinge analysis for steel frames

1.1.1. Discretization of structures

1.3. Step-by-step methods for plastic-hinge analysis

1.4. Computer program aspect

Inelastic behaviour of frames and fundamental theorems

2.1. Loading types

2.2. Material behaviour

2.3. Structural behaviour

2.3.1. Under simple loading

2.4. Fundamental theorems

2.4.1. Equation of virtual power

3.1. Modelling of plastic hinges

3.1.1. Yield surfaces

3.2.1. Compatible and equilibrium relations

Limit and shakedown analysis of 3-D steel frames by linear

4.1. General formulation

4.2. Limit analysis by kinematic method

4.2.1. Standard kinematic approach

4.4. Determination of referent displacement

4.5. Numerical example and discussions

Limit and shakedown design of 3-D steel frames by linear

5.1. Weight function

5.2. Limit design by static approach

5.2.1. Direct algorithm

5.2.2.2. Standard-transformation technique

5.4. Advantages of semi-direct algorithm

5.5. Numerical example and discussions

Second-order plastic-hinge analysis of 3-D steel frames including

6.2. Global plastic-hinge analysis formulation

6.2.1. Elastic-plastic constitutive equation

6.3. Limit effective strain hardening and strain hardening modulus

6.4. Numerical examples and discussions

Local buckling check according to Eurocode-3 for plastic-hinge

7.1. Conception of local buckling in Eurocode-3

7.2. Stress distribution over a cross-section

7.2.1. At yielded section (plastic-hinge)

7.2.2. At elastic sections

7.3. Classification of cross-sections and local buckling check

7.4. Numerical examples and discussions

Plastic-hinge analysis of semi-rigid frames

8.1. Practical modelling of connexions

8.2. Effect of semi-rigid connexions

8.2.1. Initial stiffness effects

8.3. Numerical examples

8.3.1. Example 8.1

CEPAO package: Application aspect

9.2. Input data

9.2.1. Discretization of structures

9.3. Output data

Chapter 1 constitutes an overview of plastic-hinge analysis of frameworks. It aims to

1.1. Models in plastic-hinge analysis

Connexions behaviours: Either rigid or semi-rigid behaviour is adopted for the

Fig.1.1. Behaviours of critical sections

Eq.(3.13) shows that the plastic dissipation is uniquely depending on because s 0 is a