Papers by Sara Omar
Upon discovering the arrival of guests at Lot's home, the men of the city rushed to his door and ... more Upon discovering the arrival of guests at Lot's home, the men of the city rushed to his door and demanded that he bring them out, prompting Lot to respond by offering his daughters to the mob instead (Q 11:78-79, 15:67-71). The depiction of Lot's offer of his daughters in Q 11:78-79 and 15:67-71 has troubled many scholars, some of whom question both the nature of this offer and Lot's moral character. While early Muslim sources depict Lot as a righteous host and focus on the legal implications of his offer, later scholars grapple with how Lot sought to protect his guests. Such concerns arise from the later Muslim belief that Lot, being a prophet, is protected from sin. In this article, I propose adopting a historical reading of Lot's offer of his daughters that takes into account early Muslims' perceptions of the Lot narrative as fundamentally about hospitality. Moreover, I contend that Lot's offer of his daughters can be read in light of other ancient narratives of "sacrificial children" for the purpose of upholding the sacred virtues of hospitality, generosity, and loyalty.
JAOS, 2025
This paper was accepted in JAOS. It will be published in their second issue in 2025.
Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān Online Brill, 2023
Invoking the Qurʾān in a Muslim Debate Over Suicide Attacks, 2020
Shortly after the outbreak of the Second Palestinian Intifad, a debate arose among Muslim scholar... more Shortly after the outbreak of the Second Palestinian Intifad, a debate arose among Muslim scholars over the religious legitimacy of "suicide" attacks in the State of Israel as a form of resistance. This paper explores some of the arguments offered by some Muslim scholars in support of martyrdom operations in this context and those who oppose them, as acts of suicide.
The formative period of Islam remains highly contested. From the beginning of modern scholarship ... more The formative period of Islam remains highly contested. From the beginning of modern scholarship on this formative period, scholars have questioned traditional Muslim accounts on early Islam. The scholarly fi xation is mirrored by sectarian groups and movements within Islam, most of which trace their origins to this period. Moreover, contemporary movements from Salafi sts to modernists continue to point to Islam's origins to justify their positions. This Handbook provides a defi nitive overview of early Islam and how this period was understood and deployed by later Muslims. It is split into four main parts, the fi rst of which explores the debates and positions on the critical texts and fi gures of early Islam. The second part turns to the communities that identifi ed their origins with the Qur ʾ ā n and Mu ḥ ammad. In addition to the development of Muslim identities and polities, of particular focus is the relationship with groups outside or movements inside of the umma (the collective community of Muslims). The third part looks beyond what happened from the 7th to the 9th centuries CE and explores what that period, the events, fi gures, and texts have meant for Muslims in the past and what they mean for Muslims today. Not all Muslims or scholars are willing to merely reinterpret early Islam and its sources, though; some are willing to jettison parts, or even all, of the edifi ce that has been constructed over almost a millennium and a half. The Handbook therefore concludes with discussions of re-imaginations and revisions of early Islam and its sources. Almost every major debate in the study of Islam and among Muslims looks to the formative period of Islam. The wide range of contributions from many of the leading academic experts on the subject therefore means that this book will be a valuable resource for all students and scholars of Islamic studies, as well as for anyone with an interest in early Islam.
This essay is an examination of classical jurists' legal determinations pertaining to liwāṭ (sodo... more This essay is an examination of classical jurists' legal determinations pertaining to liwāṭ (sodomy) and siḥāq (tribadism), both of which have been little studied in their legal context. In exploring jurists' logic and legal categorizations, I argue that three major factors contributed to their legal injunctions: (1) their use of zinā (illicit sex between a man and a woman) as the paradigm by which to punish liwāṭ and siḥāq, (2) their perception of sexual intercourse as an exclusively male act of phallic penetration, and (3) an individual's legal status within the social hierarchy as reflected in jurisprudential discussions of illicit sexual intercourse (zinā). Juristic disagreements over the semantics and definitions of these three factors extended to the treatment of liwāṭ and siḥāq and, ultimately, became normative doctrine.
The Oxford Encyclopedia of Islam and Law by Sara Omar
The topic of gender segregation is one that has evoked many polemical debates throughout history.... more The topic of gender segregation is one that has evoked many polemical debates throughout history. In this area Islamic legal norms and cultural mores have frequently blurred, with strong, conservative cultural restrictions often extending the hortative aspects of fiqh into the realm of restrictive practice. The Quranic verses that make reference to this issue are not explicit. Traditionally, Quran 33:53, specifically addressing the veiling of the Prophet's wives, has been understood to extend to all believing women. Furthermore, Quran 24:30-31 instruct both believing men and women to lower their gaze and protect their private parts, thereby encouraging modest behavior. Few ḥadīths address gender segregation specifically, but one notable ḥadīth that addresses illicit mingling between the sexes is, "Whenever a man is alone with a woman, Satan is the third among them" (al-Tirmidhī). Another draws a figurative link between the interaction with marriageable members of the opposite sex and fornication (zinā): " the zinā of the eyes is looking, the zinā of the tongue is speaking… " (Muslim). Shariah rulemaking on gender mixing was bound closely to efforts to prevent fornication. Along these lines, classical Muslim jurists employed the preventative principle of sadd al-dharāʾiʿ (blocking lawful means) to prohibit the seclusion of a man and a woman in a concealed space. As such, if a man and a woman are alone, this seclusion is prohibited even if zinā does not occur. Similarly, hand shaking, kissing, caressing, hugging, fondling, etc., between an unmarried man and woman are all prohibited since they are a means to committing zinā, even if zinā does not result. The purpose of this principle is therefore to prevent evil before it materializes, in this context the two feared evils of zinā (illicit sexual intercourse) and fitnah (lit. tribulation or affliction). Such rulemaking was pursued in light of the Quran's command " do not approach zinā " (Quran 17:32). In lieu of clear textual evidence, jurists differed on the degree of mixing permissible between the sexes. Most dangerous was seclusion (khalwah); most jurists generally agreed that the seclusion of an unmarried man and woman is prohibited. Jurists differed, however, on whether the seclusion of a man and multiple women or a number of men and a single woman was permissible. For example, the influential Shāfiʿī jurist al-Juwaynī (d. 478/1085) prohibited a man from being alone with multiple women unless the man is maḥram (not marriageable) to one of the women. The Ḥanafīs permit a man to be alone with multiple women as long as there is a single trustworthy woman amongst them. Most Shāfiʿīs also hold that the seclusion of multiple men with a single woman is not permissible because the men may conspire to commit an evil act with that woman, and the Ḥanbalīs prohibit both a single man's seclusion with multiple women and a single woman's seclusion with multiple men. More recently, the Egyptian Grand Muftī, Ali Gomaa, issued a fatwa permitting the mixing of genders, arguing that it is permissible as long as the purpose of such mixing is not for sinful behavior and as long as each gender exhibits appropriate behavior and modest Islamic dress.
Islamic legal discourse has historically revolved around acts rather than internal states and des... more Islamic legal discourse has historically revolved around acts rather than internal states and desires. Classical Muslim jurists have hence focused their attention specifically on male-male anal intercourse since anything short of that is considered to be merely repugnant behavior subject to taʿzīr (discretionary punishment by the judge). Such behavior falls under the same category as, for example, an unmarried man and woman engaging in sexual acts short of intercourse. The most commonly used Arabic terms in classical Islamic jurisprudential texts in reference to male-male anal intercourse and female-female sexual " intercourse " are liwāṭ (literally, " joining ") and siḥāq (literally, " rubbing "), respectively. Classical jurists viewed liwāṭ and siḥāq as reprehensible acts. However, various jurists defined and punished each of these acts differently. The juristic legal treatment of these two issues was, first and foremost, rooted in the Qurʾān and the ḥadīth. There are ḥadīth that specifically ordain punishments for liwāṭ. For example, " If you come across two men in the act of the people of Lot [sodomy], kill the one in the active sexual role (al-fāʿil) and the one in the passive sexual role (al-mafʿūl bihi), " found in the canonical Sunnī collections of
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Sponsored by the Kurt W. and Else Kirchstein Rosenthal Fund of the Department of Near Eastern Languages & Civilizations, the Department of Religious Studies, the Edward J. and Dorothy Clarke Kempf Memorial Fund, a USDE Title VI National Resource Centers Grant and Women at Yale 50/150.