Acta Universitatis Nicolai Copernici. Archeologia, 2023
Celem artykułu jest wskazanie niektórych, zasadniczych kwestii metodycznych związanych z badaniam... more Celem artykułu jest wskazanie niektórych, zasadniczych kwestii metodycznych związanych z badaniami składu chemicznego szkieł zabytkowych, które występują na etapie interpretacji rezultatów analiz oraz klasyfikacji technologicznej szkieł. Zarysowane tu problemy dotyczą szkieł z różnych epok i obszarów, głównie z kontynentu europejskiego. Są one omawiane z odwołaniem do przykładowych zespołów szkieł i metod, według nas najważniejszych dla poruszanych tu zagadnień, oraz wybranych publikacji zawierających istotną literaturę przedmiotu. Niniejszy tekst jest adresowany do archeologów podejmujących badania archeometryczne szkieł zabytkowych.
The article is an attempt to identify the basic methodological problems related to
research on the chemical composition of historical glass. These are methods for interpreting the results of analyses and the classifications of glass developed by various researchers (Polish included) concerning many eras and areas, mainly from the European continent. Among the vast and constantly growing literature on the subject, we only take into the consideration the publications, which in our opinion are the most important for this work, and which contain the most representative examples of the methods used. We realize that this is our subjective and arbitrary choice. The study is addressed to archaeologists undertaking archaeometric research of historical glass.
The main goal of this article is to analyse post-medieval slipware found during archaeological ex... more The main goal of this article is to analyse post-medieval slipware found during archaeological excavations in Tykocin Castle and to describe its distinguishing features: decorative characteristics and forms. Further considerations are aimed at reconstructing the functions of the Tykocin slipware vessels in the castle household throughout the 16th to 18th centuries and attempting to determine their provenance. The analysis is preceded by the list of terminological problems pertaining to this pottery group in the Polish literature as well as elementary information on its production centres in Poland against the European background.
This year's volume of journal "Archaeologia Polona", subtitled "Archaeology of Post-Medieval Pott... more This year's volume of journal "Archaeologia Polona", subtitled "Archaeology of Post-Medieval Pottery in Poland and Beyond. Tradition and Innovation", features contributions focused on early-modern ceramics, the majority of which were found across present-day Poland and Czechia. Most of the papers concentrate on synchronic and antithetical processes occurring in pottery-making between the 16th and 18th centuries. These processes were marked with continuity, the persistence of older traditions in technology, style, and ornamentation but at the same time brought about changes involving innovations in the aforementioned areas introduced during the period under discussion. Recognition of these phenomena and demonstrating their bipolarity, that is their distinctiveness and tight relationship, have been the primary goal of the present publication.
Bibliography of Professor Klonder’s works published to date contain a total of 238 items. Apart f... more Bibliography of Professor Klonder’s works published to date contain a total of 238 items. Apart from monographs, these include dissertations, research papers, and chapters in collective works, both Polish and foreign, reviews and discussions of current domestic and foreign publications, as well as reports which are proof of the Professor’s broad interests.
This paper presents information about modern glass seals obtained during archaeological excavatio... more This paper presents information about modern glass seals obtained during archaeological excavations carried out on the territory of modern-day Poland after 1987. The author reviews finds and their characteristics and based on such collected data attempts to indicate their quantitative diversity, territorial range, and chronology. The paper also focuses on markings identified on glass seals divided by their types. These are individualised signs, monograms, symbols, descriptive signs, and numerical signs, mostly trademarks. This analysis aims to outline the state of research and indicate various research questions associated with the production and use of stamped glass vessels in Poland, which require further studies.
Author presents glass vessels discovered through archaeological works, dated to the late medieval... more Author presents glass vessels discovered through archaeological works, dated to the late medieval, post-medieval and early modern period, that are described in available Polish publications from the years 1987-2018. These are mainly archaeological publications, but also studies in history, art history, chemistry, and conservation that are relevant in the research into the above-mentioned products. The aim of the author was to collect and present in one paper information about this category of archaeological sources from the area of contemporary Poland published so far, discuss the possibilities and limitations of describing those artefacts, establish the place of discovery, the size and the content of assemblages. The paper also discusses problems undertaken so far by researchers, both solved and those not yet sufficiently examined and requiring further studies.
Memoir of Jerzy Kruppé, archaeologist and historian, professor at the Institute of Archaeology an... more Memoir of Jerzy Kruppé, archaeologist and historian, professor at the Institute of Archaeology and Ethnology of the Polish Academy of Sciences and the Institute of Archaeology of the University of Warsaw. He was one of the founders of Polish historical archaeology, a specialist in late medieval ceramics. He conducted archaeological research at many sites, including Tykocin, Solec nad Wisłą, Janowiec, Frombork and Puck.
Wspomnienie o dr Marii Dąbrowskiej, pracowniku IAE PAN, archeologu późnego średniowiecza i nowoży... more Wspomnienie o dr Marii Dąbrowskiej, pracowniku IAE PAN, archeologu późnego średniowiecza i nowożytności, specjalistce w zakresie kaflarstwa.
This study is dedicated to window glass discovered in Tykocin castle, deposited in the northern p... more This study is dedicated to window glass discovered in Tykocin castle, deposited in the northern part of the complex, most probably dated to the 1660s. These are remains of windowpanes prepared for the glazing of windows during refurbishment and construction work in the castle building following its destruction in 1656. This paper contains descriptions of those finds including formal, metric and morphological features of the material, structure of the surface and evidence of technical procedures, the character of finds and the reason for the creation of the glass deposit. Finally, the paper discusses the time and circumstances in which the said glass was treated and processed.
The aim of the article is to present the range of glass vessels from the 16th–18th c. excavated i... more The aim of the article is to present the range of glass vessels from the 16th–18th c. excavated in Warsaw, to survey the current state of research and to discuss the possibilities and limitations of describing them, especially as regards establishing their origin and functions.
The article also identifies issues requiring further research and points to unsolved questions. The discussion is based on fi nds described in available publications. Most of them are remnants of everyday items, which are rarely mentioned in written sources and insufficiently researched.
Glass is one of the major categories of post-medieval artefacts revealed by archaeological works; glass vessels they are usually excavated in pieces, due to the fragility of the material. In Poland, broken glass, along with damaged ironware, was bought for reuse until the end of the 18th c. Glass became commonly used in Poland relatively late; glass tableware, containers and windowpanes started to appear quite frequently only in the 16th c., and became widely accessible only in the 17th c. No record has been found so far to confi rm the existence of any glassworks near Warsaw and in Mazovia before the beginning of the 18th c. However, there may have been some smallscale works, called ‘forest glassworks’. Their products, supplied to the Warsaw market, were probably kitchen utensils or modest tableware, e.g. the so-called ‘bell cups’. Elegant glass tableware in the 16th–18th c. was imported. Warsaw was probably supplied with glass of various provenance, coming by various routes from different directions. In the 16th–17th c. the major glass trade centres were Cracow and Gdańsk.
The first glass manufactories which produced vessels were established in the vicinity of Warsaw in the fi rst half of the 18th c. Those were: the royal glassworks in Bielany near Warsaw, opened in 1713 and closed before 1725, and the glassworks near Otwock, which was opened after 1729 and worked until c. 1786. The products of the royal glassworks were probably of high quality but none have been identified. The other glassworks manufactured decorated white and colourful vessels. The third Warsaw glassworks, most likely applying quite an advanced technology, was established in 1729. Other glassworks in the vicinity of Warsaw started production only in the second half of the 18th c. In that century the capital was probably supplied with glass by other renowned manufactories, e.g. by the “Crystal Glassworks”, which worked from
1717 to the end of the 18th c. near Lubaczów. More glassworks were established in the region only in the first half of the 19th c., the leading one being the “Czechy” manufactory in Trąbki near Garwolin.
Data on modern-period glass vessels excavated in Warsaw can be found in less than twenty publications. Most of them are artefacts from the 18th c., with few 16th- and 17th-century items. The total number is over 16 000 (cf. table 1). They constitute just a fraction of glass fi nds.
The largest set comes from excavations in the Royal Pharmacy. The analysed vessels can be divided into two groups according to function: ones for storing and transporting drinks and ones for serving and consumption. The existing publications indicate that the majority of fi nds belong to the fi rst group, which includes bottles, fl asks and demijohns. Items from the other group, which can be labelled tableware, are less numerous but more varied, with glasses, goblets and cups (including ‘bell cups’), jugs, mugs and decanters of varied sizes, forms and shapes. Few are decorated; the excavated items sometimes draw from motifs characteristic of ornate artistic glass but in most cases their forms and decorations are quite simplified.
This is a multifaceted topic, and answers to the many research questions it poses can only be found by further interdisciplinary studies.
From research on the history of country residences near Warsaw. The precincts of the Brühl family... more From research on the history of country residences near Warsaw. The precincts of the Brühl family palace in Młociny (from the mid-18th century).
The palace in the village of Młociny near Warsaw was part of a large early-modern complex, including a park, outhouses and outbuildings, as well as gardens on the bank of the Vistula, decorative pavilions, a game park, an inn and a windmill. It was the most northward residential complex of this type along the Warsaw Embankment. It did not survive long in its most extensive form, as it started to be reshaped at the end of the 18th c., which led to its degradation.
The article discusses structures that were part of the Młociny palace-and-garden design and had various functions (some were used as living quarters, some for leisure pursuits and entertaining guests, some were purely decorative). Various available data were collected, including written and iconographic sources, archival maps and photographs, results of excavations from 2010 and of non-destructive research (an analysis of numerical models of the area generated by the GIS software). Correlating data from all those sources made it possible to the characterize the buildings and trace their histories from the design through the construction to the gradual destruction, as well as localize and identify those that have disappeared completely.
The oldest structures, designed by Johann Friedrich Knöbl and constructed in the years 1748–1763, when the palace in Młociny was owned by Henryk Brühl, were three wooden outhouses and a brick kitchen, probably a palisade–pergola on the courtyard, a neighbouring home farm with a brickyard, a game park with a pheasantry, a massive gate facing the south, a forest theatre and a temple of Diana. The next owner, Alojzy Fryderyk Brühl, who employed the architect Szymon Bogumił Zug, probably commissioned most of the decorative pavilions on the riverbank and some utility buildings, constructed in the years 1772–1784. These were brick outhouses, some small outbuildings (?), a new pillared gate, an Oriental pavilion, a monopteros (gloriette), two “peasant cottages”, a “fisherman’s cottage”, alias hermitage, an inn and
a windmill. Most of those garden structures did not survive beyond the mid-19th century. The complex was largely transformed and some of its 18th-century elements were rebuilt at the beginning of the 20th c., when the palace with its closest surroundings was taken over by Stefan Grodzicki. The elements reconstructed at that time were the outhouses, whose usable floor space was extended, the small neighbouring buildings, which were turned into living quarters, and — partly — the palisades. A new greenhouse, stable and barn were built, while the garden wall was modernized to make a passage to the courtyard.
Excavations on the plot to the south of the palace revealed relics of some of those structures, i.e. the outhouses further from the palace, the neighbouring outbuildings, the palisades-pergoles, the gates and the passage. An analysis of the sources resulted in establishing the approximate location of the 18th-century home-farm buildings and brickyard. A comparison of Zygmunt Vogel’s watercolour A View of Młociny with 19th-century maps helped to identify the location of the possible remains of the structures visible in the painting but non-existent now: the inn and the Oriental pavilion. A thorough analysis of the archival cartographic sources and their integration with the numerical model of the area revealed remnants of two islands in the game park, on one of which there used to be some buildings in the mid-18th c. The buildings described above were integral parts of the residential complex in Młociny and had varied functions, which influenced their varied form and character. In most cases, as far as it can be established on the basis of the available sources, their form was determined by a coherent architectural vision reflecting current trends in designing palace-and-garden complexes. The Młociny complex was shaped mostly by the two architects commissioned by the owners, Johann Friedrich Knöbel i Szymon Bogumił Zug, whose work survived for less than a century. Most credit goes to Zug, whose artistic vision was fully implemented here, with eclectic solutions characteristic of his designs integrated into the Vistula landscape. Due to its coherent design and varied details, the Młociny complex can rival larger grandiose magnate residences of that epoch located in Warsaw or nearby.
The article discuses a deposit of metalwork (silver and silver-plated cutlery, silver and gilded ... more The article discuses a deposit of metalwork (silver and silver-plated cutlery, silver and gilded cups; fi g. 1), dated to approximately mid-19th – early 20th c. The aim is to characterize individual artefacs, to hypothesize who may have been their owner, to identify their origin, to investigate the circumstances of their deposition and to describe the time and place of their discovery.
The deposit includes four teaspoons (fig. 2), two spoons and two forks (fig. 4) used for main courses, and three mugs (fig. 7), which were probably Kiddush cups, used by Jews for ritual purposes; the Kiddush prayer on Sabbath and other festive days was recited over such a cup filled with red wine. The analyzed artefacts differ signifi cantly in shape and size. Similarities can be found between three teaspoons, which probably came from a single set. Nine items bear trademarks, and four also have monograms (fig. 5), which provides some clues as to the place and time of their manufacture. All of them were cast in silver or a silver-plated alloy known as nickel silver (new silver). The silver plating on each nickel-silver artefact has partly worn out. Most of the cutlery pieces are plain and simple, showing good proportions. Elaborate ornaments are found on only fi ve items: a silverplated brass teaspoon (fig. 2:4), one of the silver spoons (fig. 4:1) and three silver cups, two of them gilded (fig. 7:1; 7:3; 7:5). The deposit includes both mass-produced every-day pieces and more refined items, some of the latter being probably religious cult objects. Seven of the pieces bear the hallmark of the Warsaw assay office and were produced by fi rms based there, including famous ones, like Fraget, Norblin and Utracki. One brass teaspoon, one nickel-silver fork and two pieces of cutlery of non-noble metal have no trademarks. Two gilded silver cups were probably made by Russian goldsmiths, one in Moscow and the other in Kiev. The cups are the most ornate and the most valuable items in the deposit.
The artefacts were discovered in 2009 in Płock, during an emergency archaeological intervention in the area of the present Bielska St, Kwiatka St and Sienkiewicza St, which is now in the centre of Płock, but used to be part of the Bielskie Suburb, north of the historical town, beyond the Bielska Gate (fi g. 10). The deposit was found in the remains of an annexe at 40 Kwiatka St (formerly 40 Szeroka St) (fi g. 11). It had been hidden under the plastering in a cellar; initially it was wrapped in cloth, of which only shreds survived. The annexe was probably built before 1845; it survived the two world wars and was demolished only in 1988. Between 1814 and 1941 the plot on which the deposit was found, the buildings there and the business conducted there were in the hands of Jews. In 1812–1862 the plot was within the Jewish Quarter, a separate section of the town allocated for Orthodox Jews. During WW II, between 15th September 1940 and 1st March 1941, it was part of the open ghetto. Two of the artefacts bear the dates of hallmarking, 1873 and 1896, which suggest the approximate time of their manufacture. The latter date indicates the terminus post quem of the deposit. Other clues lead to the conclusion that the items were produced between 1850 and 1915. Thus, it is likely that they were accumulated over a long time and used by more than one generation. Although differing in material value, they must have had a sentimental value and were probably hidden when the owner felt endangered, most likely during WW II, between 1939 and 1941. The person who did this never recovered them and they remained in a building that was in normal use in the years 1941-1988, surviving underground after its demolition until 2009. Thus, they may have lain hidden for about over seventy years.
SMOKING-PIPES FROM THE EXCAVATIONS AT THE CASTLE IN TYKOCIN FROM THE 17TH–19TH C.
Clay heads (stu... more SMOKING-PIPES FROM THE EXCAVATIONS AT THE CASTLE IN TYKOCIN FROM THE 17TH–19TH C. Clay heads (stummels, bowls, pipe bodies) of three-piece smoking pipes have been excavated in several dozen sites all over Poland. Most of the fi nds consisted of several pipes. The largest fi nd, including ca 400 fragments, comes from Leżajsk; ca 100 were found in Zamość; fi nds of several dozen items come from the Old Town and the Royal Castle in Warsaw, the town of Przemyśl and the Dominikański Square in Wrocław (Breslau). The newest among the finds are those from Leżajsk (the second half of the 19th c. and the turn of the 20th c.); the oldest artefact, dated to the 16th–17th c., was found in Elblag (Elbing); 17th-century pipes were excavated in Bolesławiec on the Prosna, Tykocin, Warsaw and Złota. Precise dating is possible only in some cases, for example the pipes found in the former camp of the Polish army near Wojnicz can be dated at before 1655, those excavated in the Royal Castle and the Castle Square in Warsaw at the second half of the 17th c. and the fi rst half of the 18th c., those from the remains of a potter’s workshop at Brama Poboczna [the Side Gate] at the 17th c. and those from the house of Bochenkowicz in Warsaw at the second half of the 18th c. and the beginning of the 19th c. Although since the 1990s this type of artefact has gained more attention among scholars and has been addressed in a growing number of publications, only few fi nds have been described in detail. Therefore, it is interesting to consider the pipes excavated in the castle of Tykocin, which are numerous, varied and properly dated. The author aims to present the forms and ornaments of the pipes from this collection, as well as to systematise them. The finds in question were excavated during the exploration of the castle complex in Tykocin, in the province of Podlasie, in the years 2001–2005. There are 30 clay pipe heads in the collection. Most of them were found in the culture layers connected with the functioning of the Tykocin castle from the beginning of the 17th c. to the mid 18th c. The events that took place there at that time are important in determining the provenance of the pipes. It is, however, difficult to fi nd out for how long a given artefact was used. It can only be supposed that clay heads were not durable and they were disposed of if damaged. The durability of such artefacts probably depended on the individual features of the users. Apart from clay heads, the Tykocin fi nds include three fragments of white one-piece pipes. The pipes were probably used by the soldiers who fought or were stationed in the castle. They can be dated at the period from the second half of the 17th c. to the mid 19th c. The data on all the pipe heads are collected in table 1. Only one of the heads is unbroken; the others are in fact fragments of different size. Most were made of ferruginous clay; only two are white. All were made of well-washed ceramic body. 1/3 of the heads analysed were certainly made with matrices. The majority were fi red in an oxidising atmosphere; their potsherds are of various shades of beige or brick-red. Five of the heads (shaped of ferruginous clay) were fired in a reducing atmosphere; those are black. In 11 cases (37%) the outer surface is covered with a thin layer of glaze, in most cases lead glaze — only head no. 9 is covered with clay glaze. The glaze coatings are light and dark green, yellow and light brown; the clay glaze is of cherry colour. The ornaments on the heads are usually schematic, of fl oral or geometric forms. The simplest ornaments were incised or rolled. There is an example of the stamping technique, with the motif of rosette repeated fi ve times. More varied and complicated ornaments were moulded in the matrix together with the head; those include notches, single flowers or stylised floral shapes and check motifs. Burnishing was aimed at producing a smooth surface effect. The polygonal shape of some rims (rings), bowls and shanks are also of decorative character. Only one pipe from this collection, no. 30, dated at the mid 19th c., is marked with the stamp of the producer — a manufacturer from Staszów in Little Poland. Half of the pipes were certainly used, since their chambers are blackened and sooted. Since the fi nds are mostly fragments, the data on the shape and size of the pipes are incomplete. There are few data on the rims, which are scarce among the fi nds. Perhaps this was the part of the pipe the was most easily damaged, and if that happened the pipe was unusable and the head was thrown away. Based mainly on foreign publications and the works of Philippe Gosse, John W. Hayes, Rebecca C.W. Robinson, the author has proposed a typology of the fi nds from Tykocin. Furthermore, taking into consideration the shape, the ornaments and the technological criteria she has classifi ed the fi nds into eight groups. For some of them analogies can be traced in other finds from Poland and from abroad. Only in few cases it was possible to hypothesise about the provenance of the pipes. Some of them were probably made in Turkey or modelled on Turkish pipes (heads no. 5, 6, 10 and 13 of group 2, heads no. 18, 21–24 of group 3 and heads no. 28 and 29 of group 7). Some of the heads from group 5 (no. 15 and 25–27) were possibly produced locally, in Podlasie. One head, no. 30, was certainly manufactured in Poland, in Staszów.
ON CLAY SMOKING-PIPES
IN THE POLISH-LITHUANIAN COMMONWEALTH
The custom of smoking tobacco in pipe... more ON CLAY SMOKING-PIPES IN THE POLISH-LITHUANIAN COMMONWEALTH The custom of smoking tobacco in pipes was accepted in Poland later than that of taking snuff or chewing tobacco leaves. In Western Europe pipes came into common use during the Thirty Years War. In Poland, according to an account from 1671, they were not popular yet, and were used mainly by soldiers and artisans. In the 18th c., however, pipes were already very popular throughout society, including its elite. Both pipes and snuff were commonly used until cigarettes appeared in the second half of the 19th c. Smokers in old Poland used various kinds of pipes, either consisting of one piece or of three pieces; the latter type was called lulka. In three-part pipes the three pieces (the bowl, the stem and the bit) were made separately, usually of different materials. Bowls were usually made of clay, stems — of wood and mouthpieces — of horn. Some pipes were additionally equipped with a string to be hanged on. Poles mostly used three-part clay pipes manufactured in Poland or imported from Bulgaria or Turkey. Short-stem pipes were more handy and could be used while working or travelling; they were also easy to store. Smoking tobacco in long-stem pipes required not only assistance in lighting but also leisure to enjoy it to the full. Therefore long-stem pipes were mostly an attribute of the rich and an object of luxury. Burghers, soldiers and the poor used simple short-stem pipes. Pipe bowls increased as the production of tobacco grew and its price fell. An analysis of pipes in terms of origin, construction and production technology can provide data on the directions of cultural infl uence and trade links in old Poland, as well as on the popularization of certain smoking routines. Issues connected with three-part clay pipes — their construction, production or origin — have been tackled only marginally in some Polish publications. No attention has been devoted to terminology, which is used imprecisely in the Polish literature of the subject. Most Polish terms referring to smoking accessories (lulka, cybuch, antypka, kapciuch, stambułka) have Oriental etymology. This might suggest that Eastern models had a decisive infl uence on accepting pipes in Poland. On the other hand, terms such as fajka, munsztuk and pipka point to the Western origin of the phenomenon. The origin of clay pipes is usually diffi cult to establish. Most specimen are not marked and have no ornaments that could be helpful in dating. Only Turkish pipes, which have a characteristic shape and are sometimes marked with the producer’s sign, are easier to identify. Between the 17th and 19th c. three-part pipes were probably manufactured in twelve places in the Commonwealth: Alwernia, Biecz, Brzozów, Gdańsk, Gliniany, Glińsk, Mrzygłód, Rabka, Sławków, Staszów, Vilnius and Warsaw. This has been confi rmed by numerous fi nds of pipes in the town of Biecz and the remains of pottery workshops discovered in Warsaw and Vilnius. With only spoken evidence available, it is diffi cult to be sure about the production of pipes in Gdańsk. The existence of a workshop in Staszów is confi rmed by signed pipe bowls found in various archaeological sites, e.g. in Tykocin and Warsaw. Pipes and their fragments have been found in various Ukrainian towns, e.g. in Żółkiew and Kiev, which confi rms that their manufacture was undertaken in the 19th c. in Glińsk. To confi rm the production of clay pipes in the remaining places mentioned, as well as in towns missing from the above list, it is necessary to undertake historical and archaeological research which could supply data on the development of pipe-making craft in a given area.
This paper presents issues related to the X-ray fluorescence analysis (XRF), or the so-called X-r... more This paper presents issues related to the X-ray fluorescence analysis (XRF), or the so-called X-ray spectrometry, applied to the study of Late Medieval ceramic found at archaeological sites located in Solec-on-the-Vistula-River (Solec nad Wisłą). At the beginning I will explain terminology used in the title and give details about the origin of the analysed pottery. Then I will present selected results of the XRF analysis and my reflections on application of this method to pottery research. KEY WORDS: pottery, white earthenware, laboratory analyses
ON POLISH X-RAY FLUORESCENCE ANALYSES OF THE CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF LATE MEDIEVAL AND MODERN POT... more ON POLISH X-RAY FLUORESCENCE ANALYSES OF THE CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF LATE MEDIEVAL AND MODERN POTTERY The article presents issues connected with X-ray fluorescence analysis (XRF), also called X-ray spectrometry, applied currently also to pottery research. These issues have been discussed in Polish archaeological publications, among others in reference to analyses of Late Medieval and modern ceramics. Also considered in the deliberations were analyses by other methods like the spectral method and flame photometry. The more important studies on the topic include: L. Kociszewski, J. Kruppé 1962; 1973; A. Buko, Z. Werfel 1977; A. Girdwoyń 1987; M. Daszkiewicz, H. Wyciślik 1989; A. Buko 1997; M. Auch 2004; M. Bis 2005. The most important issues taken up by individual researchers include, on one hand, factors in-fluencing the correctness and reliability of analyses and, on the other hand, ways of interpreting re-sults and making inferences from them. They concern ways of carrying out analyses, starting with sample preparation, strengths and weaknesses of applied methods, as well as chemical compounds which need to be determined in order to collect information on the characteristics of clays and glazes, the number of samples that are indispensable for a proper analysis, the possibility of estab-lishing similarities and differences in the chemical composition of products from the same centers or regions of production. X-ray fluorescence analysis is characterized primarily by the possibility of examining small amounts of products, resulting in only insignificant damage to the object, and even very small, se-lected parts of the sample, both on the surface and in the break. Preparation of a sample is relatively simple and does not require any special techniques. The time needed for making the determination is short, a mere few minutes. As for potential element detection and accuracy, technologists are of the opinion that analyses by the described method are in some cases similar to or more accurate than classical methods of wet chemical analysis or other instrumental methods. The flaws of this method draw mostly from the way the samples are prepared. The X-ray fluorescence method is a surface analysis, hence its correctness is heavily dependent on the quality of the examined surface, which should be as smooth as possible. Impurities and rough spots can lead to errors of analysis, raising the content of some components and changing the mutual proportions of others. Mechanical cutting of samples from ceramic products, especially in the case of vessels glazed on both sides, can lead to contamination of the ceramic mass with particles of glaze and the glaze with components of the ceramic mass. The results of analyses can be disrupted in X-ray spectrometry as well, mostly in ef-fect of the matrix and granulation. Difficulties in determining light elements constitutes another limitation of the method. The element detection range also does not make this method suitable for determining elements with a content below 0.01% weight in a given sample. Normalizing the results to 100% creates in turn the impression of an errorless analysis. In case of analyses carried out by the discussed method, the multiple character of observations in reference to a single sample and whole series of samples is of significance. It is important to ob-serve similarities or differences of results depending on the size of the analyzed surface and its posi-tion, in order to determine optimal, general and binding conditions for carrying out the remaining analyses. Upon obtaining different results concerning the content of specific elements, it is essential to consider different reasons for this; for example, was the sample actually representative of a given set of finds, does the analyzed product correspond to other finds in terms of technique and technol-ogy, did the spot that was analyzed contain impurities or not. The X-ray fluorescence method should thus be considered as supplementing "traditional" ar-chaeological examinations of pottery products and other physico-chemical analyses. The reliability of the method and the possibility of comparing results obtained in effect of its application depend on adopted processing methods and conditions for carrying out the analysis. It is important each time to describe the methods precisely and to include a precise description of the finds intended for analysis. A larger number of analyses by this method will contribute new comparative material. On this basis it will be easier presumably not only to determine parallels or differences between ana-lyzed products and their sets, but also possibly to determine their provenience.
Keywords: Late Medieval and modern pottery, pottery lab analyses
„THREE CASES WITH COFFEE-POTS…”, IT IS ABOUT FAIENCE
AND PORCELAN IN TYKOCIN CASTLE.
Archaeologic... more „THREE CASES WITH COFFEE-POTS…”, IT IS ABOUT FAIENCE AND PORCELAN IN TYKOCIN CASTLE. Archaeological explorations carried out so far in the castle area in Tykocin – Podlachia, have delivered not only numerous, but also varied movable artifacts. Despite predominating objects of local production, there are also items from distanced production centers; these are, among the others, fragments of glass vessels, clay pipes, elements of armory and coins from 16th century up to 19th century. The article concentrates on two selected categories of modern imports and their local imitations, i.e. porcelain and faience. For 91 thousand of various source categories obtained in the discussed site, pieces of faience and porcelain create relatively small collection of 614 fragments, including 540 pieces of faience and 74 pieces of porcelain. The minimum number of those vessels was defined for 304, respectively: 251 and 53 items. Nearly half of all the fragments was obtained from mixed layers, made chiefly as a result of architectonic works, performed in the castle and around in the 60s of the last century. Most of the production was unsigned, therefore it is rather difficult in defining the objects’ origin and precise dating. Only ten vessels are marked (five porcelain and five faience ones), seven of which created possibilities of identification. Production places of majority of items were stated on the base of manufacturing techniques and comparative analyses. It was possible first of all for ornamented examples with decorative elements characteristic for particular workshops, production centers on vessel types. This collection consists, among the others, of the most expensive and the most desirable products of those times – original China, Dutch faiences of Delft, English dishes from Josiah Wedgwood’s manufacture(?) and porcelain from Meissen of Saxony and royal Vienna manufacture, but moreover – products probably from workshops situated in Italy, England (Bristol), France (Nevers, Rouen, Sèvres), other German centers (Volkstedt),Silesia (Prószków Śląski), Volhynia (Korzec, Baranówka, Horodnica), Pomerania (Gdańsk, Szczecin area) and Lesser Poland (Ćmielów, Iłża). The listed finds are mainly elements of crockery sets – plates, saucers, bowls, cups, soup tureens and vases, pitchers. The collection is completed by a tea-pot and lids (probably for jugs). Tykocin assembly also possesses one sanitary vessel – a bed-pan. The assortment of faience products is more diversified, in comparison with more unified porcelain collection, although in both ceramic groups – plates are in predominance.
Acta Universitatis Nicolai Copernici. Archeologia, 2023
Celem artykułu jest wskazanie niektórych, zasadniczych kwestii metodycznych związanych z badaniam... more Celem artykułu jest wskazanie niektórych, zasadniczych kwestii metodycznych związanych z badaniami składu chemicznego szkieł zabytkowych, które występują na etapie interpretacji rezultatów analiz oraz klasyfikacji technologicznej szkieł. Zarysowane tu problemy dotyczą szkieł z różnych epok i obszarów, głównie z kontynentu europejskiego. Są one omawiane z odwołaniem do przykładowych zespołów szkieł i metod, według nas najważniejszych dla poruszanych tu zagadnień, oraz wybranych publikacji zawierających istotną literaturę przedmiotu. Niniejszy tekst jest adresowany do archeologów podejmujących badania archeometryczne szkieł zabytkowych.
The article is an attempt to identify the basic methodological problems related to
research on the chemical composition of historical glass. These are methods for interpreting the results of analyses and the classifications of glass developed by various researchers (Polish included) concerning many eras and areas, mainly from the European continent. Among the vast and constantly growing literature on the subject, we only take into the consideration the publications, which in our opinion are the most important for this work, and which contain the most representative examples of the methods used. We realize that this is our subjective and arbitrary choice. The study is addressed to archaeologists undertaking archaeometric research of historical glass.
The main goal of this article is to analyse post-medieval slipware found during archaeological ex... more The main goal of this article is to analyse post-medieval slipware found during archaeological excavations in Tykocin Castle and to describe its distinguishing features: decorative characteristics and forms. Further considerations are aimed at reconstructing the functions of the Tykocin slipware vessels in the castle household throughout the 16th to 18th centuries and attempting to determine their provenance. The analysis is preceded by the list of terminological problems pertaining to this pottery group in the Polish literature as well as elementary information on its production centres in Poland against the European background.
This year's volume of journal "Archaeologia Polona", subtitled "Archaeology of Post-Medieval Pott... more This year's volume of journal "Archaeologia Polona", subtitled "Archaeology of Post-Medieval Pottery in Poland and Beyond. Tradition and Innovation", features contributions focused on early-modern ceramics, the majority of which were found across present-day Poland and Czechia. Most of the papers concentrate on synchronic and antithetical processes occurring in pottery-making between the 16th and 18th centuries. These processes were marked with continuity, the persistence of older traditions in technology, style, and ornamentation but at the same time brought about changes involving innovations in the aforementioned areas introduced during the period under discussion. Recognition of these phenomena and demonstrating their bipolarity, that is their distinctiveness and tight relationship, have been the primary goal of the present publication.
Bibliography of Professor Klonder’s works published to date contain a total of 238 items. Apart f... more Bibliography of Professor Klonder’s works published to date contain a total of 238 items. Apart from monographs, these include dissertations, research papers, and chapters in collective works, both Polish and foreign, reviews and discussions of current domestic and foreign publications, as well as reports which are proof of the Professor’s broad interests.
This paper presents information about modern glass seals obtained during archaeological excavatio... more This paper presents information about modern glass seals obtained during archaeological excavations carried out on the territory of modern-day Poland after 1987. The author reviews finds and their characteristics and based on such collected data attempts to indicate their quantitative diversity, territorial range, and chronology. The paper also focuses on markings identified on glass seals divided by their types. These are individualised signs, monograms, symbols, descriptive signs, and numerical signs, mostly trademarks. This analysis aims to outline the state of research and indicate various research questions associated with the production and use of stamped glass vessels in Poland, which require further studies.
Author presents glass vessels discovered through archaeological works, dated to the late medieval... more Author presents glass vessels discovered through archaeological works, dated to the late medieval, post-medieval and early modern period, that are described in available Polish publications from the years 1987-2018. These are mainly archaeological publications, but also studies in history, art history, chemistry, and conservation that are relevant in the research into the above-mentioned products. The aim of the author was to collect and present in one paper information about this category of archaeological sources from the area of contemporary Poland published so far, discuss the possibilities and limitations of describing those artefacts, establish the place of discovery, the size and the content of assemblages. The paper also discusses problems undertaken so far by researchers, both solved and those not yet sufficiently examined and requiring further studies.
Memoir of Jerzy Kruppé, archaeologist and historian, professor at the Institute of Archaeology an... more Memoir of Jerzy Kruppé, archaeologist and historian, professor at the Institute of Archaeology and Ethnology of the Polish Academy of Sciences and the Institute of Archaeology of the University of Warsaw. He was one of the founders of Polish historical archaeology, a specialist in late medieval ceramics. He conducted archaeological research at many sites, including Tykocin, Solec nad Wisłą, Janowiec, Frombork and Puck.
Wspomnienie o dr Marii Dąbrowskiej, pracowniku IAE PAN, archeologu późnego średniowiecza i nowoży... more Wspomnienie o dr Marii Dąbrowskiej, pracowniku IAE PAN, archeologu późnego średniowiecza i nowożytności, specjalistce w zakresie kaflarstwa.
This study is dedicated to window glass discovered in Tykocin castle, deposited in the northern p... more This study is dedicated to window glass discovered in Tykocin castle, deposited in the northern part of the complex, most probably dated to the 1660s. These are remains of windowpanes prepared for the glazing of windows during refurbishment and construction work in the castle building following its destruction in 1656. This paper contains descriptions of those finds including formal, metric and morphological features of the material, structure of the surface and evidence of technical procedures, the character of finds and the reason for the creation of the glass deposit. Finally, the paper discusses the time and circumstances in which the said glass was treated and processed.
The aim of the article is to present the range of glass vessels from the 16th–18th c. excavated i... more The aim of the article is to present the range of glass vessels from the 16th–18th c. excavated in Warsaw, to survey the current state of research and to discuss the possibilities and limitations of describing them, especially as regards establishing their origin and functions.
The article also identifies issues requiring further research and points to unsolved questions. The discussion is based on fi nds described in available publications. Most of them are remnants of everyday items, which are rarely mentioned in written sources and insufficiently researched.
Glass is one of the major categories of post-medieval artefacts revealed by archaeological works; glass vessels they are usually excavated in pieces, due to the fragility of the material. In Poland, broken glass, along with damaged ironware, was bought for reuse until the end of the 18th c. Glass became commonly used in Poland relatively late; glass tableware, containers and windowpanes started to appear quite frequently only in the 16th c., and became widely accessible only in the 17th c. No record has been found so far to confi rm the existence of any glassworks near Warsaw and in Mazovia before the beginning of the 18th c. However, there may have been some smallscale works, called ‘forest glassworks’. Their products, supplied to the Warsaw market, were probably kitchen utensils or modest tableware, e.g. the so-called ‘bell cups’. Elegant glass tableware in the 16th–18th c. was imported. Warsaw was probably supplied with glass of various provenance, coming by various routes from different directions. In the 16th–17th c. the major glass trade centres were Cracow and Gdańsk.
The first glass manufactories which produced vessels were established in the vicinity of Warsaw in the fi rst half of the 18th c. Those were: the royal glassworks in Bielany near Warsaw, opened in 1713 and closed before 1725, and the glassworks near Otwock, which was opened after 1729 and worked until c. 1786. The products of the royal glassworks were probably of high quality but none have been identified. The other glassworks manufactured decorated white and colourful vessels. The third Warsaw glassworks, most likely applying quite an advanced technology, was established in 1729. Other glassworks in the vicinity of Warsaw started production only in the second half of the 18th c. In that century the capital was probably supplied with glass by other renowned manufactories, e.g. by the “Crystal Glassworks”, which worked from
1717 to the end of the 18th c. near Lubaczów. More glassworks were established in the region only in the first half of the 19th c., the leading one being the “Czechy” manufactory in Trąbki near Garwolin.
Data on modern-period glass vessels excavated in Warsaw can be found in less than twenty publications. Most of them are artefacts from the 18th c., with few 16th- and 17th-century items. The total number is over 16 000 (cf. table 1). They constitute just a fraction of glass fi nds.
The largest set comes from excavations in the Royal Pharmacy. The analysed vessels can be divided into two groups according to function: ones for storing and transporting drinks and ones for serving and consumption. The existing publications indicate that the majority of fi nds belong to the fi rst group, which includes bottles, fl asks and demijohns. Items from the other group, which can be labelled tableware, are less numerous but more varied, with glasses, goblets and cups (including ‘bell cups’), jugs, mugs and decanters of varied sizes, forms and shapes. Few are decorated; the excavated items sometimes draw from motifs characteristic of ornate artistic glass but in most cases their forms and decorations are quite simplified.
This is a multifaceted topic, and answers to the many research questions it poses can only be found by further interdisciplinary studies.
From research on the history of country residences near Warsaw. The precincts of the Brühl family... more From research on the history of country residences near Warsaw. The precincts of the Brühl family palace in Młociny (from the mid-18th century).
The palace in the village of Młociny near Warsaw was part of a large early-modern complex, including a park, outhouses and outbuildings, as well as gardens on the bank of the Vistula, decorative pavilions, a game park, an inn and a windmill. It was the most northward residential complex of this type along the Warsaw Embankment. It did not survive long in its most extensive form, as it started to be reshaped at the end of the 18th c., which led to its degradation.
The article discusses structures that were part of the Młociny palace-and-garden design and had various functions (some were used as living quarters, some for leisure pursuits and entertaining guests, some were purely decorative). Various available data were collected, including written and iconographic sources, archival maps and photographs, results of excavations from 2010 and of non-destructive research (an analysis of numerical models of the area generated by the GIS software). Correlating data from all those sources made it possible to the characterize the buildings and trace their histories from the design through the construction to the gradual destruction, as well as localize and identify those that have disappeared completely.
The oldest structures, designed by Johann Friedrich Knöbl and constructed in the years 1748–1763, when the palace in Młociny was owned by Henryk Brühl, were three wooden outhouses and a brick kitchen, probably a palisade–pergola on the courtyard, a neighbouring home farm with a brickyard, a game park with a pheasantry, a massive gate facing the south, a forest theatre and a temple of Diana. The next owner, Alojzy Fryderyk Brühl, who employed the architect Szymon Bogumił Zug, probably commissioned most of the decorative pavilions on the riverbank and some utility buildings, constructed in the years 1772–1784. These were brick outhouses, some small outbuildings (?), a new pillared gate, an Oriental pavilion, a monopteros (gloriette), two “peasant cottages”, a “fisherman’s cottage”, alias hermitage, an inn and
a windmill. Most of those garden structures did not survive beyond the mid-19th century. The complex was largely transformed and some of its 18th-century elements were rebuilt at the beginning of the 20th c., when the palace with its closest surroundings was taken over by Stefan Grodzicki. The elements reconstructed at that time were the outhouses, whose usable floor space was extended, the small neighbouring buildings, which were turned into living quarters, and — partly — the palisades. A new greenhouse, stable and barn were built, while the garden wall was modernized to make a passage to the courtyard.
Excavations on the plot to the south of the palace revealed relics of some of those structures, i.e. the outhouses further from the palace, the neighbouring outbuildings, the palisades-pergoles, the gates and the passage. An analysis of the sources resulted in establishing the approximate location of the 18th-century home-farm buildings and brickyard. A comparison of Zygmunt Vogel’s watercolour A View of Młociny with 19th-century maps helped to identify the location of the possible remains of the structures visible in the painting but non-existent now: the inn and the Oriental pavilion. A thorough analysis of the archival cartographic sources and their integration with the numerical model of the area revealed remnants of two islands in the game park, on one of which there used to be some buildings in the mid-18th c. The buildings described above were integral parts of the residential complex in Młociny and had varied functions, which influenced their varied form and character. In most cases, as far as it can be established on the basis of the available sources, their form was determined by a coherent architectural vision reflecting current trends in designing palace-and-garden complexes. The Młociny complex was shaped mostly by the two architects commissioned by the owners, Johann Friedrich Knöbel i Szymon Bogumił Zug, whose work survived for less than a century. Most credit goes to Zug, whose artistic vision was fully implemented here, with eclectic solutions characteristic of his designs integrated into the Vistula landscape. Due to its coherent design and varied details, the Młociny complex can rival larger grandiose magnate residences of that epoch located in Warsaw or nearby.
The article discuses a deposit of metalwork (silver and silver-plated cutlery, silver and gilded ... more The article discuses a deposit of metalwork (silver and silver-plated cutlery, silver and gilded cups; fi g. 1), dated to approximately mid-19th – early 20th c. The aim is to characterize individual artefacs, to hypothesize who may have been their owner, to identify their origin, to investigate the circumstances of their deposition and to describe the time and place of their discovery.
The deposit includes four teaspoons (fig. 2), two spoons and two forks (fig. 4) used for main courses, and three mugs (fig. 7), which were probably Kiddush cups, used by Jews for ritual purposes; the Kiddush prayer on Sabbath and other festive days was recited over such a cup filled with red wine. The analyzed artefacts differ signifi cantly in shape and size. Similarities can be found between three teaspoons, which probably came from a single set. Nine items bear trademarks, and four also have monograms (fig. 5), which provides some clues as to the place and time of their manufacture. All of them were cast in silver or a silver-plated alloy known as nickel silver (new silver). The silver plating on each nickel-silver artefact has partly worn out. Most of the cutlery pieces are plain and simple, showing good proportions. Elaborate ornaments are found on only fi ve items: a silverplated brass teaspoon (fig. 2:4), one of the silver spoons (fig. 4:1) and three silver cups, two of them gilded (fig. 7:1; 7:3; 7:5). The deposit includes both mass-produced every-day pieces and more refined items, some of the latter being probably religious cult objects. Seven of the pieces bear the hallmark of the Warsaw assay office and were produced by fi rms based there, including famous ones, like Fraget, Norblin and Utracki. One brass teaspoon, one nickel-silver fork and two pieces of cutlery of non-noble metal have no trademarks. Two gilded silver cups were probably made by Russian goldsmiths, one in Moscow and the other in Kiev. The cups are the most ornate and the most valuable items in the deposit.
The artefacts were discovered in 2009 in Płock, during an emergency archaeological intervention in the area of the present Bielska St, Kwiatka St and Sienkiewicza St, which is now in the centre of Płock, but used to be part of the Bielskie Suburb, north of the historical town, beyond the Bielska Gate (fi g. 10). The deposit was found in the remains of an annexe at 40 Kwiatka St (formerly 40 Szeroka St) (fi g. 11). It had been hidden under the plastering in a cellar; initially it was wrapped in cloth, of which only shreds survived. The annexe was probably built before 1845; it survived the two world wars and was demolished only in 1988. Between 1814 and 1941 the plot on which the deposit was found, the buildings there and the business conducted there were in the hands of Jews. In 1812–1862 the plot was within the Jewish Quarter, a separate section of the town allocated for Orthodox Jews. During WW II, between 15th September 1940 and 1st March 1941, it was part of the open ghetto. Two of the artefacts bear the dates of hallmarking, 1873 and 1896, which suggest the approximate time of their manufacture. The latter date indicates the terminus post quem of the deposit. Other clues lead to the conclusion that the items were produced between 1850 and 1915. Thus, it is likely that they were accumulated over a long time and used by more than one generation. Although differing in material value, they must have had a sentimental value and were probably hidden when the owner felt endangered, most likely during WW II, between 1939 and 1941. The person who did this never recovered them and they remained in a building that was in normal use in the years 1941-1988, surviving underground after its demolition until 2009. Thus, they may have lain hidden for about over seventy years.
SMOKING-PIPES FROM THE EXCAVATIONS AT THE CASTLE IN TYKOCIN FROM THE 17TH–19TH C.
Clay heads (stu... more SMOKING-PIPES FROM THE EXCAVATIONS AT THE CASTLE IN TYKOCIN FROM THE 17TH–19TH C. Clay heads (stummels, bowls, pipe bodies) of three-piece smoking pipes have been excavated in several dozen sites all over Poland. Most of the fi nds consisted of several pipes. The largest fi nd, including ca 400 fragments, comes from Leżajsk; ca 100 were found in Zamość; fi nds of several dozen items come from the Old Town and the Royal Castle in Warsaw, the town of Przemyśl and the Dominikański Square in Wrocław (Breslau). The newest among the finds are those from Leżajsk (the second half of the 19th c. and the turn of the 20th c.); the oldest artefact, dated to the 16th–17th c., was found in Elblag (Elbing); 17th-century pipes were excavated in Bolesławiec on the Prosna, Tykocin, Warsaw and Złota. Precise dating is possible only in some cases, for example the pipes found in the former camp of the Polish army near Wojnicz can be dated at before 1655, those excavated in the Royal Castle and the Castle Square in Warsaw at the second half of the 17th c. and the fi rst half of the 18th c., those from the remains of a potter’s workshop at Brama Poboczna [the Side Gate] at the 17th c. and those from the house of Bochenkowicz in Warsaw at the second half of the 18th c. and the beginning of the 19th c. Although since the 1990s this type of artefact has gained more attention among scholars and has been addressed in a growing number of publications, only few fi nds have been described in detail. Therefore, it is interesting to consider the pipes excavated in the castle of Tykocin, which are numerous, varied and properly dated. The author aims to present the forms and ornaments of the pipes from this collection, as well as to systematise them. The finds in question were excavated during the exploration of the castle complex in Tykocin, in the province of Podlasie, in the years 2001–2005. There are 30 clay pipe heads in the collection. Most of them were found in the culture layers connected with the functioning of the Tykocin castle from the beginning of the 17th c. to the mid 18th c. The events that took place there at that time are important in determining the provenance of the pipes. It is, however, difficult to fi nd out for how long a given artefact was used. It can only be supposed that clay heads were not durable and they were disposed of if damaged. The durability of such artefacts probably depended on the individual features of the users. Apart from clay heads, the Tykocin fi nds include three fragments of white one-piece pipes. The pipes were probably used by the soldiers who fought or were stationed in the castle. They can be dated at the period from the second half of the 17th c. to the mid 19th c. The data on all the pipe heads are collected in table 1. Only one of the heads is unbroken; the others are in fact fragments of different size. Most were made of ferruginous clay; only two are white. All were made of well-washed ceramic body. 1/3 of the heads analysed were certainly made with matrices. The majority were fi red in an oxidising atmosphere; their potsherds are of various shades of beige or brick-red. Five of the heads (shaped of ferruginous clay) were fired in a reducing atmosphere; those are black. In 11 cases (37%) the outer surface is covered with a thin layer of glaze, in most cases lead glaze — only head no. 9 is covered with clay glaze. The glaze coatings are light and dark green, yellow and light brown; the clay glaze is of cherry colour. The ornaments on the heads are usually schematic, of fl oral or geometric forms. The simplest ornaments were incised or rolled. There is an example of the stamping technique, with the motif of rosette repeated fi ve times. More varied and complicated ornaments were moulded in the matrix together with the head; those include notches, single flowers or stylised floral shapes and check motifs. Burnishing was aimed at producing a smooth surface effect. The polygonal shape of some rims (rings), bowls and shanks are also of decorative character. Only one pipe from this collection, no. 30, dated at the mid 19th c., is marked with the stamp of the producer — a manufacturer from Staszów in Little Poland. Half of the pipes were certainly used, since their chambers are blackened and sooted. Since the fi nds are mostly fragments, the data on the shape and size of the pipes are incomplete. There are few data on the rims, which are scarce among the fi nds. Perhaps this was the part of the pipe the was most easily damaged, and if that happened the pipe was unusable and the head was thrown away. Based mainly on foreign publications and the works of Philippe Gosse, John W. Hayes, Rebecca C.W. Robinson, the author has proposed a typology of the fi nds from Tykocin. Furthermore, taking into consideration the shape, the ornaments and the technological criteria she has classifi ed the fi nds into eight groups. For some of them analogies can be traced in other finds from Poland and from abroad. Only in few cases it was possible to hypothesise about the provenance of the pipes. Some of them were probably made in Turkey or modelled on Turkish pipes (heads no. 5, 6, 10 and 13 of group 2, heads no. 18, 21–24 of group 3 and heads no. 28 and 29 of group 7). Some of the heads from group 5 (no. 15 and 25–27) were possibly produced locally, in Podlasie. One head, no. 30, was certainly manufactured in Poland, in Staszów.
ON CLAY SMOKING-PIPES
IN THE POLISH-LITHUANIAN COMMONWEALTH
The custom of smoking tobacco in pipe... more ON CLAY SMOKING-PIPES IN THE POLISH-LITHUANIAN COMMONWEALTH The custom of smoking tobacco in pipes was accepted in Poland later than that of taking snuff or chewing tobacco leaves. In Western Europe pipes came into common use during the Thirty Years War. In Poland, according to an account from 1671, they were not popular yet, and were used mainly by soldiers and artisans. In the 18th c., however, pipes were already very popular throughout society, including its elite. Both pipes and snuff were commonly used until cigarettes appeared in the second half of the 19th c. Smokers in old Poland used various kinds of pipes, either consisting of one piece or of three pieces; the latter type was called lulka. In three-part pipes the three pieces (the bowl, the stem and the bit) were made separately, usually of different materials. Bowls were usually made of clay, stems — of wood and mouthpieces — of horn. Some pipes were additionally equipped with a string to be hanged on. Poles mostly used three-part clay pipes manufactured in Poland or imported from Bulgaria or Turkey. Short-stem pipes were more handy and could be used while working or travelling; they were also easy to store. Smoking tobacco in long-stem pipes required not only assistance in lighting but also leisure to enjoy it to the full. Therefore long-stem pipes were mostly an attribute of the rich and an object of luxury. Burghers, soldiers and the poor used simple short-stem pipes. Pipe bowls increased as the production of tobacco grew and its price fell. An analysis of pipes in terms of origin, construction and production technology can provide data on the directions of cultural infl uence and trade links in old Poland, as well as on the popularization of certain smoking routines. Issues connected with three-part clay pipes — their construction, production or origin — have been tackled only marginally in some Polish publications. No attention has been devoted to terminology, which is used imprecisely in the Polish literature of the subject. Most Polish terms referring to smoking accessories (lulka, cybuch, antypka, kapciuch, stambułka) have Oriental etymology. This might suggest that Eastern models had a decisive infl uence on accepting pipes in Poland. On the other hand, terms such as fajka, munsztuk and pipka point to the Western origin of the phenomenon. The origin of clay pipes is usually diffi cult to establish. Most specimen are not marked and have no ornaments that could be helpful in dating. Only Turkish pipes, which have a characteristic shape and are sometimes marked with the producer’s sign, are easier to identify. Between the 17th and 19th c. three-part pipes were probably manufactured in twelve places in the Commonwealth: Alwernia, Biecz, Brzozów, Gdańsk, Gliniany, Glińsk, Mrzygłód, Rabka, Sławków, Staszów, Vilnius and Warsaw. This has been confi rmed by numerous fi nds of pipes in the town of Biecz and the remains of pottery workshops discovered in Warsaw and Vilnius. With only spoken evidence available, it is diffi cult to be sure about the production of pipes in Gdańsk. The existence of a workshop in Staszów is confi rmed by signed pipe bowls found in various archaeological sites, e.g. in Tykocin and Warsaw. Pipes and their fragments have been found in various Ukrainian towns, e.g. in Żółkiew and Kiev, which confi rms that their manufacture was undertaken in the 19th c. in Glińsk. To confi rm the production of clay pipes in the remaining places mentioned, as well as in towns missing from the above list, it is necessary to undertake historical and archaeological research which could supply data on the development of pipe-making craft in a given area.
This paper presents issues related to the X-ray fluorescence analysis (XRF), or the so-called X-r... more This paper presents issues related to the X-ray fluorescence analysis (XRF), or the so-called X-ray spectrometry, applied to the study of Late Medieval ceramic found at archaeological sites located in Solec-on-the-Vistula-River (Solec nad Wisłą). At the beginning I will explain terminology used in the title and give details about the origin of the analysed pottery. Then I will present selected results of the XRF analysis and my reflections on application of this method to pottery research. KEY WORDS: pottery, white earthenware, laboratory analyses
ON POLISH X-RAY FLUORESCENCE ANALYSES OF THE CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF LATE MEDIEVAL AND MODERN POT... more ON POLISH X-RAY FLUORESCENCE ANALYSES OF THE CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF LATE MEDIEVAL AND MODERN POTTERY The article presents issues connected with X-ray fluorescence analysis (XRF), also called X-ray spectrometry, applied currently also to pottery research. These issues have been discussed in Polish archaeological publications, among others in reference to analyses of Late Medieval and modern ceramics. Also considered in the deliberations were analyses by other methods like the spectral method and flame photometry. The more important studies on the topic include: L. Kociszewski, J. Kruppé 1962; 1973; A. Buko, Z. Werfel 1977; A. Girdwoyń 1987; M. Daszkiewicz, H. Wyciślik 1989; A. Buko 1997; M. Auch 2004; M. Bis 2005. The most important issues taken up by individual researchers include, on one hand, factors in-fluencing the correctness and reliability of analyses and, on the other hand, ways of interpreting re-sults and making inferences from them. They concern ways of carrying out analyses, starting with sample preparation, strengths and weaknesses of applied methods, as well as chemical compounds which need to be determined in order to collect information on the characteristics of clays and glazes, the number of samples that are indispensable for a proper analysis, the possibility of estab-lishing similarities and differences in the chemical composition of products from the same centers or regions of production. X-ray fluorescence analysis is characterized primarily by the possibility of examining small amounts of products, resulting in only insignificant damage to the object, and even very small, se-lected parts of the sample, both on the surface and in the break. Preparation of a sample is relatively simple and does not require any special techniques. The time needed for making the determination is short, a mere few minutes. As for potential element detection and accuracy, technologists are of the opinion that analyses by the described method are in some cases similar to or more accurate than classical methods of wet chemical analysis or other instrumental methods. The flaws of this method draw mostly from the way the samples are prepared. The X-ray fluorescence method is a surface analysis, hence its correctness is heavily dependent on the quality of the examined surface, which should be as smooth as possible. Impurities and rough spots can lead to errors of analysis, raising the content of some components and changing the mutual proportions of others. Mechanical cutting of samples from ceramic products, especially in the case of vessels glazed on both sides, can lead to contamination of the ceramic mass with particles of glaze and the glaze with components of the ceramic mass. The results of analyses can be disrupted in X-ray spectrometry as well, mostly in ef-fect of the matrix and granulation. Difficulties in determining light elements constitutes another limitation of the method. The element detection range also does not make this method suitable for determining elements with a content below 0.01% weight in a given sample. Normalizing the results to 100% creates in turn the impression of an errorless analysis. In case of analyses carried out by the discussed method, the multiple character of observations in reference to a single sample and whole series of samples is of significance. It is important to ob-serve similarities or differences of results depending on the size of the analyzed surface and its posi-tion, in order to determine optimal, general and binding conditions for carrying out the remaining analyses. Upon obtaining different results concerning the content of specific elements, it is essential to consider different reasons for this; for example, was the sample actually representative of a given set of finds, does the analyzed product correspond to other finds in terms of technique and technol-ogy, did the spot that was analyzed contain impurities or not. The X-ray fluorescence method should thus be considered as supplementing "traditional" ar-chaeological examinations of pottery products and other physico-chemical analyses. The reliability of the method and the possibility of comparing results obtained in effect of its application depend on adopted processing methods and conditions for carrying out the analysis. It is important each time to describe the methods precisely and to include a precise description of the finds intended for analysis. A larger number of analyses by this method will contribute new comparative material. On this basis it will be easier presumably not only to determine parallels or differences between ana-lyzed products and their sets, but also possibly to determine their provenience.
Keywords: Late Medieval and modern pottery, pottery lab analyses
„THREE CASES WITH COFFEE-POTS…”, IT IS ABOUT FAIENCE
AND PORCELAN IN TYKOCIN CASTLE.
Archaeologic... more „THREE CASES WITH COFFEE-POTS…”, IT IS ABOUT FAIENCE AND PORCELAN IN TYKOCIN CASTLE. Archaeological explorations carried out so far in the castle area in Tykocin – Podlachia, have delivered not only numerous, but also varied movable artifacts. Despite predominating objects of local production, there are also items from distanced production centers; these are, among the others, fragments of glass vessels, clay pipes, elements of armory and coins from 16th century up to 19th century. The article concentrates on two selected categories of modern imports and their local imitations, i.e. porcelain and faience. For 91 thousand of various source categories obtained in the discussed site, pieces of faience and porcelain create relatively small collection of 614 fragments, including 540 pieces of faience and 74 pieces of porcelain. The minimum number of those vessels was defined for 304, respectively: 251 and 53 items. Nearly half of all the fragments was obtained from mixed layers, made chiefly as a result of architectonic works, performed in the castle and around in the 60s of the last century. Most of the production was unsigned, therefore it is rather difficult in defining the objects’ origin and precise dating. Only ten vessels are marked (five porcelain and five faience ones), seven of which created possibilities of identification. Production places of majority of items were stated on the base of manufacturing techniques and comparative analyses. It was possible first of all for ornamented examples with decorative elements characteristic for particular workshops, production centers on vessel types. This collection consists, among the others, of the most expensive and the most desirable products of those times – original China, Dutch faiences of Delft, English dishes from Josiah Wedgwood’s manufacture(?) and porcelain from Meissen of Saxony and royal Vienna manufacture, but moreover – products probably from workshops situated in Italy, England (Bristol), France (Nevers, Rouen, Sèvres), other German centers (Volkstedt),Silesia (Prószków Śląski), Volhynia (Korzec, Baranówka, Horodnica), Pomerania (Gdańsk, Szczecin area) and Lesser Poland (Ćmielów, Iłża). The listed finds are mainly elements of crockery sets – plates, saucers, bowls, cups, soup tureens and vases, pitchers. The collection is completed by a tea-pot and lids (probably for jugs). Tykocin assembly also possesses one sanitary vessel – a bed-pan. The assortment of faience products is more diversified, in comparison with more unified porcelain collection, although in both ceramic groups – plates are in predominance.
The book discusses white pottery from Solec. This term refers to the earthenware pottery made fro... more The book discusses white pottery from Solec. This term refers to the earthenware pottery made from clays fired to white, beige and yellowish colour, dated from the late Middle Ages to the beginning of the modern era, found during the archaeological excavations in Solec nad Wisłą (in Little Poland). The chronological scope of this study covers the period between the end of the 14th century and the mid-17th century. The main objective of this work is to analyse the white pottery and create its comprehensive characteristics. This analysis covers issues concerning the technology of production and morphology of wares. It comprises research on the composition of ceramic pastes as wel as manufacturing and ornamentation technoques, forms, types, and sizes of the vessles and their individual parts. These issues have been presesnted in four chronological groups. The author also attempted to identify the provenence of the vessels analysed here. In addition, the study undertaken in this book required presentation of research problems and establishing the advencement of research on the pottery wares discussed.
Słownik historyczno-geograficzny ziemi czerskiej w średniowieczu, 2021
Publikacja stanowi IV część II tomu "Słownika historyczno-geograficznego ziem polskich w średniow... more Publikacja stanowi IV część II tomu "Słownika historyczno-geograficznego ziem polskich w średniowieczu". Ziemia czerska jest kolejną - po wyszogrodzkiej, warszawskiej i liwskiej - ziemią Mazowsza na obszarze późniejszego województwa mazowieckiego w Królestwie Polskim, która jest przedmiotem opracowania słownikowego. Praca zawiera obszerny wstęp dotyczący położenia, charakterystyki, granic i podziału ziemi czerskiej oraz objaśnienia na temat zawartości i układu "Słownika", jego ram czasowych, jak również konstrukcji haseł.
Pogranicze Mazowsza i Rusi okresu wczesnego średniowiecza stanowi dla archeologów i historyków-me... more Pogranicze Mazowsza i Rusi okresu wczesnego średniowiecza stanowi dla archeologów i historyków-mediewistów wyjątkowe pole badań. Tereny te stosunkowo późno zaczynają wchodzić w orbitę wpływów chrześcijaństwa, czemu sprzyjało ich peryferyjne położenie w sto-sunku do centrów kulturowych Polski i Rusi. Brak lokalnych ośrodków administra cyjnych i reli-gijnych oraz sąsiedztwo pogańskiej Litwy sprawiały, że na terenach dorzecza środkowego Bugu i górnej Narwi, dłużej aniżeli gdzie indziej, trwały przedchrześcijańskie praktyki religijne. Wraz z postępami chrześcijaństwa obszary te weszły w strefę rywalizacji podmiotów politycznych (Polska-Ruś) oraz ideologicznych (Kościoły Rzymski i Wschodni). W efekcie ukształtował się tu unikatowy konglomerat etniczny i kulturowy, w którym mieszały się wpływy obydwu religii chrześcijańskich oraz mających starsze korzenie praktyk pogańskich. Wszystko to dodaje obserwowanym tu rytuałom pogrzebowym nieznanego na innych obszarach ziem polskich, niepowtarzalnego kolorytu. Ilustracją tej opinii są prezentowane na stronach niniejszej publi-kacji dawne i nowe odkrycia, które tylko tutaj i w takiej postaci mogły zaistnieć.
Publikacja, wydana jako XI tom serii Origines Polonorum, zawiera najobszerniejsze podsumowanie wy... more Publikacja, wydana jako XI tom serii Origines Polonorum, zawiera najobszerniejsze podsumowanie wyników dotychczasowych prac badawczych przeprowadzonych na legendarnej Górze Lecha w Gnieźnie. Odkryto tam m.in. kamienny kopiec na kulminacji wzniesienia, odcinki wałów obronnych wszystkich członów grodu oraz przedromańskie i romańskie pozostałości budowli kamiennych pod katedrą i w pobliżu kościoła św. Jerzego. W książce uwzględniono zarówno starsze, jak i zupełnie nowe opracowania, które mają stanowić podstawę do ukierunkowania dyskusji o przeszłości tego miejsca i planowania dalszych badań archeologicznych. Zaprezentowano obraz zespołu grodowego w nowych ramach chronologicznych, przewartościowano dotychczasowe rozumienie przemian topograficznych wzgórza związanych z osadnictwem grodowym oraz funkcji pełnionych przez poszczególne jego człony w relacji gród książęcy - podgrodzie I.
Publikacja prezentuje wybrane, najistotniejsze zagadnienia i znaleziska związane z tytułowym miej... more Publikacja prezentuje wybrane, najistotniejsze zagadnienia i znaleziska związane z tytułowym miejscem - wyspą położoną na Jeziorze Lednica, gdzie znajdował się grodowy ośrodek przedpaństwowy, a następnie rezydencjonalno-stołeczne centrum państwowe, przeżywające są świetność w 2 połowie X i na początku XI wieku. W tomie, który ukazał się jako IX w serii Origines Polonorum, przedstawiono średniowieczne źródła pisane na temat tego terenu, omówiono jego położenie, dzieje i stan badań, analizę stratygrafii i chronologii najstarszego grodu, jego konstrukcje obronne, odsłonięte pozostałości mostów, a także relikty architektoniczne - kaplicy baptyzmalnej i palatium oraz kościoła grodowego i zlokalizowanego wokół cmentarza. Zaprezentowano także ślady drewnianego budownictwa mieszkalnego oraz tzw. zabytki wydzielone z fazy rezydencjonalnej.
The World of Things. Considerations on the Standard of Living and the Meaning of Movable Property in Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, 2022
The aim of the article is to present the title issue through the material sources obtained during... more The aim of the article is to present the title issue through the material sources obtained during excavations, in comparison with written records. I would like to discuss the leading topic in the relation to the archaeological finds – ceramic and glass vessels from the 16th to 18th centuries recovered from the castle complex in Tykocin located at the Podlasie region (Poland). My goal is to indicate general, emerging problems connected with the basic issues and to depict the archaeological reality in the regard to the information contained in the documents, as well as to determine their differentiation and function in the castle, for whom the found items were intended, what was the number of potential recipients, how their social and professional diversity looked like.
Badania archeologiczne w dolinie Wisły na Mazowszu, 2021
The chapter discusses finds from the 16th-20th centuries – ceramics (vessels and tiles), glass an... more The chapter discusses finds from the 16th-20th centuries – ceramics (vessels and tiles), glass and „other”, i.e. individual, small artefacts that do not fit into the basic categories, which were recovered during a field survey within the Vistula riverbed in 2015. Their characteristic stylistic, technological and decorative features were indicated. Applied has been their division and desciption according to the main places of their concentration. A total of 295 artefacts were analysed. These are mainly ceramic vessels of various types – 230 fragments (77% of the total), then fractions of glassware – 35 (12%) and stove tiles – 23 fragments (8%), a few other products: construction and industrial ceramics – a total of 5 fractions and 2 other objects, i.e. a piece of slate and an oyster shell. A significant part of the finds (almost 40% of all) was recorded near the Bielany district, in the area of the present Ruda housing estate (112 pieces). More than a half less were found in the districts of: Mokotów, in the area of today’s Siekierki, and Śródmieście, in the area of the Copernicus Science Centre (55 and 53 fragments, 18% and 19%), while at the height of Praga – 21 (7%) whereas of Wilanów – 23 (8% of all). In other places, they occurred in the small number (see Table 1). Most of the items were found on the so-called secondary deposit, in places of accumulation after being transported across the river current from the points where they originaly were lying or have been thrown out after some leveling or cleaning works. Presumably, only one of the clusters – in Śródmieście, near the Copernicus Science Centre, was created as a result of removing rubble from Warsaw after World War II. This is confirmed by its contents, similar features of the artefacts of each group and their similar dating (from the 18th to the 19th centuries). They more likely should be considered things that were once used by the inhabitants of Warsaw. However, it is not known where and in what context the products, the remains of which formed the remaining clusters, found their application. Despite the shortcomings of the source base, it was found that the artefacts were chronologically and materially diversified, and some general phenomena and trends in the history of pottery and glass manufacturing in the analysed period were signaled. Among the pottery vessels, brick-red and glazed brick-red ones (84 fragments in total) are dominant over gray ones (71 fragments). Almost half as much of the number of white and white glazed vessels (36 specimens in total) was recorded, and not many faience (14 fractions), porcelain (9 pieces), and slipware – the so-called pseudo-maiolica in Polish (9 pieces) and stoneware (7 pieces). These are the remains of several types of products popular in the modern period: pots, bowls, jugs, pans, plates, cups, soup tureens and flasks. Tiles (a total of 26 fragments, the remainder of 23 specimens) are broken down into two groups: formed in matrices, i.e. plates, constituting the majority (almost 83%, and 19 fragments), and formed on a potter’s wheel, a few pot/bowl-shaped tiles (4 pieces, less than 17% of the found ones). On the other hand, 35 fragments of glassware are leftovers of vessels primarily used for storage and transport of liquid substances (33, i.e. 97% of glass) – bottles of different capacity (a total of 30 pieces), including cylindrical bottles, ampoules, a carboy and a vat, as well as jars (2) and a cosmetic container (1), or for serving and individual consumption of beverages; group represented by one glass.
Archeologia frontu wschodniego Wielkiej Wojny jako wyzwanie, 2021
This chapter presents a general description of the pottery found in the course of archaeological ... more This chapter presents a general description of the pottery found in the course of archaeological research on the historic battlefield for the Bolimów bridgehead during the First World War. In total, 177 fragments were recovered. The excavated assemblage contains sherds from a number of periods, some of them are prehistoric and early medieval products, others date to the late medieval and early modern times, but the bulk were from the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Most of the artefacts are ceramic vessels of various functions and forms (146 items), mainly pots, the rest are ceramic items used for a different purpose (31 pieces), including: tobacco pipe, gaming piece, a photo frame, figurine, bottle stopper, pipes for sanitary installations, insulators. They are described according to functional groups, indicating their most important stylistic and formal features. Items of special cognitive value were also indicated in the collection and are illustrated here. Five artefacts were considered as “special finds” due to their characteristics compared to other finds, i.e. good condition, provenance, form and decorations.
Europa Postmediaevalis 2018. Post-medieval pottery between (its) borders, 2019
The main aim of this paper is to draw attention to the most important research issues associated ... more The main aim of this paper is to draw attention to the most important research issues associated with so-called white pottery from the Early Modern period, which comes from archaeological excavations carried out in Poland. This type of earthenware was very popular, particularly in the 16th century and in the first half of the 17th century. It was produced mainly in southeast and central Poland, and vessels (predominantly pots) made of this material were characterised by good quality, a bright surface colour (white, beige, yellowish), the use of lead glaze (especially green, brown and yellow), as well as decoration that usually took the form of incised grooves and painted patterns (mainly lines). One of the most important questions associated with the analysed pottery is the cause of its popularity. Where did this phenomenon come from? Is it possible to identify the provenance of the white wares and to recognise the features that characterize products from individual pottery production centres? Another issue is defining the market for the white pottery and trade routes for its distribution.
Windows in the Tykocin Castle at the beginning of the 18th century. Reality and construction guid... more Windows in the Tykocin Castle at the beginning of the 18th century. Reality and construction guidelines. So far, there are no known records which would depict the appearance and the state of preservation of the castle in Tykocin in the period predating mid-20th century. For this reason, the most important sources concerning the layout and furnishings of the castle are the partly published inventories from years: 1698, 1701, 1715 and 1727. They contain a short description of the castle’s interiors, information about equipment and furnishings, mostly fixtures, fittings and most valuable items, including windows. At that time the castle was a private property of the Branicki of Gryf coat of arms family — Stefan Mikołaj and his only son, Jan Klemens III. During this time there were two wings in use (most probably the west and south), which consisted of: cellars, a kitchen, pantries, corridors, a treasury, a porch, a chamber, several rooms — one called the “glass room”, and a dining room. Th is paper discusses the issue of window woodwork, fi ttings, glazing, the positioning and number of windows in the building, as well as the method of their production and state of preservation, utilising the description of the castle from 1701 (see the Annex).
Tykocin - the castle on the Narew River past and today
The purpose of this paper is to present th... more Tykocin - the castle on the Narew River past and today The purpose of this paper is to present the most important information regarding the past of the monument in question known from written records and discovered in the course of archaeological works. We would also like to present the appearance, function and importance of the contemporary, reconstructed castle. The castle complex referred to in the title of our paper is situated in the north eastern Poland, in the Podlasie region, on the right bank of the Narew River. In the past, this was the borderland between the Great Duchy of Lithuania and the Kingdom of Poland. Until the 1960s, it was practically unknown. These were only the works carried out in 1961-1963 by the Polish Architecture Unit of the Warsaw Technical University that led to the discovery of the castle foundations, which, until then, had not been visible on the ground surface. Associated with the aforesaid project were also the first archaeological works. The site has functioned as a 'permanent ruin', the result of the 1960s intervention, for the next 40 years, until the end of the past century, as a local attraction. However, the outline of the foundations and partly preserved walls have gradually disappeared. In the end of the 1990s, Tykocin's authorities gave the structure and the site in a perpetual lease to a private individual - Jacek Nazarko. He initiated, commissioned and financed various surveys and research projects concerning the complex. Among the others these were archaeological and architectural works as well as processing their results and the assemblage of finds. They led, however, to a number of important discoveries that changed the knowledge of the history of this Narew River islet and structures located on the site. The most important discoveries were the uncovering of the remains from the end of the 15th and beginning of the 16th century. These were the relics of the stockade (palisade) and remains of several timber houses and outbuildings. The hillock and its buildings functioned when these lands were the property of the Gasztołd family. The aforesaid archaeological investigations also resulted in collecting a high volume of information on the works associated with the construction of the castle that took place during the reign of King Zygmunt August in the second half of the 16th century. It was possible to reconstruct, at least partially, stages and the scope of the construction works. Types of building materials used, building techniques and the construction method of the foundations and castle walls were also identified. The castle was surrounded by the line of brick- and stone-built fortifications with four bastilles. The wall functioned between the second half of the 16th century until the beginning of the 17th century. The construction of bastion fortifications took place after the demolition of the older line of castle defences. The exact date of the Tykocin fortress's creation is not known, though. The fortress in Tykocin is a very important example of the Polish Modern era defensive military architecture, and is one of the very few still preserved structures of that type clearly detectable in the field. During the war between Poland and Sweden in 1655-1660 the structure was largely damaged. Still during the Great Northern War the fortress played a strategic role. Finally around 1760 the owner - Jan Klemens Branicki decided to demolish the remains of the castle wall. The defensive military complex in Tykocin had already lost its function. Currently, between 2012 and 2015, we are preparing a study of the results of all archaeological works carried out on the site, as a part of the new project financed by the Ministry of Science and Higher Education. This should lead to the publication of a monograph of the site. A modern reconstruction of the castle was prepared by Agnieszka Duda, an architect from Białystok. Construction works begun in 2002. At that stage, a building in a lockup stage had been built within three years. Between 2006 and 2011 fit-out works were carried out, associated with installing media and wiring as well as furnishing and finishing all rooms. The landlord wanted to maximize the use of local materials and to involve local companies and producers. An interesting and complex operation completed in 2010 was the reconstruction of the large heating stove which adorned the great hall in the castle. The reconstruction of the stove was designed by dr Maria Dąbrowska. The official opening of the venue was held in May 2011. Currently, only some parts of the complex are in use: the south wing of the castle together with two towers and a part of the northwest wing, known from the records as the so-called "Great Keep". These have different uses - as an exhibition space, a function room and a commercial space. The south wing comprises a gate and an arcaded gallery leading to an observation tower. External walls of the castle on the eastern and northern side had also been filled in and raised. Currently, reconstruction works are also carried out in the part of the north wing and the so-called White Tower. The castle is open to the public. The castle is becoming increasingly popular due to the annual open air event called "the Siege of Tykocin". Expanding the knowledge about the fortress in Tykocin and disseminating information can contribute to increasing Tykocin's tourist appeal as well as to raising the heritage awareness among the local residents and, as a consequence, leading to a greater consideration and care for the preserved historic remains that are a part of the local community's life.
ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE CASTLE IN TYKOTZIN -THE PROBLEMS AND POSTULATES OF THE RESEARCH
The aim of the... more ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE CASTLE IN TYKOTZIN -THE PROBLEMS AND POSTULATES OF THE RESEARCH The aim of the article is to present the most important issues that are related to the range of problems con-cerning the establishment of the castle in Tykotzin, to show the difficulties, which appeared during the works conducted outdoors in this place, the problems connected with the discovered relics and gained finds, with their analysis, interpretation and fixing the chronology. The first archaeological-architectural studies were taken up here in the years 1961-1963, in connection with the realisation of the project, which aimed to create the, so called, permanent ruin out of the castle remains. Simultaneously, the research of the defensive stronghold was conducted. The successive archaeological stud-ies were conducted by the method of geotechnic boreholes in 1999. The next excavations in 2001-2005 were of the rescue nature, preceding the current reconstruction of the castle. During the research some very significant discoveries were made, which enabled to learn about the history of this Narew holm; for instance, the remains of the wooden building were uncovered, which is earlier than the Renaissance stone castle of Sigismund Augustus, dating back to the end of the 15th, the beginning of the 16th centuries. 229 The most important difficulties encountered during the excavations and interpretation of the discovered things were caused by the destruction made by the German army during the World War I, as well as during the construction works in the 1960s. Thus, it is impossible to determine the thickness of the original cultural stratifications and their context in the different parts of the castle. The stratigraphy is incomplete and de-prived of many essential elements; there is a lack of upper layers, that is, the part of the modern layers con-nected with the object's functioning and its demolition. While undertaking the archaeological works there is some restriction; there is a lack of the pictures of the castle in Tykotzin and poor written records, which inform about the arrangement and furnishing of the castle at the end of the 17th century and at the beginning of the 18th century, and remain silent about the exterior, size and purpose of the buildings functioning here at the end of the Middle Ages. What concerns the analysis and interpretation of the movable monuments, which 60,000 were found in 1999-2005, it must be stated that in the previous archaeological literature there is a lack of the descriptions of the sets of the finds extracted at the stands in the late Middle Ages and modern times in the area of Pod-lasie. Therefore, there is a lack of the basis to estimate the production level and technology of the selected branches of manufacture in Podlasie from the 15th to 18th centuries.
Europa Postmediaevalis 2022. Connections and networkings, 2022
The poster aims to present post-medieval ceramic finds as the sources for revealing changes in co... more The poster aims to present post-medieval ceramic finds as the sources for revealing changes in consumption patterns occurring in that period. The base for these considerations is a collection of faience (including creamware and Pomeranian faience), majolica, slipware, stoneware, and porcelain vessels from the second half of the 16th – first half of the 19th centuries, revealed at the castle site in Tykocin. They served as crockery during everyday meals and celebratory feasts alike.
A review of the 3 volumes of the publishing series entitled Studies in the History of Wine in Pol... more A review of the 3 volumes of the publishing series entitled Studies in the History of Wine in Poland, published between 2017 and 2021.
The reviewed publication, published in 2019, is a collection of texts based on papers and posters... more The reviewed publication, published in 2019, is a collection of texts based on papers and posters presented at the international conference under the same title held in Prague in April 2018. The contributors focus on the most common items found at archaeological sites of the period, i.e., ceramics, particularly vessels and tiles. The work under discussion demonstrates how heterogeneous these finds are, how many unanswered questions they provoke, especially regarding their production, exploitation, and trade, and at the same time what progress has been made in these fields of research, but also what remains unclear and in need of further studies.
The work is focused on the material culture of noble residences from north-eastern Czechia, manif... more The work is focused on the material culture of noble residences from north-eastern Czechia, manifestations of various aspects of life in the late Middle Ages and the post-medieval period.
The first meeting of the Ceramics Workshop series devoted to late medieval and post-medieval pott... more The first meeting of the Ceramics Workshop series devoted to late medieval and post-medieval pottery found in the territory of modern Poland.
Using various sources this paper collects information about archaeological research performed up ... more Using various sources this paper collects information about archaeological research performed up to 2023 on Jewish cemeteries in Central European countries: Czechia, Lithuania, and Poland, discussing their nature, scope, methods, and state of post-excavation work. The determinants of fieldwork-religious and cultural factors, socio-political issues, as well as conservation and scientific factors-are indicated. The number of cemeteries in the region and their state of preservation is also described. Furthermore, the paper discusses the usefulness of archaeology for understanding many aspects of the life of Ashkenazi communities in the Middle Ages and modern times.
Archéologie du judaïsme en Europe, P. Salmona, Ph. Blanchard, A. Sagasser (eds), Paris, 2023
This chapter presents the main issues related to the current knowledge about Jewish cemeteries fr... more This chapter presents the main issues related to the current knowledge about Jewish cemeteries from the Middle Ages to the 21st century in Central Europe, especially about the burial rite of Ashkenazi communities in the light of archaeology. The discussion focuses on the organization of the cemetery space, and in particular on the burials themselves - their characteristics, arrangement, grave equipment, etc. The presented topics concern cemeteries located in Poland, the Czech Republic and Lithuania. In this text, we also indicate the most important legal and customary conditions for conducting archaeological research on this category of sites in Central Europe. We also discuss directions and prospects for further research.
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Papers by Magdalena Bis
The article is an attempt to identify the basic methodological problems related to
research on the chemical composition of historical glass. These are methods for interpreting the results of analyses and the classifications of glass developed by various researchers (Polish included) concerning many eras and areas, mainly from the European continent. Among the vast and constantly growing literature on the subject, we only take into the consideration the publications, which in our opinion are the most important for this work, and which contain the most representative examples of the methods used. We realize that this is our subjective and arbitrary choice. The study is addressed to archaeologists undertaking archaeometric research of historical glass.
the creation of the glass deposit. Finally, the paper discusses the time and circumstances in which the said glass was treated and processed.
The article also identifies issues requiring further research and points to unsolved questions. The discussion is based on fi nds described in available publications. Most of them are remnants of everyday items, which are rarely mentioned in written sources and insufficiently researched.
Glass is one of the major categories of post-medieval artefacts revealed by archaeological works; glass vessels they are usually excavated in pieces, due to the fragility of the material. In Poland, broken glass, along with damaged ironware, was bought for reuse until the end of the 18th c. Glass became commonly used in Poland relatively late; glass tableware, containers and windowpanes started to appear quite frequently only in the 16th c., and became widely accessible only in the 17th c. No record has been found so far to confi rm the existence of any glassworks near Warsaw and in Mazovia before the beginning of the 18th c. However, there may have been some smallscale works, called ‘forest glassworks’. Their products, supplied to the Warsaw market, were probably kitchen utensils or modest tableware, e.g. the so-called ‘bell cups’. Elegant glass tableware in the 16th–18th c. was imported. Warsaw was probably supplied with glass of various provenance, coming by various routes from different directions. In the 16th–17th c. the major glass trade centres were Cracow and Gdańsk.
The first glass manufactories which produced vessels were established in the vicinity of Warsaw in the fi rst half of the 18th c. Those were: the royal glassworks in Bielany near Warsaw, opened in 1713 and closed before 1725, and the glassworks near Otwock, which was opened after 1729 and worked until c. 1786. The products of the royal glassworks were probably of high quality but none have been identified. The other glassworks manufactured decorated white and colourful vessels. The third Warsaw glassworks, most likely applying quite an advanced technology, was established in 1729. Other glassworks in the vicinity of Warsaw started production only in the second half of the 18th c. In that century the capital was probably supplied with glass by other renowned manufactories, e.g. by the “Crystal Glassworks”, which worked from
1717 to the end of the 18th c. near Lubaczów. More glassworks were established in the region only in the first half of the 19th c., the leading one being the “Czechy” manufactory in Trąbki near Garwolin.
Data on modern-period glass vessels excavated in Warsaw can be found in less than twenty publications. Most of them are artefacts from the 18th c., with few 16th- and 17th-century items. The total number is over 16 000 (cf. table 1). They constitute just a fraction of glass fi nds.
The largest set comes from excavations in the Royal Pharmacy. The analysed vessels can be divided into two groups according to function: ones for storing and transporting drinks and ones for serving and consumption. The existing publications indicate that the majority of fi nds belong to the fi rst group, which includes bottles, fl asks and demijohns. Items from the other group, which can be labelled tableware, are less numerous but more varied, with glasses, goblets and cups (including ‘bell cups’), jugs, mugs and decanters of varied sizes, forms and shapes. Few are decorated; the excavated items sometimes draw from motifs characteristic of ornate artistic glass but in most cases their forms and decorations are quite simplified.
This is a multifaceted topic, and answers to the many research questions it poses can only be found by further interdisciplinary studies.
The palace in the village of Młociny near Warsaw was part of a large early-modern complex, including a park, outhouses and outbuildings, as well as gardens on the bank of the Vistula, decorative pavilions, a game park, an inn and a windmill. It was the most northward residential complex of this type along the Warsaw Embankment. It did not survive long in its most extensive form, as it started to be reshaped at the end of the 18th c., which led to its degradation.
The article discusses structures that were part of the Młociny palace-and-garden design and had various functions (some were used as living quarters, some for leisure pursuits and entertaining guests, some were purely decorative). Various available data were collected, including written and iconographic sources, archival maps and photographs, results of excavations from 2010 and of non-destructive research (an analysis of numerical models of the area generated by the GIS software). Correlating data from all those sources made it possible to the characterize the buildings and trace their histories from the design through the construction to the gradual destruction, as well as localize and identify those that have disappeared completely.
The oldest structures, designed by Johann Friedrich Knöbl and constructed in the years 1748–1763, when the palace in Młociny was owned by Henryk Brühl, were three wooden outhouses and a brick kitchen, probably a palisade–pergola on the courtyard, a neighbouring home farm with a brickyard, a game park with a pheasantry, a massive gate facing the south, a forest theatre and a temple of Diana. The next owner, Alojzy Fryderyk Brühl, who employed the architect Szymon Bogumił Zug, probably commissioned most of the decorative pavilions on the riverbank and some utility buildings, constructed in the years 1772–1784. These were brick outhouses, some small outbuildings (?), a new pillared gate, an Oriental pavilion, a monopteros (gloriette), two “peasant cottages”, a “fisherman’s cottage”, alias hermitage, an inn and
a windmill. Most of those garden structures did not survive beyond the mid-19th century. The complex was largely transformed and some of its 18th-century elements were rebuilt at the beginning of the 20th c., when the palace with its closest surroundings was taken over by Stefan Grodzicki. The elements reconstructed at that time were the outhouses, whose usable floor space was extended, the small neighbouring buildings, which were turned into living quarters, and — partly — the palisades. A new greenhouse, stable and barn were built, while the garden wall was modernized to make a passage to the courtyard.
Excavations on the plot to the south of the palace revealed relics of some of those structures, i.e. the outhouses further from the palace, the neighbouring outbuildings, the palisades-pergoles, the gates and the passage. An analysis of the sources resulted in establishing the approximate location of the 18th-century home-farm buildings and brickyard. A comparison of Zygmunt Vogel’s watercolour A View of Młociny with 19th-century maps helped to identify the location of the possible remains of the structures visible in the painting but non-existent now: the inn and the Oriental pavilion. A thorough analysis of the archival cartographic sources and their integration with the numerical model of the area revealed remnants of two islands in the game park, on one of which there used to be some buildings in the mid-18th c. The buildings described above were integral parts of the residential complex in Młociny and had varied functions, which influenced their varied form and character. In most cases, as far as it can be established on the basis of the available sources, their form was determined by a coherent architectural vision reflecting current trends in designing palace-and-garden complexes. The Młociny complex was shaped mostly by the two architects commissioned by the owners, Johann Friedrich Knöbel i Szymon Bogumił Zug, whose work survived for less than a century. Most credit goes to Zug, whose artistic vision was fully implemented here, with eclectic solutions characteristic of his designs integrated into the Vistula landscape. Due to its coherent design and varied details, the Młociny complex can rival larger grandiose magnate residences of that epoch located in Warsaw or nearby.
The deposit includes four teaspoons (fig. 2), two spoons and two forks (fig. 4) used for main courses, and three mugs (fig. 7), which were probably Kiddush cups, used by Jews for ritual purposes; the Kiddush prayer on Sabbath and other festive days was recited over such a cup filled with red wine. The analyzed artefacts differ signifi cantly in shape and size. Similarities can be found between three teaspoons, which probably came from a single set. Nine items bear trademarks, and four also have monograms (fig. 5), which provides some clues as to the place and time of their manufacture. All of them were cast in silver or a silver-plated alloy known as nickel silver (new silver). The silver plating on each nickel-silver artefact has partly worn out. Most of the cutlery pieces are plain and simple, showing good proportions. Elaborate ornaments are found on only fi ve items: a silverplated brass teaspoon (fig. 2:4), one of the silver spoons (fig. 4:1) and three silver cups, two of them gilded (fig. 7:1; 7:3; 7:5). The deposit includes both mass-produced every-day pieces and more refined items, some of the latter being probably religious cult objects. Seven of the pieces bear the hallmark of the Warsaw assay office and were produced by fi rms based there, including famous ones, like Fraget, Norblin and Utracki. One brass teaspoon, one nickel-silver fork and two pieces of cutlery of non-noble metal have no trademarks. Two gilded silver cups were probably made by Russian goldsmiths, one in Moscow and the other in Kiev. The cups are the most ornate and the most valuable items in the deposit.
The artefacts were discovered in 2009 in Płock, during an emergency archaeological intervention in the area of the present Bielska St, Kwiatka St and Sienkiewicza St, which is now in the centre of Płock, but used to be part of the Bielskie Suburb, north of the historical town, beyond the Bielska Gate (fi g. 10). The deposit was found in the remains of an annexe at 40 Kwiatka St (formerly 40 Szeroka St) (fi g. 11). It had been hidden under the plastering in a cellar; initially it was wrapped in cloth, of which only shreds survived. The annexe was probably built before 1845; it survived the two world wars and was demolished only in 1988. Between 1814 and 1941 the plot on which the deposit was found, the buildings there and the business conducted there were in the hands of Jews. In 1812–1862 the plot was within the Jewish Quarter, a separate section of the town allocated for Orthodox Jews. During WW II, between 15th September 1940 and 1st March 1941, it was part of the open ghetto. Two of the artefacts bear the dates of hallmarking, 1873 and 1896, which suggest the approximate time of their manufacture. The latter date indicates the terminus post quem of the deposit. Other clues lead to the conclusion that the items were produced between 1850 and 1915. Thus, it is likely that they were accumulated over a long time and used by more than one generation. Although differing in material value, they must have had a sentimental value and were probably hidden when the owner felt endangered, most likely during WW II, between 1939 and 1941. The person who did this never recovered them and they remained in a building that was in normal use in the years 1941-1988, surviving underground after its demolition until 2009. Thus, they may have lain hidden for about over seventy years.
Clay heads (stummels, bowls, pipe bodies) of three-piece smoking pipes have been excavated in several dozen sites all over Poland. Most of the fi nds consisted of several pipes. The largest fi nd, including ca 400 fragments, comes from Leżajsk; ca 100 were found in Zamość;
fi nds of several dozen items come from the Old Town and the Royal Castle in Warsaw, the town of Przemyśl and the Dominikański Square in Wrocław (Breslau). The newest among the finds are those from Leżajsk (the second half of the 19th c. and the turn of the 20th c.); the oldest artefact, dated to the 16th–17th c., was found in Elblag (Elbing); 17th-century pipes were excavated in Bolesławiec on the Prosna, Tykocin, Warsaw and Złota. Precise dating is possible only in some cases, for example the pipes found in the former camp of the Polish army near
Wojnicz can be dated at before 1655, those excavated in the Royal Castle and the Castle Square in Warsaw at the second half of the 17th c. and the fi rst half of the 18th c., those from the remains of a potter’s workshop at Brama Poboczna [the Side Gate] at the 17th c. and those from the house of Bochenkowicz in Warsaw at the second half of the 18th c. and the beginning of the 19th c. Although since the 1990s this type of artefact has gained more attention among scholars and has been addressed in a growing number of publications, only few fi nds have been described in detail.
Therefore, it is interesting to consider the pipes excavated in the castle of Tykocin, which are numerous, varied and properly dated. The author aims to present the forms and ornaments of the pipes from this collection, as well as to systematise them. The finds in question were excavated during the exploration of the castle complex in Tykocin, in the province of Podlasie, in the years 2001–2005. There are 30 clay pipe heads in the collection. Most of them were found in the culture layers connected with the functioning of the Tykocin castle from the beginning of the 17th c. to the mid 18th c. The events that took place there at that time are important in determining the provenance of the pipes. It is, however, difficult to fi nd out for how long a given artefact was used. It can only be supposed that clay heads were not durable and they were disposed of if damaged. The durability of such artefacts
probably depended on the individual features of the users. Apart from clay heads, the Tykocin fi nds include three fragments of white one-piece pipes. The pipes were probably used by the soldiers who fought or were stationed in the castle. They can be dated at the period from the second half of the 17th c. to the mid 19th c. The data on all the pipe heads are collected in table 1. Only one of the heads is unbroken; the others are in fact fragments of different size. Most were made of ferruginous clay; only two are white. All were made of well-washed ceramic body. 1/3 of the heads analysed were certainly made with matrices. The majority were fi red in an oxidising atmosphere; their potsherds are of various shades of beige or brick-red. Five of the heads (shaped of ferruginous clay) were fired in a reducing atmosphere; those are black. In 11 cases (37%) the outer surface is covered with a thin layer of glaze, in most cases lead glaze — only head no. 9 is covered with clay glaze.
The glaze coatings are light and dark green, yellow and light brown; the clay glaze is of cherry colour. The ornaments on the heads are usually schematic, of fl oral or geometric forms. The simplest ornaments were incised or rolled. There is an example of the stamping technique, with
the motif of rosette repeated fi ve times. More varied and complicated ornaments were moulded in the matrix together with the head; those include notches, single flowers or stylised floral shapes and check motifs. Burnishing was aimed at producing a smooth surface effect. The
polygonal shape of some rims (rings), bowls and shanks are also of decorative character. Only one pipe from this collection, no. 30, dated at the mid 19th c., is marked with the stamp of the producer — a manufacturer from Staszów in Little Poland. Half of the pipes were certainly used, since their chambers are blackened and sooted. Since the fi nds are mostly fragments, the data on the shape and size of the pipes are incomplete. There are few data on the rims, which are scarce among the fi nds. Perhaps this was the part of the pipe the was most easily damaged, and if that happened the pipe was unusable and the head was thrown away. Based mainly on foreign publications and the works of Philippe Gosse, John W. Hayes, Rebecca C.W. Robinson, the author has proposed a typology of the fi nds from Tykocin. Furthermore, taking into consideration the shape, the ornaments and the technological criteria she has classifi ed the fi nds into eight groups. For some of them analogies can be traced in other finds from Poland and from abroad. Only in few cases it was possible to hypothesise about the provenance
of the pipes. Some of them were probably made in Turkey or modelled on Turkish pipes (heads no. 5, 6, 10 and 13 of group 2, heads no. 18, 21–24 of group 3 and heads no. 28 and 29 of group 7). Some of the heads from group 5 (no. 15 and 25–27) were possibly produced locally,
in Podlasie. One head, no. 30, was certainly manufactured in Poland, in Staszów.
IN THE POLISH-LITHUANIAN COMMONWEALTH
The custom of smoking tobacco in pipes was accepted in Poland later than that of taking snuff or chewing tobacco leaves. In Western Europe pipes came into common use during the Thirty Years War. In Poland, according to an account from 1671, they were not popular yet, and
were used mainly by soldiers and artisans. In the 18th c., however, pipes were already very popular throughout society, including its elite. Both pipes and snuff were commonly used until cigarettes appeared in the second half of the 19th c. Smokers in old Poland used various kinds of pipes, either consisting of one piece or of three pieces; the latter type was called lulka. In three-part pipes the three pieces (the bowl, the
stem and the bit) were made separately, usually of different materials. Bowls were usually made of clay, stems — of wood and mouthpieces — of horn. Some pipes were additionally equipped with a string to be hanged on. Poles mostly used three-part clay pipes manufactured in Poland or imported from Bulgaria or Turkey.
Short-stem pipes were more handy and could be used while working or travelling; they were also easy to store. Smoking tobacco in long-stem pipes required not only assistance in lighting but also leisure to enjoy it to the full. Therefore long-stem pipes were mostly an attribute
of the rich and an object of luxury. Burghers, soldiers and the poor used simple short-stem pipes. Pipe bowls increased as the production of tobacco grew and its price fell.
An analysis of pipes in terms of origin, construction and production technology can provide data on the directions of cultural infl uence and trade links in old Poland, as well as on the popularization of certain smoking routines.
Issues connected with three-part clay pipes — their construction, production or origin — have been tackled only marginally in some Polish publications. No attention has been devoted to terminology, which is used imprecisely in the Polish literature of the subject. Most Polish terms referring to smoking accessories (lulka, cybuch, antypka, kapciuch, stambułka) have Oriental etymology. This might suggest that Eastern models had a decisive infl uence on accepting pipes in Poland. On the other hand, terms such as fajka, munsztuk and pipka point to the Western origin of the phenomenon. The origin of clay pipes is usually diffi cult to establish. Most specimen are not marked and have no ornaments that could be helpful in dating. Only Turkish pipes, which have a characteristic shape and are sometimes marked with the producer’s sign, are easier to identify. Between the 17th and 19th c. three-part pipes were probably manufactured in twelve places
in the Commonwealth: Alwernia, Biecz, Brzozów, Gdańsk, Gliniany, Glińsk, Mrzygłód, Rabka, Sławków, Staszów, Vilnius and Warsaw. This has been confi rmed by numerous fi nds of pipes in the town of Biecz and the remains of pottery workshops discovered in Warsaw and Vilnius.
With only spoken evidence available, it is diffi cult to be sure about the production of pipes in Gdańsk. The existence of a workshop in Staszów is confi rmed by signed pipe bowls found in various archaeological sites, e.g. in Tykocin and Warsaw. Pipes and their fragments have been
found in various Ukrainian towns, e.g. in Żółkiew and Kiev, which confi rms that their manufacture was undertaken in the 19th c. in Glińsk.
To confi rm the production of clay pipes in the remaining places mentioned, as well as in towns missing from the above list, it is necessary to undertake historical and archaeological research which could supply data on the development of pipe-making craft in a given area.
At the beginning I will explain terminology used in the title and give details about the origin of the analysed pottery. Then I will present selected results of the XRF analysis and my reflections on application of this method to pottery research.
KEY WORDS: pottery, white earthenware, laboratory analyses
The article presents issues connected with X-ray fluorescence analysis (XRF), also called X-ray spectrometry, applied currently also to pottery research. These issues have been discussed in Polish archaeological publications, among others in reference to analyses of Late Medieval and modern ceramics. Also considered in the deliberations were analyses by other methods like the spectral method and flame photometry. The more important studies on the topic include: L. Kociszewski, J. Kruppé 1962; 1973; A. Buko, Z. Werfel 1977; A. Girdwoyń 1987; M. Daszkiewicz, H. Wyciślik 1989; A. Buko 1997; M. Auch 2004; M. Bis 2005. The most important issues taken up by individual researchers include, on one hand, factors in-fluencing the correctness and reliability of analyses and, on the other hand, ways of interpreting re-sults and making inferences from them. They concern ways of carrying out analyses, starting with sample preparation, strengths and weaknesses of applied methods, as well as chemical compounds which need to be determined in order to collect information on the characteristics of clays and glazes, the number of samples that are indispensable for a proper analysis, the possibility of estab-lishing similarities and differences in the chemical composition of products from the same centers or regions of production.
X-ray fluorescence analysis is characterized primarily by the possibility of examining small amounts of products, resulting in only insignificant damage to the object, and even very small, se-lected parts of the sample, both on the surface and in the break. Preparation of a sample is relatively simple and does not require any special techniques. The time needed for making the determination is short, a mere few minutes. As for potential element detection and accuracy, technologists are of the opinion that analyses by the described method are in some cases similar to or more accurate than classical methods of wet chemical analysis or other instrumental methods. The flaws of this method draw mostly from the way the samples are prepared. The X-ray fluorescence method is a surface analysis, hence its correctness is heavily dependent on the quality of the examined surface, which should be as smooth as possible. Impurities and rough spots can lead to errors of analysis, raising the content of some components and changing the mutual proportions of others. Mechanical cutting of samples from ceramic products, especially in the case of vessels glazed on both sides, can lead to contamination of the ceramic mass with particles of glaze and the glaze with components of the ceramic mass. The results of analyses can be disrupted in X-ray spectrometry as well, mostly in ef-fect of the matrix and granulation. Difficulties in determining light elements constitutes another limitation of the method. The element detection range also does not make this method suitable for determining elements with a content below 0.01% weight in a given sample. Normalizing the results to 100% creates in turn the impression of an errorless analysis.
In case of analyses carried out by the discussed method, the multiple character of observations in reference to a single sample and whole series of samples is of significance. It is important to ob-serve similarities or differences of results depending on the size of the analyzed surface and its posi-tion, in order to determine optimal, general and binding conditions for carrying out the remaining analyses. Upon obtaining different results concerning the content of specific elements, it is essential to consider different reasons for this; for example, was the sample actually representative of a given set of finds, does the analyzed product correspond to other finds in terms of technique and technol-ogy, did the spot that was analyzed contain impurities or not.
The X-ray fluorescence method should thus be considered as supplementing "traditional" ar-chaeological examinations of pottery products and other physico-chemical analyses. The reliability of the method and the possibility of comparing results obtained in effect of its application depend on adopted processing methods and conditions for carrying out the analysis. It is important each time to describe the methods precisely and to include a precise description of the finds intended for analysis. A larger number of analyses by this method will contribute new comparative material. On this basis it will be easier presumably not only to determine parallels or differences between ana-lyzed products and their sets, but also possibly to determine their provenience.
Keywords: Late Medieval and modern pottery, pottery lab analyses
AND PORCELAN IN TYKOCIN CASTLE.
Archaeological explorations carried out so far in the castle area in Tykocin – Podlachia, have delivered not only numerous, but also varied movable artifacts. Despite predominating objects of local production, there are also items from distanced production centers; these are, among the others, fragments of glass vessels, clay pipes, elements of armory and coins from 16th century up to 19th century. The article concentrates on two selected categories of modern imports and their local imitations, i.e. porcelain and faience.
For 91 thousand of various source categories obtained in the discussed site, pieces
of faience and porcelain create relatively small collection of 614 fragments, including 540 pieces of faience and 74 pieces of porcelain. The minimum number of those vessels was defined for 304, respectively: 251 and 53 items. Nearly half of all the fragments was obtained from mixed layers, made chiefly as a result of architectonic works, performed in the castle and around in the 60s of the last century.
Most of the production was unsigned, therefore it is rather difficult in defining the objects’ origin and precise dating. Only ten vessels are marked (five porcelain and five faience ones), seven of which created possibilities of identification. Production places of majority of items were stated on the base of manufacturing techniques and comparative analyses. It was possible first of all for ornamented examples with decorative elements characteristic for particular workshops, production centers on vessel types. This collection consists, among the others, of the most expensive and the most desirable products of those times – original China, Dutch faiences of Delft, English dishes from Josiah Wedgwood’s manufacture(?) and porcelain from Meissen of Saxony and royal Vienna manufacture, but moreover – products probably from workshops situated in Italy, England (Bristol), France (Nevers, Rouen, Sèvres), other German centers (Volkstedt),Silesia (Prószków Śląski), Volhynia (Korzec, Baranówka, Horodnica), Pomerania (Gdańsk, Szczecin area) and Lesser Poland (Ćmielów, Iłża). The listed finds are mainly elements of crockery sets – plates, saucers, bowls, cups, soup tureens and vases, pitchers. The collection is completed by a tea-pot and lids (probably for jugs). Tykocin assembly also possesses one sanitary vessel – a bed-pan. The assortment of faience products is more diversified, in comparison with more unified porcelain collection, although in both ceramic groups – plates are in predominance.
The article is an attempt to identify the basic methodological problems related to
research on the chemical composition of historical glass. These are methods for interpreting the results of analyses and the classifications of glass developed by various researchers (Polish included) concerning many eras and areas, mainly from the European continent. Among the vast and constantly growing literature on the subject, we only take into the consideration the publications, which in our opinion are the most important for this work, and which contain the most representative examples of the methods used. We realize that this is our subjective and arbitrary choice. The study is addressed to archaeologists undertaking archaeometric research of historical glass.
the creation of the glass deposit. Finally, the paper discusses the time and circumstances in which the said glass was treated and processed.
The article also identifies issues requiring further research and points to unsolved questions. The discussion is based on fi nds described in available publications. Most of them are remnants of everyday items, which are rarely mentioned in written sources and insufficiently researched.
Glass is one of the major categories of post-medieval artefacts revealed by archaeological works; glass vessels they are usually excavated in pieces, due to the fragility of the material. In Poland, broken glass, along with damaged ironware, was bought for reuse until the end of the 18th c. Glass became commonly used in Poland relatively late; glass tableware, containers and windowpanes started to appear quite frequently only in the 16th c., and became widely accessible only in the 17th c. No record has been found so far to confi rm the existence of any glassworks near Warsaw and in Mazovia before the beginning of the 18th c. However, there may have been some smallscale works, called ‘forest glassworks’. Their products, supplied to the Warsaw market, were probably kitchen utensils or modest tableware, e.g. the so-called ‘bell cups’. Elegant glass tableware in the 16th–18th c. was imported. Warsaw was probably supplied with glass of various provenance, coming by various routes from different directions. In the 16th–17th c. the major glass trade centres were Cracow and Gdańsk.
The first glass manufactories which produced vessels were established in the vicinity of Warsaw in the fi rst half of the 18th c. Those were: the royal glassworks in Bielany near Warsaw, opened in 1713 and closed before 1725, and the glassworks near Otwock, which was opened after 1729 and worked until c. 1786. The products of the royal glassworks were probably of high quality but none have been identified. The other glassworks manufactured decorated white and colourful vessels. The third Warsaw glassworks, most likely applying quite an advanced technology, was established in 1729. Other glassworks in the vicinity of Warsaw started production only in the second half of the 18th c. In that century the capital was probably supplied with glass by other renowned manufactories, e.g. by the “Crystal Glassworks”, which worked from
1717 to the end of the 18th c. near Lubaczów. More glassworks were established in the region only in the first half of the 19th c., the leading one being the “Czechy” manufactory in Trąbki near Garwolin.
Data on modern-period glass vessels excavated in Warsaw can be found in less than twenty publications. Most of them are artefacts from the 18th c., with few 16th- and 17th-century items. The total number is over 16 000 (cf. table 1). They constitute just a fraction of glass fi nds.
The largest set comes from excavations in the Royal Pharmacy. The analysed vessels can be divided into two groups according to function: ones for storing and transporting drinks and ones for serving and consumption. The existing publications indicate that the majority of fi nds belong to the fi rst group, which includes bottles, fl asks and demijohns. Items from the other group, which can be labelled tableware, are less numerous but more varied, with glasses, goblets and cups (including ‘bell cups’), jugs, mugs and decanters of varied sizes, forms and shapes. Few are decorated; the excavated items sometimes draw from motifs characteristic of ornate artistic glass but in most cases their forms and decorations are quite simplified.
This is a multifaceted topic, and answers to the many research questions it poses can only be found by further interdisciplinary studies.
The palace in the village of Młociny near Warsaw was part of a large early-modern complex, including a park, outhouses and outbuildings, as well as gardens on the bank of the Vistula, decorative pavilions, a game park, an inn and a windmill. It was the most northward residential complex of this type along the Warsaw Embankment. It did not survive long in its most extensive form, as it started to be reshaped at the end of the 18th c., which led to its degradation.
The article discusses structures that were part of the Młociny palace-and-garden design and had various functions (some were used as living quarters, some for leisure pursuits and entertaining guests, some were purely decorative). Various available data were collected, including written and iconographic sources, archival maps and photographs, results of excavations from 2010 and of non-destructive research (an analysis of numerical models of the area generated by the GIS software). Correlating data from all those sources made it possible to the characterize the buildings and trace their histories from the design through the construction to the gradual destruction, as well as localize and identify those that have disappeared completely.
The oldest structures, designed by Johann Friedrich Knöbl and constructed in the years 1748–1763, when the palace in Młociny was owned by Henryk Brühl, were three wooden outhouses and a brick kitchen, probably a palisade–pergola on the courtyard, a neighbouring home farm with a brickyard, a game park with a pheasantry, a massive gate facing the south, a forest theatre and a temple of Diana. The next owner, Alojzy Fryderyk Brühl, who employed the architect Szymon Bogumił Zug, probably commissioned most of the decorative pavilions on the riverbank and some utility buildings, constructed in the years 1772–1784. These were brick outhouses, some small outbuildings (?), a new pillared gate, an Oriental pavilion, a monopteros (gloriette), two “peasant cottages”, a “fisherman’s cottage”, alias hermitage, an inn and
a windmill. Most of those garden structures did not survive beyond the mid-19th century. The complex was largely transformed and some of its 18th-century elements were rebuilt at the beginning of the 20th c., when the palace with its closest surroundings was taken over by Stefan Grodzicki. The elements reconstructed at that time were the outhouses, whose usable floor space was extended, the small neighbouring buildings, which were turned into living quarters, and — partly — the palisades. A new greenhouse, stable and barn were built, while the garden wall was modernized to make a passage to the courtyard.
Excavations on the plot to the south of the palace revealed relics of some of those structures, i.e. the outhouses further from the palace, the neighbouring outbuildings, the palisades-pergoles, the gates and the passage. An analysis of the sources resulted in establishing the approximate location of the 18th-century home-farm buildings and brickyard. A comparison of Zygmunt Vogel’s watercolour A View of Młociny with 19th-century maps helped to identify the location of the possible remains of the structures visible in the painting but non-existent now: the inn and the Oriental pavilion. A thorough analysis of the archival cartographic sources and their integration with the numerical model of the area revealed remnants of two islands in the game park, on one of which there used to be some buildings in the mid-18th c. The buildings described above were integral parts of the residential complex in Młociny and had varied functions, which influenced their varied form and character. In most cases, as far as it can be established on the basis of the available sources, their form was determined by a coherent architectural vision reflecting current trends in designing palace-and-garden complexes. The Młociny complex was shaped mostly by the two architects commissioned by the owners, Johann Friedrich Knöbel i Szymon Bogumił Zug, whose work survived for less than a century. Most credit goes to Zug, whose artistic vision was fully implemented here, with eclectic solutions characteristic of his designs integrated into the Vistula landscape. Due to its coherent design and varied details, the Młociny complex can rival larger grandiose magnate residences of that epoch located in Warsaw or nearby.
The deposit includes four teaspoons (fig. 2), two spoons and two forks (fig. 4) used for main courses, and three mugs (fig. 7), which were probably Kiddush cups, used by Jews for ritual purposes; the Kiddush prayer on Sabbath and other festive days was recited over such a cup filled with red wine. The analyzed artefacts differ signifi cantly in shape and size. Similarities can be found between three teaspoons, which probably came from a single set. Nine items bear trademarks, and four also have monograms (fig. 5), which provides some clues as to the place and time of their manufacture. All of them were cast in silver or a silver-plated alloy known as nickel silver (new silver). The silver plating on each nickel-silver artefact has partly worn out. Most of the cutlery pieces are plain and simple, showing good proportions. Elaborate ornaments are found on only fi ve items: a silverplated brass teaspoon (fig. 2:4), one of the silver spoons (fig. 4:1) and three silver cups, two of them gilded (fig. 7:1; 7:3; 7:5). The deposit includes both mass-produced every-day pieces and more refined items, some of the latter being probably religious cult objects. Seven of the pieces bear the hallmark of the Warsaw assay office and were produced by fi rms based there, including famous ones, like Fraget, Norblin and Utracki. One brass teaspoon, one nickel-silver fork and two pieces of cutlery of non-noble metal have no trademarks. Two gilded silver cups were probably made by Russian goldsmiths, one in Moscow and the other in Kiev. The cups are the most ornate and the most valuable items in the deposit.
The artefacts were discovered in 2009 in Płock, during an emergency archaeological intervention in the area of the present Bielska St, Kwiatka St and Sienkiewicza St, which is now in the centre of Płock, but used to be part of the Bielskie Suburb, north of the historical town, beyond the Bielska Gate (fi g. 10). The deposit was found in the remains of an annexe at 40 Kwiatka St (formerly 40 Szeroka St) (fi g. 11). It had been hidden under the plastering in a cellar; initially it was wrapped in cloth, of which only shreds survived. The annexe was probably built before 1845; it survived the two world wars and was demolished only in 1988. Between 1814 and 1941 the plot on which the deposit was found, the buildings there and the business conducted there were in the hands of Jews. In 1812–1862 the plot was within the Jewish Quarter, a separate section of the town allocated for Orthodox Jews. During WW II, between 15th September 1940 and 1st March 1941, it was part of the open ghetto. Two of the artefacts bear the dates of hallmarking, 1873 and 1896, which suggest the approximate time of their manufacture. The latter date indicates the terminus post quem of the deposit. Other clues lead to the conclusion that the items were produced between 1850 and 1915. Thus, it is likely that they were accumulated over a long time and used by more than one generation. Although differing in material value, they must have had a sentimental value and were probably hidden when the owner felt endangered, most likely during WW II, between 1939 and 1941. The person who did this never recovered them and they remained in a building that was in normal use in the years 1941-1988, surviving underground after its demolition until 2009. Thus, they may have lain hidden for about over seventy years.
Clay heads (stummels, bowls, pipe bodies) of three-piece smoking pipes have been excavated in several dozen sites all over Poland. Most of the fi nds consisted of several pipes. The largest fi nd, including ca 400 fragments, comes from Leżajsk; ca 100 were found in Zamość;
fi nds of several dozen items come from the Old Town and the Royal Castle in Warsaw, the town of Przemyśl and the Dominikański Square in Wrocław (Breslau). The newest among the finds are those from Leżajsk (the second half of the 19th c. and the turn of the 20th c.); the oldest artefact, dated to the 16th–17th c., was found in Elblag (Elbing); 17th-century pipes were excavated in Bolesławiec on the Prosna, Tykocin, Warsaw and Złota. Precise dating is possible only in some cases, for example the pipes found in the former camp of the Polish army near
Wojnicz can be dated at before 1655, those excavated in the Royal Castle and the Castle Square in Warsaw at the second half of the 17th c. and the fi rst half of the 18th c., those from the remains of a potter’s workshop at Brama Poboczna [the Side Gate] at the 17th c. and those from the house of Bochenkowicz in Warsaw at the second half of the 18th c. and the beginning of the 19th c. Although since the 1990s this type of artefact has gained more attention among scholars and has been addressed in a growing number of publications, only few fi nds have been described in detail.
Therefore, it is interesting to consider the pipes excavated in the castle of Tykocin, which are numerous, varied and properly dated. The author aims to present the forms and ornaments of the pipes from this collection, as well as to systematise them. The finds in question were excavated during the exploration of the castle complex in Tykocin, in the province of Podlasie, in the years 2001–2005. There are 30 clay pipe heads in the collection. Most of them were found in the culture layers connected with the functioning of the Tykocin castle from the beginning of the 17th c. to the mid 18th c. The events that took place there at that time are important in determining the provenance of the pipes. It is, however, difficult to fi nd out for how long a given artefact was used. It can only be supposed that clay heads were not durable and they were disposed of if damaged. The durability of such artefacts
probably depended on the individual features of the users. Apart from clay heads, the Tykocin fi nds include three fragments of white one-piece pipes. The pipes were probably used by the soldiers who fought or were stationed in the castle. They can be dated at the period from the second half of the 17th c. to the mid 19th c. The data on all the pipe heads are collected in table 1. Only one of the heads is unbroken; the others are in fact fragments of different size. Most were made of ferruginous clay; only two are white. All were made of well-washed ceramic body. 1/3 of the heads analysed were certainly made with matrices. The majority were fi red in an oxidising atmosphere; their potsherds are of various shades of beige or brick-red. Five of the heads (shaped of ferruginous clay) were fired in a reducing atmosphere; those are black. In 11 cases (37%) the outer surface is covered with a thin layer of glaze, in most cases lead glaze — only head no. 9 is covered with clay glaze.
The glaze coatings are light and dark green, yellow and light brown; the clay glaze is of cherry colour. The ornaments on the heads are usually schematic, of fl oral or geometric forms. The simplest ornaments were incised or rolled. There is an example of the stamping technique, with
the motif of rosette repeated fi ve times. More varied and complicated ornaments were moulded in the matrix together with the head; those include notches, single flowers or stylised floral shapes and check motifs. Burnishing was aimed at producing a smooth surface effect. The
polygonal shape of some rims (rings), bowls and shanks are also of decorative character. Only one pipe from this collection, no. 30, dated at the mid 19th c., is marked with the stamp of the producer — a manufacturer from Staszów in Little Poland. Half of the pipes were certainly used, since their chambers are blackened and sooted. Since the fi nds are mostly fragments, the data on the shape and size of the pipes are incomplete. There are few data on the rims, which are scarce among the fi nds. Perhaps this was the part of the pipe the was most easily damaged, and if that happened the pipe was unusable and the head was thrown away. Based mainly on foreign publications and the works of Philippe Gosse, John W. Hayes, Rebecca C.W. Robinson, the author has proposed a typology of the fi nds from Tykocin. Furthermore, taking into consideration the shape, the ornaments and the technological criteria she has classifi ed the fi nds into eight groups. For some of them analogies can be traced in other finds from Poland and from abroad. Only in few cases it was possible to hypothesise about the provenance
of the pipes. Some of them were probably made in Turkey or modelled on Turkish pipes (heads no. 5, 6, 10 and 13 of group 2, heads no. 18, 21–24 of group 3 and heads no. 28 and 29 of group 7). Some of the heads from group 5 (no. 15 and 25–27) were possibly produced locally,
in Podlasie. One head, no. 30, was certainly manufactured in Poland, in Staszów.
IN THE POLISH-LITHUANIAN COMMONWEALTH
The custom of smoking tobacco in pipes was accepted in Poland later than that of taking snuff or chewing tobacco leaves. In Western Europe pipes came into common use during the Thirty Years War. In Poland, according to an account from 1671, they were not popular yet, and
were used mainly by soldiers and artisans. In the 18th c., however, pipes were already very popular throughout society, including its elite. Both pipes and snuff were commonly used until cigarettes appeared in the second half of the 19th c. Smokers in old Poland used various kinds of pipes, either consisting of one piece or of three pieces; the latter type was called lulka. In three-part pipes the three pieces (the bowl, the
stem and the bit) were made separately, usually of different materials. Bowls were usually made of clay, stems — of wood and mouthpieces — of horn. Some pipes were additionally equipped with a string to be hanged on. Poles mostly used three-part clay pipes manufactured in Poland or imported from Bulgaria or Turkey.
Short-stem pipes were more handy and could be used while working or travelling; they were also easy to store. Smoking tobacco in long-stem pipes required not only assistance in lighting but also leisure to enjoy it to the full. Therefore long-stem pipes were mostly an attribute
of the rich and an object of luxury. Burghers, soldiers and the poor used simple short-stem pipes. Pipe bowls increased as the production of tobacco grew and its price fell.
An analysis of pipes in terms of origin, construction and production technology can provide data on the directions of cultural infl uence and trade links in old Poland, as well as on the popularization of certain smoking routines.
Issues connected with three-part clay pipes — their construction, production or origin — have been tackled only marginally in some Polish publications. No attention has been devoted to terminology, which is used imprecisely in the Polish literature of the subject. Most Polish terms referring to smoking accessories (lulka, cybuch, antypka, kapciuch, stambułka) have Oriental etymology. This might suggest that Eastern models had a decisive infl uence on accepting pipes in Poland. On the other hand, terms such as fajka, munsztuk and pipka point to the Western origin of the phenomenon. The origin of clay pipes is usually diffi cult to establish. Most specimen are not marked and have no ornaments that could be helpful in dating. Only Turkish pipes, which have a characteristic shape and are sometimes marked with the producer’s sign, are easier to identify. Between the 17th and 19th c. three-part pipes were probably manufactured in twelve places
in the Commonwealth: Alwernia, Biecz, Brzozów, Gdańsk, Gliniany, Glińsk, Mrzygłód, Rabka, Sławków, Staszów, Vilnius and Warsaw. This has been confi rmed by numerous fi nds of pipes in the town of Biecz and the remains of pottery workshops discovered in Warsaw and Vilnius.
With only spoken evidence available, it is diffi cult to be sure about the production of pipes in Gdańsk. The existence of a workshop in Staszów is confi rmed by signed pipe bowls found in various archaeological sites, e.g. in Tykocin and Warsaw. Pipes and their fragments have been
found in various Ukrainian towns, e.g. in Żółkiew and Kiev, which confi rms that their manufacture was undertaken in the 19th c. in Glińsk.
To confi rm the production of clay pipes in the remaining places mentioned, as well as in towns missing from the above list, it is necessary to undertake historical and archaeological research which could supply data on the development of pipe-making craft in a given area.
At the beginning I will explain terminology used in the title and give details about the origin of the analysed pottery. Then I will present selected results of the XRF analysis and my reflections on application of this method to pottery research.
KEY WORDS: pottery, white earthenware, laboratory analyses
The article presents issues connected with X-ray fluorescence analysis (XRF), also called X-ray spectrometry, applied currently also to pottery research. These issues have been discussed in Polish archaeological publications, among others in reference to analyses of Late Medieval and modern ceramics. Also considered in the deliberations were analyses by other methods like the spectral method and flame photometry. The more important studies on the topic include: L. Kociszewski, J. Kruppé 1962; 1973; A. Buko, Z. Werfel 1977; A. Girdwoyń 1987; M. Daszkiewicz, H. Wyciślik 1989; A. Buko 1997; M. Auch 2004; M. Bis 2005. The most important issues taken up by individual researchers include, on one hand, factors in-fluencing the correctness and reliability of analyses and, on the other hand, ways of interpreting re-sults and making inferences from them. They concern ways of carrying out analyses, starting with sample preparation, strengths and weaknesses of applied methods, as well as chemical compounds which need to be determined in order to collect information on the characteristics of clays and glazes, the number of samples that are indispensable for a proper analysis, the possibility of estab-lishing similarities and differences in the chemical composition of products from the same centers or regions of production.
X-ray fluorescence analysis is characterized primarily by the possibility of examining small amounts of products, resulting in only insignificant damage to the object, and even very small, se-lected parts of the sample, both on the surface and in the break. Preparation of a sample is relatively simple and does not require any special techniques. The time needed for making the determination is short, a mere few minutes. As for potential element detection and accuracy, technologists are of the opinion that analyses by the described method are in some cases similar to or more accurate than classical methods of wet chemical analysis or other instrumental methods. The flaws of this method draw mostly from the way the samples are prepared. The X-ray fluorescence method is a surface analysis, hence its correctness is heavily dependent on the quality of the examined surface, which should be as smooth as possible. Impurities and rough spots can lead to errors of analysis, raising the content of some components and changing the mutual proportions of others. Mechanical cutting of samples from ceramic products, especially in the case of vessels glazed on both sides, can lead to contamination of the ceramic mass with particles of glaze and the glaze with components of the ceramic mass. The results of analyses can be disrupted in X-ray spectrometry as well, mostly in ef-fect of the matrix and granulation. Difficulties in determining light elements constitutes another limitation of the method. The element detection range also does not make this method suitable for determining elements with a content below 0.01% weight in a given sample. Normalizing the results to 100% creates in turn the impression of an errorless analysis.
In case of analyses carried out by the discussed method, the multiple character of observations in reference to a single sample and whole series of samples is of significance. It is important to ob-serve similarities or differences of results depending on the size of the analyzed surface and its posi-tion, in order to determine optimal, general and binding conditions for carrying out the remaining analyses. Upon obtaining different results concerning the content of specific elements, it is essential to consider different reasons for this; for example, was the sample actually representative of a given set of finds, does the analyzed product correspond to other finds in terms of technique and technol-ogy, did the spot that was analyzed contain impurities or not.
The X-ray fluorescence method should thus be considered as supplementing "traditional" ar-chaeological examinations of pottery products and other physico-chemical analyses. The reliability of the method and the possibility of comparing results obtained in effect of its application depend on adopted processing methods and conditions for carrying out the analysis. It is important each time to describe the methods precisely and to include a precise description of the finds intended for analysis. A larger number of analyses by this method will contribute new comparative material. On this basis it will be easier presumably not only to determine parallels or differences between ana-lyzed products and their sets, but also possibly to determine their provenience.
Keywords: Late Medieval and modern pottery, pottery lab analyses
AND PORCELAN IN TYKOCIN CASTLE.
Archaeological explorations carried out so far in the castle area in Tykocin – Podlachia, have delivered not only numerous, but also varied movable artifacts. Despite predominating objects of local production, there are also items from distanced production centers; these are, among the others, fragments of glass vessels, clay pipes, elements of armory and coins from 16th century up to 19th century. The article concentrates on two selected categories of modern imports and their local imitations, i.e. porcelain and faience.
For 91 thousand of various source categories obtained in the discussed site, pieces
of faience and porcelain create relatively small collection of 614 fragments, including 540 pieces of faience and 74 pieces of porcelain. The minimum number of those vessels was defined for 304, respectively: 251 and 53 items. Nearly half of all the fragments was obtained from mixed layers, made chiefly as a result of architectonic works, performed in the castle and around in the 60s of the last century.
Most of the production was unsigned, therefore it is rather difficult in defining the objects’ origin and precise dating. Only ten vessels are marked (five porcelain and five faience ones), seven of which created possibilities of identification. Production places of majority of items were stated on the base of manufacturing techniques and comparative analyses. It was possible first of all for ornamented examples with decorative elements characteristic for particular workshops, production centers on vessel types. This collection consists, among the others, of the most expensive and the most desirable products of those times – original China, Dutch faiences of Delft, English dishes from Josiah Wedgwood’s manufacture(?) and porcelain from Meissen of Saxony and royal Vienna manufacture, but moreover – products probably from workshops situated in Italy, England (Bristol), France (Nevers, Rouen, Sèvres), other German centers (Volkstedt),Silesia (Prószków Śląski), Volhynia (Korzec, Baranówka, Horodnica), Pomerania (Gdańsk, Szczecin area) and Lesser Poland (Ćmielów, Iłża). The listed finds are mainly elements of crockery sets – plates, saucers, bowls, cups, soup tureens and vases, pitchers. The collection is completed by a tea-pot and lids (probably for jugs). Tykocin assembly also possesses one sanitary vessel – a bed-pan. The assortment of faience products is more diversified, in comparison with more unified porcelain collection, although in both ceramic groups – plates are in predominance.
then fractions of glassware – 35 (12%) and stove tiles – 23 fragments (8%), a few other products: construction and industrial ceramics – a total of 5 fractions and 2 other objects, i.e. a piece of slate and an oyster shell. A significant part of the finds (almost 40% of all) was recorded near the Bielany district, in the area of the present Ruda housing estate (112 pieces). More than a half less were found in the districts of: Mokotów, in the area of today’s Siekierki, and Śródmieście, in the area of the Copernicus Science Centre (55 and 53 fragments, 18% and 19%), while at the height of Praga – 21 (7%) whereas of Wilanów – 23 (8% of all). In other places, they occurred in the small number (see Table 1). Most of the items were found on the so-called secondary deposit, in places of accumulation after being transported across the river current from the points where they originaly were lying or have been thrown out after some leveling or cleaning works. Presumably, only one of the clusters – in Śródmieście, near the Copernicus Science Centre, was created as a result of removing rubble from Warsaw after World War II. This is confirmed
by its contents, similar features of the artefacts of each group and their similar dating (from the 18th to the 19th centuries). They more likely should be considered things that were once used by the inhabitants of Warsaw. However, it is not known where and in what context the products, the remains of which formed the remaining clusters, found their application. Despite the shortcomings of the source base, it was found that the artefacts were chronologically and materially diversified, and some general phenomena and trends in the history of pottery and glass manufacturing in the analysed period were signaled. Among the pottery vessels, brick-red and glazed brick-red ones (84 fragments in total) are dominant over gray ones (71 fragments). Almost half as much of the number of white and white glazed vessels (36 specimens in total) was recorded, and not many faience (14 fractions), porcelain (9 pieces), and slipware – the so-called pseudo-maiolica in Polish (9 pieces) and stoneware (7 pieces). These are the remains of several types of products popular in the modern period: pots, bowls, jugs, pans, plates, cups, soup tureens and flasks. Tiles (a total of 26 fragments, the remainder of 23 specimens) are broken down into two groups: formed in matrices, i.e. plates, constituting the majority (almost 83%, and 19 fragments), and formed on a potter’s wheel, a few pot/bowl-shaped tiles (4 pieces, less than 17% of the found ones). On the other hand, 35 fragments of glassware are leftovers of vessels primarily used for storage and transport of liquid substances (33, i.e. 97% of glass) – bottles of different capacity (a total of 30 pieces), including cylindrical bottles, ampoules, a carboy and a vat, as well as jars (2) and a cosmetic container (1), or for serving and individual consumption of beverages; group represented by one glass.
So far, there are no known records which would depict the appearance and the state
of preservation of the castle in Tykocin in the period predating mid-20th century. For
this reason, the most important sources concerning the layout and furnishings of the
castle are the partly published inventories from years: 1698, 1701, 1715 and 1727. They contain a short description of the castle’s interiors, information about equipment and furnishings, mostly fixtures, fittings and most valuable items, including windows. At that time the castle was a private property of the Branicki of Gryf coat of arms family — Stefan Mikołaj and his only son, Jan Klemens III. During this time there were two wings in use (most probably the west and south), which consisted of: cellars, a kitchen, pantries, corridors, a treasury, a porch, a chamber, several rooms — one called the “glass room”, and a dining room.
Th is paper discusses the issue of window woodwork, fi ttings, glazing, the positioning and number of windows in the building, as well as the method of their production and state of preservation, utilising the description of the castle from 1701 (see the Annex).
The purpose of this paper is to present the most important information regarding the past of the monument in question known from written records and discovered in the course of archaeological works. We would also like to present the appearance, function and importance of the contemporary, reconstructed castle. The castle complex referred to in the title of our paper is situated in the north eastern Poland, in the Podlasie region, on the right bank of the Narew River. In the past, this
was the borderland between the Great Duchy of Lithuania and the Kingdom of Poland. Until the 1960s, it was practically unknown. These were only the works carried out in 1961-1963 by the Polish Architecture Unit of the Warsaw Technical University that led to the discovery of the castle foundations, which, until then, had not been visible on the ground surface. Associated with the aforesaid project were also the first archaeological works.
The site has functioned as a 'permanent ruin', the result of the 1960s intervention, for the next 40 years, until the end of the past century, as a local attraction. However, the outline of the foundations and partly preserved walls have gradually disappeared. In the end of the 1990s, Tykocin's authorities gave the structure and the site in a perpetual lease
to a private individual - Jacek Nazarko. He initiated, commissioned and financed various surveys and research projects concerning the complex. Among the others these were archaeological and architectural works as well as processing their results and the assemblage of finds.
They led, however, to a number of important discoveries that changed the knowledge of the history of this Narew River islet and structures located on the site. The most important discoveries were the uncovering of the remains from the end of the 15th and beginning of the 16th century. These were the relics of the stockade (palisade) and remains
of several timber houses and outbuildings. The hillock and its buildings functioned when these lands were the property of the Gasztołd family.
The aforesaid archaeological investigations also resulted in collecting a high volume of information on the works associated with the construction of the castle that took place during the reign of King Zygmunt August in the second half of the 16th century. It was possible to reconstruct, at least partially, stages and the scope of the construction works. Types of building materials used, building techniques and the construction method of the foundations and castle walls were also identified. The castle was surrounded by the
line of brick- and stone-built fortifications with four bastilles. The wall functioned between the second half of the 16th century until the beginning of the 17th century. The construction of bastion fortifications took place after the demolition of the older line of castle defences. The exact date of the Tykocin fortress's creation is not known, though. The
fortress in Tykocin is a very important example of the Polish Modern era defensive military architecture, and is one of the very few still preserved structures of that type clearly detectable in the field. During the war between Poland and Sweden in 1655-1660 the structure was largely damaged. Still during the Great Northern War the fortress played
a strategic role. Finally around 1760 the owner - Jan Klemens Branicki decided to demolish the remains of the castle wall. The defensive military complex in Tykocin had already lost its function.
Currently, between 2012 and 2015, we are preparing a study of the results of all archaeological works carried out on the site, as a part of the new project financed by the Ministry of Science and Higher Education. This should lead to the publication of a monograph
of the site.
A modern reconstruction of the castle was prepared by Agnieszka Duda, an architect from Białystok. Construction works begun in 2002. At that stage, a building in a lockup stage had been built within three years. Between 2006 and 2011 fit-out works were carried out, associated with installing media and wiring as well as furnishing and finishing
all rooms. The landlord wanted to maximize the use of local materials and to involve local companies and producers. An interesting and complex operation completed in 2010 was the reconstruction of the large heating stove which adorned the great hall in the castle.
The reconstruction of the stove was designed by dr Maria Dąbrowska. The official opening of the venue was held in May 2011. Currently, only some parts of the complex are in use: the south wing of the castle together with two towers and a part of the northwest wing, known from the records as the so-called "Great Keep". These have different uses - as an exhibition space, a function room and a commercial space. The south wing comprises a gate and an arcaded gallery leading to an observation tower. External walls of the castle on the eastern and northern side had also been filled in and raised. Currently, reconstruction works are also carried out in the part of the north wing and the so-called White Tower. The castle is open to the public. The castle is becoming increasingly popular due to the annual open air event called "the Siege of Tykocin".
Expanding the knowledge about the fortress in Tykocin and disseminating information can contribute to increasing Tykocin's tourist appeal as well as to raising the heritage awareness among the local residents and, as a consequence, leading to a greater consideration and care for the preserved historic remains that are a part of the local community's life.
The aim of the article is to present the most important issues that are related to the range of problems con-cerning the establishment of the castle in Tykotzin, to show the difficulties, which appeared during the works conducted outdoors in this place, the problems connected with the discovered relics and gained finds, with their analysis, interpretation and fixing the chronology.
The first archaeological-architectural studies were taken up here in the years 1961-1963, in connection with the realisation of the project, which aimed to create the, so called, permanent ruin out of the castle remains. Simultaneously, the research of the defensive stronghold was conducted. The successive archaeological stud-ies were conducted by the method of geotechnic boreholes in 1999. The next excavations in 2001-2005 were of the rescue nature, preceding the current reconstruction of the castle. During the research some very significant discoveries were made, which enabled to learn about the history of this Narew holm; for instance, the remains of the wooden building were uncovered, which is earlier than the Renaissance stone castle of Sigismund Augustus, dating back to the end of the 15th, the beginning of the 16th centuries.
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The most important difficulties encountered during the excavations and interpretation of the discovered things were caused by the destruction made by the German army during the World War I, as well as during the construction works in the 1960s. Thus, it is impossible to determine the thickness of the original cultural stratifications and their context in the different parts of the castle. The stratigraphy is incomplete and de-prived of many essential elements; there is a lack of upper layers, that is, the part of the modern layers con-nected with the object's functioning and its demolition. While undertaking the archaeological works there is some restriction; there is a lack of the pictures of the castle in Tykotzin and poor written records, which inform about the arrangement and furnishing of the castle at the end of the 17th century and at the beginning of the 18th century, and remain silent about the exterior, size and purpose of the buildings functioning here at the end of the Middle Ages.
What concerns the analysis and interpretation of the movable monuments, which 60,000 were found in 1999-2005, it must be stated that in the previous archaeological literature there is a lack of the descriptions of the sets of the finds extracted at the stands in the late Middle Ages and modern times in the area of Pod-lasie. Therefore, there is a lack of the basis to estimate the production level and technology of the selected branches of manufacture in Podlasie from the 15th to 18th centuries.