1. The potential decline of insects and their contribution to ecosystem services is a matter of i... more 1. The potential decline of insects and their contribution to ecosystem services is a matter of immense concern. 2. Reversing the current degradation of the natural world will require substantial attitudinal and behavioural shifts, but for this to occur people will need to buy-in to decisions and choices that may be less desirable than those they currently make. 3. People will also need to appreciate the importance of ecosystems, habitats and species that are currently regarded as uncharismatic, including of course a great many insects and other invertebrates. To do this requires a radical shift in our approach to marketing the natural world in general and insects in particular. 4. We propose adopting the approach used so successfully in commercial marketing; the 4Ps framework (product, price, place and promotion). We outline examples of how this would result in more informed and effective ways to market biodiversity, expanding focus away from species traditionally considered charismatic. The public perception of insects, a group that includes some of the most loved and many of the most disliked taxa on the planet, could potentially be substantially improved by the use of this approach. 5. If such a marketing strategy can raise their perceived value, it follows that the public may care more about insects and empower conservation action.
1. Social media provides unique opportunities for data collection. Retrospective analysis of soci... more 1. Social media provides unique opportunities for data collection. Retrospective analysis of social media posts has been used in seismology, political science and public risk perception studies but has not been used extensively in ecological research. There is currently no assessment of whether such data are valid and robust in ecological contexts. 2. We used "Twitter mining" methods to search Twitter (a microblogging site) for terms relevant to three nationwide UK ecological phenomena: winged ant emergence; autumnal house spider sightings; and starling murmurations. To determine the extent to which Twitter-mined data were reliable and suitable for answering specific ecological questions the data so gathered were analysed and the results directly compared to the findings of three published studies based on primary data collected by citizen scientists during the same time period. 3. Twitter-mined data proved robust for quantifying temporal ecological patterns. There was striking similarity in the temporal patterns of winged ant emergence between previously published work and our analysis of Twitter-mined data at national scales; this was also the case for house spider sightings. Spatial data were less available but analysis of Twitter-mined data was able to replicate most spatial findings from all three studies. Baseline ecological findings, such as the sex ratio of house spider sightings, could also be replicated. Where Twitter mining was less successful was answering specific questions and testing hypotheses. Thus, we were unable to determine the influence of microhabitat on winged ants or test predation and weather hypotheses for initiation of murmuration behaviour. 4. Twitter mining clearly has great potential to generate spatiotemporal ecological data and to answer specific ecological questions. However, we found that the types and usefulness of data differed substantially between the three phenomena. Consequently, we suggest that understanding users' behaviour when posting on ecological topics would be useful if using social media is to generate ecological data.
Pre-roost murmuration displays by European starlings Sturnus vulgaris are a spectacular example o... more Pre-roost murmuration displays by European starlings Sturnus vulgaris are a spectacular example of collective animal behaviour. To date, empirical research has focussed largely on flock movement and biomechanics whereas research on possible causal mechanisms that affect flock size and murmuration duration has been limited and restricted to a small number of sites. Possible explanations for this behaviour include reducing predation through the dilution, detection or predator confusion effects (the "safer together" hypotheses) or recruiting more birds to create larger (warmer) roosts (the "warmer together" hypothesis). We collected data on size, duration, habitat, temperature and predators from >3,000 murmurations using citizen science. Sightings were submitted from 23 countries but UK records predominated. Murmurations occurred across a range of habitats but there was no association between habitat and size/duration. Size increased significantly from October to...
Interactions between leaf-cutting ants, their fungal symbiont (Leucoagaricus) and the endophytic ... more Interactions between leaf-cutting ants, their fungal symbiont (Leucoagaricus) and the endophytic fungi within the vegetation they carry into their colonies are still poorly understood. If endophytes antagonistic to Leucoagaricus were found in plant material being carried by these ants, then this might indicate a potential mechanism for plants to defend themselves from leaf-cutter attack. In addition, it could offer possibilities for the management of these important Neotropical pests. Here, we show that, for Atta sexdens rubropilosa, there was a significantly greater incidence of Trichoderma species in the vegetation removed from the nests-and deposited around the entrances-than in that being transported into the nests. In a no-choice test, Trichoderma-infested rice was taken into the nest, with deleterious effects on both the fungal gardens and ant survival. The endophytic ability of selected strains of Trichoderma was also confirmed, following their inoculation and subsequent reis...
Conflicts over reproduction are common in social groups, where they often result in more or less ... more Conflicts over reproduction are common in social groups, where they often result in more or less pronounced reproductive skew. Conflicts are greatest in groups of reproductively totipotent individuals where a single breeder of each sex monopolizes reproduction. Skew models investigate how reproduction is divided among group members, i.e. how the conflict is settled. Here, we investigate the conflict over the timing of breeder replacement. Using a genetic model we show that some non-breeding individuals should challenge the breeder under a wide set of conditions, rather than queue for a breeding vacancy. Consequently, societies of totipotent individuals may be the stage of an almost perpetual conflict between the breeder and helpful reproductives. However, the outcome of this conflict may be determined by non-breeding individuals that are not helpful reproductives (policing behaviours), or constrained by ecological conditions such as high costs of independent breeding or incest avoidance. We discuss our model in the light of skew models and model of matricide, and review the literature of highly skewed vertebrate and invertebrate societies of totipotent individuals (naked and Damaraland mole-rats, African wild dogs, dwarf mongooses, queenless ants, Polistine wasps). This crosstaxonomic review reveals that some non-breeders attempt to replace the breeder or position themselves so as to be able to do so when the opportunity arises, which supports the predictions of the model.
Why do honey-bee (Apis mellifera) foragers transfer nectar to several receivers? Information impr... more Why do honey-bee (Apis mellifera) foragers transfer nectar to several receivers? Information improvement through multiple sampling in a biological system
theoretical frameworks. And, finally, Philip Barnard looks at the implications for ancient cognit... more theoretical frameworks. And, finally, Philip Barnard looks at the implications for ancient cognition contained not in the tools themselves, but in the ways they were used. Clearly, this book is not a comprehensive summary of the current state of the art in palaeocognition. But it is a lively representative collection, and one that not only includes a lot of fascinating detail but also conveys much of the scope, excitement and potential of this young and dynamic field. And, perhaps most importantly, it plainly points the way forward.
Illegal hunting (poaching) is a global threat to wildlife. Anti-poaching initiatives are making i... more Illegal hunting (poaching) is a global threat to wildlife. Anti-poaching initiatives are making increasing use of technology, such as infrared thermography (IRT), to support traditional foot and vehicle patrols. To date, the effectiveness of IRT for poacher location has not been tested under field conditions, where thermal signatures are often complex. Here, we test the hypothesis that IRT will increase the distance over which a poacher hiding in African scrub bushveldt can be detected relative to a conventional flashlight. We also test whether any increase in effectiveness is related to the cost and complexity of the equipment by comparing comparatively expensive (22000 USD) and relatively inexpensive (2000 USD) IRT devices. To test these hypotheses we employ a controlled, fully randomised, double-blind procedure to find a poacher in nocturnal field conditions in African bushveldt. Each of our 27 volunteer observers walked three times along a pathway using one detection technology on each pass in randomised order. They searched a prescribed search area of bushveldt within which the target was hiding. Hiding locations were predetermined , randomised, and changed with each pass. Distances of first detection and positive detection were noted. All technologies could be used to detect the target. Average first detection distance for flashlight was 37.3m, improving by 19.8m to 57.1m using LIRT and by a further 11.2m to 68.3m using HIRT. Although detection distances were significantly greater for both IRTs compared to flashlight, there was no significant difference between LIRT and HIRT. False detection rates were low and there was no significant association between technology and accuracy of detection. Although IRT technology should ideally be tested in the specific environment intended before significant investment is made, we conclude that IRT technology is promising for anti-poaching patrols and that for this purpose low cost IRT units are as effective as units ten times more expensive.
Why do honey-bee (Apis mellifera) foragers transfer nectar to several receivers? Information impr... more Why do honey-bee (Apis mellifera) foragers transfer nectar to several receivers? Information improvement through multiple sampling in a biological system
The task of nectar foraging in honey-bees is partitioned between foragers and receivers. Foragers... more The task of nectar foraging in honey-bees is partitioned between foragers and receivers. Foragers typically transfer a nectar load in the nest as sub-loads to several receivers rather than as a single transfer. Foragers experience delays in finding receivers and use these delays to balance the number of foragers and receivers. A short delay results in the forager-recruiting waggle dance whereas a long delay results in the receiver-recruiting tremble dance. Several nectar transfers increase the cost of this system by introducing additional delays in finding extra receivers. We tested four hypotheses to explain the occurrence of multiple transfer. We found no evidence that multiple transfer is due to different crop capacities of foragers and receivers or that it results from extensive trophallactic interactions with nest-mates. Receiver bees frequently evaporate nectar in their mouthparts to hasten the production of honey. The suggestion has been made that multiple transfer is driven by receivers who take partial loads from foragers to enhance nectar evaporation. An alternative suggestion is that foragers drive multiple transfer to gain better information on the balance of foragers and receivers. Multiple sampling of the delay in finding a receiver reduces the standard deviation of the delay mean and so provides foragers with better information than is provided by a single delay. The enhancedevaporation hypothesis predicts that receivers break foragers' first transfer whereas the information improvement hypothesis predicts foragers break their first transfers. Furthermore, only the information improvement hypothesis predicts a high level of multiple receptions. Data on transfer break-off and receiver behaviour strongly support the information improvement hypothesis and reject the enhanced-evaporation hypothesis. We suggest that multiple transfer is an adaptive sampling mechanism, which improves foragers' information on colony work allocation, and that multiple sampling is a common feature of social insect societies.
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) enables in vivo imaging of organisms. The recent development of ... more Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) enables in vivo imaging of organisms. The recent development of the magnetic resonance microscope (MRM) has enabled organisms within the size range of many insects to be imaged. Here, we introduce the principles of MRI and MRM and review their use in entomology. We show that MRM has been successfully applied in studies of parasitology, development, metabolism, biomagnetism and morphology, and the advantages and disadvantages relative to other imaging techniques are discussed. In addition, we illustrate the images that can be obtained using MRM. We conclude that although MRM has significant potential, further improvements to the technique are still desirable if it is to become a mainstream imaging technology in entomology.
Nest ectoparasites have been linked previously to patterns of nest-site choice and breeding succe... more Nest ectoparasites have been linked previously to patterns of nest-site choice and breeding success in birds. Recent research has shown nestboxes facing south-southwest are occupied less frequently by great tits (Parus major) than identical boxes facing other directions, and are associated with reduced offspring condition. Here, we investigate the hypothesis that these findings are due to ectoparasite load being directionally nonuniform, possibly because of nonuniformity in nestbox internal temperature. Nests contained, in order of prevalence, hen fleas (Ceratophyllus gallinae), haematophagous blowflies (Protocalliphoraspp.), biting lice (Ischnocera), and ticks/mites (Acari). Although southwest-facing nestboxes were significantly warmer than other boxes, there was no directional difference in total ectoparasite load or abundance of particular species. Similarly, there was no relationship between abundance of any ectoparasite species (either per-nest or per-chick) and avian offspring...
Volunteer data collection can be valuable for research. However, accuracy of such data is often a... more Volunteer data collection can be valuable for research. However, accuracy of such data is often a cause for concern. If clear, simple methods are used, volunteers can monitor species presence and abundance in a similar manner to professionals, but it is unknown whether volunteers could collect accurate data on animal behaviour. In this study, visitors at a Wetlands Centre were asked to record behavioural data for a group of captive otters by means of a short questionnaire. They were also asked to provide information about themselves to determine whether various factors would influence their ability to collect data. Using a novel analysis technique based on PCA, visitor data were compared to baseline activity budget data collected by a trained biologist to determine whether visitor data were accurate. Although the response rate was high, visitors were unable to collect accurate data. The principal reason was that visitors exceeded the observation time stated in the instructions, rath...
1. The potential decline of insects and their contribution to ecosystem services is a matter of i... more 1. The potential decline of insects and their contribution to ecosystem services is a matter of immense concern. 2. Reversing the current degradation of the natural world will require substantial attitudinal and behavioural shifts, but for this to occur people will need to buy-in to decisions and choices that may be less desirable than those they currently make. 3. People will also need to appreciate the importance of ecosystems, habitats and species that are currently regarded as uncharismatic, including of course a great many insects and other invertebrates. To do this requires a radical shift in our approach to marketing the natural world in general and insects in particular. 4. We propose adopting the approach used so successfully in commercial marketing; the 4Ps framework (product, price, place and promotion). We outline examples of how this would result in more informed and effective ways to market biodiversity, expanding focus away from species traditionally considered charismatic. The public perception of insects, a group that includes some of the most loved and many of the most disliked taxa on the planet, could potentially be substantially improved by the use of this approach. 5. If such a marketing strategy can raise their perceived value, it follows that the public may care more about insects and empower conservation action.
1. Social media provides unique opportunities for data collection. Retrospective analysis of soci... more 1. Social media provides unique opportunities for data collection. Retrospective analysis of social media posts has been used in seismology, political science and public risk perception studies but has not been used extensively in ecological research. There is currently no assessment of whether such data are valid and robust in ecological contexts. 2. We used "Twitter mining" methods to search Twitter (a microblogging site) for terms relevant to three nationwide UK ecological phenomena: winged ant emergence; autumnal house spider sightings; and starling murmurations. To determine the extent to which Twitter-mined data were reliable and suitable for answering specific ecological questions the data so gathered were analysed and the results directly compared to the findings of three published studies based on primary data collected by citizen scientists during the same time period. 3. Twitter-mined data proved robust for quantifying temporal ecological patterns. There was striking similarity in the temporal patterns of winged ant emergence between previously published work and our analysis of Twitter-mined data at national scales; this was also the case for house spider sightings. Spatial data were less available but analysis of Twitter-mined data was able to replicate most spatial findings from all three studies. Baseline ecological findings, such as the sex ratio of house spider sightings, could also be replicated. Where Twitter mining was less successful was answering specific questions and testing hypotheses. Thus, we were unable to determine the influence of microhabitat on winged ants or test predation and weather hypotheses for initiation of murmuration behaviour. 4. Twitter mining clearly has great potential to generate spatiotemporal ecological data and to answer specific ecological questions. However, we found that the types and usefulness of data differed substantially between the three phenomena. Consequently, we suggest that understanding users' behaviour when posting on ecological topics would be useful if using social media is to generate ecological data.
Pre-roost murmuration displays by European starlings Sturnus vulgaris are a spectacular example o... more Pre-roost murmuration displays by European starlings Sturnus vulgaris are a spectacular example of collective animal behaviour. To date, empirical research has focussed largely on flock movement and biomechanics whereas research on possible causal mechanisms that affect flock size and murmuration duration has been limited and restricted to a small number of sites. Possible explanations for this behaviour include reducing predation through the dilution, detection or predator confusion effects (the "safer together" hypotheses) or recruiting more birds to create larger (warmer) roosts (the "warmer together" hypothesis). We collected data on size, duration, habitat, temperature and predators from >3,000 murmurations using citizen science. Sightings were submitted from 23 countries but UK records predominated. Murmurations occurred across a range of habitats but there was no association between habitat and size/duration. Size increased significantly from October to...
Interactions between leaf-cutting ants, their fungal symbiont (Leucoagaricus) and the endophytic ... more Interactions between leaf-cutting ants, their fungal symbiont (Leucoagaricus) and the endophytic fungi within the vegetation they carry into their colonies are still poorly understood. If endophytes antagonistic to Leucoagaricus were found in plant material being carried by these ants, then this might indicate a potential mechanism for plants to defend themselves from leaf-cutter attack. In addition, it could offer possibilities for the management of these important Neotropical pests. Here, we show that, for Atta sexdens rubropilosa, there was a significantly greater incidence of Trichoderma species in the vegetation removed from the nests-and deposited around the entrances-than in that being transported into the nests. In a no-choice test, Trichoderma-infested rice was taken into the nest, with deleterious effects on both the fungal gardens and ant survival. The endophytic ability of selected strains of Trichoderma was also confirmed, following their inoculation and subsequent reis...
Conflicts over reproduction are common in social groups, where they often result in more or less ... more Conflicts over reproduction are common in social groups, where they often result in more or less pronounced reproductive skew. Conflicts are greatest in groups of reproductively totipotent individuals where a single breeder of each sex monopolizes reproduction. Skew models investigate how reproduction is divided among group members, i.e. how the conflict is settled. Here, we investigate the conflict over the timing of breeder replacement. Using a genetic model we show that some non-breeding individuals should challenge the breeder under a wide set of conditions, rather than queue for a breeding vacancy. Consequently, societies of totipotent individuals may be the stage of an almost perpetual conflict between the breeder and helpful reproductives. However, the outcome of this conflict may be determined by non-breeding individuals that are not helpful reproductives (policing behaviours), or constrained by ecological conditions such as high costs of independent breeding or incest avoidance. We discuss our model in the light of skew models and model of matricide, and review the literature of highly skewed vertebrate and invertebrate societies of totipotent individuals (naked and Damaraland mole-rats, African wild dogs, dwarf mongooses, queenless ants, Polistine wasps). This crosstaxonomic review reveals that some non-breeders attempt to replace the breeder or position themselves so as to be able to do so when the opportunity arises, which supports the predictions of the model.
Why do honey-bee (Apis mellifera) foragers transfer nectar to several receivers? Information impr... more Why do honey-bee (Apis mellifera) foragers transfer nectar to several receivers? Information improvement through multiple sampling in a biological system
theoretical frameworks. And, finally, Philip Barnard looks at the implications for ancient cognit... more theoretical frameworks. And, finally, Philip Barnard looks at the implications for ancient cognition contained not in the tools themselves, but in the ways they were used. Clearly, this book is not a comprehensive summary of the current state of the art in palaeocognition. But it is a lively representative collection, and one that not only includes a lot of fascinating detail but also conveys much of the scope, excitement and potential of this young and dynamic field. And, perhaps most importantly, it plainly points the way forward.
Illegal hunting (poaching) is a global threat to wildlife. Anti-poaching initiatives are making i... more Illegal hunting (poaching) is a global threat to wildlife. Anti-poaching initiatives are making increasing use of technology, such as infrared thermography (IRT), to support traditional foot and vehicle patrols. To date, the effectiveness of IRT for poacher location has not been tested under field conditions, where thermal signatures are often complex. Here, we test the hypothesis that IRT will increase the distance over which a poacher hiding in African scrub bushveldt can be detected relative to a conventional flashlight. We also test whether any increase in effectiveness is related to the cost and complexity of the equipment by comparing comparatively expensive (22000 USD) and relatively inexpensive (2000 USD) IRT devices. To test these hypotheses we employ a controlled, fully randomised, double-blind procedure to find a poacher in nocturnal field conditions in African bushveldt. Each of our 27 volunteer observers walked three times along a pathway using one detection technology on each pass in randomised order. They searched a prescribed search area of bushveldt within which the target was hiding. Hiding locations were predetermined , randomised, and changed with each pass. Distances of first detection and positive detection were noted. All technologies could be used to detect the target. Average first detection distance for flashlight was 37.3m, improving by 19.8m to 57.1m using LIRT and by a further 11.2m to 68.3m using HIRT. Although detection distances were significantly greater for both IRTs compared to flashlight, there was no significant difference between LIRT and HIRT. False detection rates were low and there was no significant association between technology and accuracy of detection. Although IRT technology should ideally be tested in the specific environment intended before significant investment is made, we conclude that IRT technology is promising for anti-poaching patrols and that for this purpose low cost IRT units are as effective as units ten times more expensive.
Why do honey-bee (Apis mellifera) foragers transfer nectar to several receivers? Information impr... more Why do honey-bee (Apis mellifera) foragers transfer nectar to several receivers? Information improvement through multiple sampling in a biological system
The task of nectar foraging in honey-bees is partitioned between foragers and receivers. Foragers... more The task of nectar foraging in honey-bees is partitioned between foragers and receivers. Foragers typically transfer a nectar load in the nest as sub-loads to several receivers rather than as a single transfer. Foragers experience delays in finding receivers and use these delays to balance the number of foragers and receivers. A short delay results in the forager-recruiting waggle dance whereas a long delay results in the receiver-recruiting tremble dance. Several nectar transfers increase the cost of this system by introducing additional delays in finding extra receivers. We tested four hypotheses to explain the occurrence of multiple transfer. We found no evidence that multiple transfer is due to different crop capacities of foragers and receivers or that it results from extensive trophallactic interactions with nest-mates. Receiver bees frequently evaporate nectar in their mouthparts to hasten the production of honey. The suggestion has been made that multiple transfer is driven by receivers who take partial loads from foragers to enhance nectar evaporation. An alternative suggestion is that foragers drive multiple transfer to gain better information on the balance of foragers and receivers. Multiple sampling of the delay in finding a receiver reduces the standard deviation of the delay mean and so provides foragers with better information than is provided by a single delay. The enhancedevaporation hypothesis predicts that receivers break foragers' first transfer whereas the information improvement hypothesis predicts foragers break their first transfers. Furthermore, only the information improvement hypothesis predicts a high level of multiple receptions. Data on transfer break-off and receiver behaviour strongly support the information improvement hypothesis and reject the enhanced-evaporation hypothesis. We suggest that multiple transfer is an adaptive sampling mechanism, which improves foragers' information on colony work allocation, and that multiple sampling is a common feature of social insect societies.
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) enables in vivo imaging of organisms. The recent development of ... more Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) enables in vivo imaging of organisms. The recent development of the magnetic resonance microscope (MRM) has enabled organisms within the size range of many insects to be imaged. Here, we introduce the principles of MRI and MRM and review their use in entomology. We show that MRM has been successfully applied in studies of parasitology, development, metabolism, biomagnetism and morphology, and the advantages and disadvantages relative to other imaging techniques are discussed. In addition, we illustrate the images that can be obtained using MRM. We conclude that although MRM has significant potential, further improvements to the technique are still desirable if it is to become a mainstream imaging technology in entomology.
Nest ectoparasites have been linked previously to patterns of nest-site choice and breeding succe... more Nest ectoparasites have been linked previously to patterns of nest-site choice and breeding success in birds. Recent research has shown nestboxes facing south-southwest are occupied less frequently by great tits (Parus major) than identical boxes facing other directions, and are associated with reduced offspring condition. Here, we investigate the hypothesis that these findings are due to ectoparasite load being directionally nonuniform, possibly because of nonuniformity in nestbox internal temperature. Nests contained, in order of prevalence, hen fleas (Ceratophyllus gallinae), haematophagous blowflies (Protocalliphoraspp.), biting lice (Ischnocera), and ticks/mites (Acari). Although southwest-facing nestboxes were significantly warmer than other boxes, there was no directional difference in total ectoparasite load or abundance of particular species. Similarly, there was no relationship between abundance of any ectoparasite species (either per-nest or per-chick) and avian offspring...
Volunteer data collection can be valuable for research. However, accuracy of such data is often a... more Volunteer data collection can be valuable for research. However, accuracy of such data is often a cause for concern. If clear, simple methods are used, volunteers can monitor species presence and abundance in a similar manner to professionals, but it is unknown whether volunteers could collect accurate data on animal behaviour. In this study, visitors at a Wetlands Centre were asked to record behavioural data for a group of captive otters by means of a short questionnaire. They were also asked to provide information about themselves to determine whether various factors would influence their ability to collect data. Using a novel analysis technique based on PCA, visitor data were compared to baseline activity budget data collected by a trained biologist to determine whether visitor data were accurate. Although the response rate was high, visitors were unable to collect accurate data. The principal reason was that visitors exceeded the observation time stated in the instructions, rath...
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Papers by Adam Hart