Artis Wodehouse

In 1905 Mahler recorded four piano renditions of selections from his orchestral/vocal music on piano roll for the Welte-Mignon. They are particularly valuable since the Welte-Mignon method for performance capture — and lack of invasive post-production editing — can be trusted to give some representation of Mahler's actual performance.
Wodehouse is currently collaborating with Dr. Peter Phillips, researcher/ expert in the conversion of Welte piano roll data to the digital domain, and Bill Ooms, transcriber of Mahler's Welte-Mignon MIDI data as formulated by Dr. Phillips. The presentation will give an overview of their work to date as well as Wodehouse's goal of creating a print edition encompassing both a readable score and extensive commentary on Mahler's deeply embedded late 19th C. performance practice. The presentation will touch on the core issues of transcription of Mahler's live performance captured on roll — what a score can or should depict, and the relationship between Mahler's roll performance to his published scores of same. Sound recordings of the original roll will be heard in tandem with newly-created print scores generated in the MIDI realm.

In the spring of 1990 I was in Los Angeles and Robert Armbruster-then living in the area and 93 years old-kindly agreed to an interview at his home. He did not allow me to make an audio recording of the interview. Therefore, I hastily transcribed into a notebook as much as I could of the conversation. In the transcription below, I've edited in a few words enclosed in parentheses. These serve narrowly to clarify some of Armbruster's comments that-due the circumstances of the interview-I was unable to write out fully in my notes. I came prepared for the interview with a number of questions centering on Armbruster's work as roll artist at Aeolian, several of which he answered. In addition to his observations about the piano roll industry, he commented upon his wide-ranging, highly-successful career and some assessments of musical styles and other musicians. …Artis Wodehouse 12/26/23

Franz Liszt has become for music historians the archetypical genius--able to upstage such titans as Chopin and Thalberg on the piano, then moving with ease into composition and effortlessly traveling outside the boundaries of his age with wildly original music. Such a figure will always be difficult to evaluate and thus this comprehensive bibliography and guide will be all the more valuable for student and scholar.

A complete entertainment package, Edythe Baker (1899-1971) — who was also a beautiful, white American virtuoso pianist — was an accomplished composer, singer and dancer.  She grew up in the Kansas City area. It was there and in other Mid-West locations that she heard and absorbed elements of African-American ragtime and the blues. When she arrived in New York City at age 20, talent scouts immediately recognized her unique assimilation of these emerging vernacular styles (particularly the blues) which had become wildly popular by 1920. In New York, she was propelled to the upper echelon of the entertainment industry, appearing as piano soloist, stage performer (singing and dancing), and in making over 70 piano roll recordings from 1919 to 1926. 

Baker was signed to make piano rolls for the Aeolian company, (the behemoth player piano and piano roll manufacturer of the day) shortly after arriving in New York. Aeolian initially marketed her as a ragtime and blues player, but as she developed additional styles in her New York-based live performance career,  Aeolian broadened her roll work to include a greater variety of popular genres and procedures. 

The paper focuses on Baker's blues orientation as a piano roll artist.  The analysis will rely on some elements of Topic Theory, an approach developed by the late Leonard Ratner that centers on an examination of genres and styles for expressive musical discourse.  While Ratner's theory addresses Classical music from the mid-18th to the early 19th century, it provides an apt template for exploring the popular piano roll idiom of the early 20th C. 

When the player piano first came to market around 1900, it was viewed with suspicion.  It was feared that the player piano’s mechanization of piano performance would remove the necessary component of a uniquely expressed human rendition.

However, despite the fact that the majority of early piano rolls were sourced from printed sheet music and metronomically quantized as perforated into the paper roll,  player piano design allowed for molding a personalized and potentially expressive performance. Player pianos at all price points featured hand controls capable of temporal and dynamic variation that the "player pianist" or "pianolist" could manipulate according to personal taste as they foot-pumped in real time. The player piano/piano roll interface offered the appeal of instant technical mastery — no need to spend laborious hours practicing by hand in order to master notes and rhythms — thus accelerating the leap to the end goal of achieving a personalized, expressive rendition.

To allay the unease the player piano initially aroused, a number of UK and US music writers entered into the breach, defending the new instrument by touting its educational value and expressive potential. Articles were written, journals established and books were published on the subject of how to “play” the player piano, ranging from general hints to massive tomes containing detailed instructions for how to achieve an expressive rendition via a player piano.

The paper comprises an an overview of several significant such books generated during the heyday of the player piano era (1900-1930), and summarize some commonly shared guidelines put forth for obtaining expressive pianola performance. Authors include Gustav Kobbé, Harry Ellingham, Ernst Newman, Sidney Grew, Reginald Reynolds and William Braid White.

The virtual world has opened new possibilities for disseminating music both new and historic. This  2020 virtual concert, created in collaboration with The Friends of the Erben Organ and described in this article allowed for a wide-ranging presentation about the harmonium and reed organ and its relationship to the pipe organ. In addition to introducing music world-wide that was written for important restored antique instruments, the virtual format allowed for technological/cultural narrative analysis via the insertion of spoken clips. Functioning like program notes of old, the extensive narrative clips do not disturb the flow of the concert because they can be electively clicked on by the viewer at any time. The concert featured music for a 1903 Mustel Art Harmonium, a Mason & Hamlin Liszt Organ from 1887, a 1925 portable preacher's organ and the historic Erben Organ. Composers included Kodaly, Bizet, Widor, Karg-Elert, Harry T. Burleigh, George Templeton Strong, Dudley Buck and Carson Cooman.

During the first quarter of the 20th century technological innovations set off a chain reaction of growth in the music entertainment industry. The exploding need for content opened to women unprecedented opportunities for musical employment. Vee Lawnhurst, Constance Mering and Muriel Pollock were exemplars who took advantage of the explosion of opportunity during this period. From 1915 through the 1950 they contributed as gifted pianists, piano roll artists, radio and stage performers, phonograph recording artists and as songwriter/composers. Artis Wodehouse's essay accompanies the 1998 CD release of representative recordings of these three artists. It is Volume V of the Keyboard Wizards of the Gershwin Era produced by Wodehouse on Pearl GEMM CD 9206.

Professional musicians and connoisseurs have frequently questioned the performance authenticity of piano roll renditions. Do they give a fair representation of the artist’s expressive intention, or were so-called hand-played reproducing piano roll performances so constrained by technological limitations that in order to produce salable product, the artist’s live rendition needed to be significantly modified? Artis Wodehouse seeks to open a discussion of these questions through a new analytic method.

The recordings of pianists born before 1900 offer tantalizing evidence of nineteenth-century performance practice.  However, the unfamiliar environment of the early recording studio and technical restrictions of the the recording process caused many artists to adopt interpretive compromises from their normal approach to their live performance.  This bibliography focuses on the relationship between the live performances of pianists born before 1900 and their recordings on cylinder and disc.

The recordings of pianists born before the turn of the century provide perhaps the most tangible link available to a previous performance practice. Evidence such as eye-witness accounts of live performances, editions and recorded performances of pianists born before 1900 suggest overwhelmingly that in the 19th century the printed page had nowhere near its present significance. This dissertation documents and compares temporal and dynamic deviations employed by a representative group of early recorded pianists with respect to both Chopin’s score and 19th century performance treatises. It features a unique methodology for evaluating and summarizing common piano performance approaches of the 19th century in fine detail.

Frank Campbell Milne (1887 – 1959) was one of a handful of acknowledged masters of player piano roll arranging. His prolific work in this idiom spanned from 1912 through 1946, during which he was employed by leading piano roll companies of the time: Aristo, Aeolian, Aeolian-American and QRS.  Frank Milne worked with George Gershwin in the piano roll idiom, and knew many important pianists from the 1920s, including Paderewski and Josef Hofmann.This paper is a condensed transcription of an interview of Frank Milne’s son, Alexander Milne (1913-2013) conducted by Artis Wodehouse in July 1990.

Edward O. Schaaf 1869-1939), composer and music theorist based in Newark New Jersey, USA sought to incorporate the unique characteristics of the player piano into his own compositions. His 1914 treatise, "The Art of Player Piano Transcription" explicates his unique approach to creating music expressly intended for the player piano.

Artis Wodehouse summarizes her George Gershwin piano roll project from the 1990s through current developments in a video filmed 6/30/18. The video includes her demonstration of the first instrument to be used for this phase of creating good audio recordings of  Gershwin's (1898-1937) over 100 piano rolls that date from 1916 to 1925.

Video and audio were recorded by Dr. Whitney Slaten at the United Church of Westford at Westford VT.

Pianist/composer Franz Liszt (1811-1883) never recorded, but a number of his many pupils made recordings. Since Liszt did not record, we cannot be certain of the extent to which the recordings left by his pupils may have left traces of Liszt's own performance approach.  Nevertheless, the range and diversity of recordings of his pupils paints a sonic picture of performance practices of the late 19th and early 20th century.

Each of the eighteenth-century dance forms has a characteristic rate and type of harmonic progression. Established at the outset of the dance, they determine the listener’s sense of meter. While Bach sets up certain metric expectation in the courante by repeating characteristic patterns of harmonic rhythm, he often manipulates the rate of harmonic change so that it does not necessarily coincide with the notated meter.

This analysis attempts to determine how certain harmonic, melodic, and rhythmic expectations contribute to the impression of ambiguity sensed by the twentieth-century musician in the French courantes of Johann Sebastian Bach. These expectations were not necessarily taken into account by either Bach or his contemporaries.

Artis Wodehouse describes the differences between the American and European Harmonium with special emphasis on the earlier instrumental standardization achieved by the Europeans and the implication for repertoire creation. It was only when the American firm of Mason & Hamlin belatedly created a standardized instrument called the "Normal Harmonium" in the 1890s that a uniquely gifted ex-pat American composer, Arthur Bird (1856-1923) wrote his significant art music for the American Harmonium.

Artis Wodehouse's extensive essay accompanies her recently released CD, "Arthur Bird Music for the American Harmonium" on Raven OAR-962 now available on Amazon. This is the first commercially released recording of the finest art music written for the 19th C. American style "suction" harmonium. Wodehouse has unearthed a wealth of unknown information about Bird, the American Harmonium, and the audacity of writing new music for this authentically original American keyboard instrument.

George Gershwin made over 100 piano rolls during his earliest years as an active musician (1915-27).  They span a remarkably wide swath of music, not only original works by Gershwin, but song arrangements and instrumentals by a parade of his distinguished musical contemporaries.  Artis Wodehouse provides an overview of the music these roll performances embody and the developing technology that made possible capture and playback of his work in this medium.

In an analysis of George Gershwin's piano performance style heard on his 78 rpm recordings, Artis Wodehouse shows how much the composer/pianist was was a product of the ragtime and dance culture of the 'teens through the 1920s, with its highly idiomatic performance practice perfectly suited to the music embodied in the printed scores.  Nevertheless, and despite the substantial amount of Gershwin's recordings still obtainable,  Gershwin's performance practice has little in common with the typical romanticized renditions of his music that came to be accepted following his death. Wodehouse suggests that Gershwin's recorded performances are not only delightful, but provide performers an excellent reference for developing renditions that shed light on the intent of Gershwin's music as embodied in his scores.

Pianist/transcriber Artis Wodehouse has created readable scores of Jelly Roll Morton's 1920s jazz piano rolls.  She describes the musical features of the rolls he made as they relate to his hand-played performances, and outlines the technique for transforming the old paper rolls to readable music scores using computer technologies developed in the late 1980s.

In the 1990s resurgence of interest in player pianos and piano, Artis Wodehouse's CD "Gershwin Plays Gershwin" made it possible for interest to be stimulated  in Gershwin's great piano roll arranging contemporaries. Perhaps the most important of these was Zez Confrey.

The American Arthur Bird (1856-1923) was the most significant 19th C. composer to write for the American Harmonium. His Op. 37 Pieces were commissioned by the Mason & Hamlin Company and exhibit an extraordinary sensitivity to this instrument's coloristic capabilities coupled with a mastery of writing in miniature forms.

AudioGraphic piano rolls produced by Aeolian arrived in the closing years of the piano roll era (1900-1930).  Starting in roughly 1924, as the ease of listening provided by radio and better phonograph disc recordings made less costly claims on people’s leisure time and financial resources, piano roll and player piano sales began to slip. Thus, the Aeolian Company — producer of a mammoth portion of player piano and piano roll sales worldwide — could be convinced in 1926 of the utility of creating a high-culture, interactive product that would potentially appeal to a customer’s need for education and cultural uplift. The concept for creating an item that conflated piano roll music with print historical and analytical text as well as illustrations on a single long-play piano roll was spear-headed by British music critic and educator Percy Scholes and others. With a significant flourish of high culture media coverage, the AudioGraphic roll was launched by the British arm of Aeolian in 1926.

I chose to present music by these late 19th C. American composers for the  2022 conference of the Historic Keyboard Association of North America is entitled "Bach and the 19th Century". The conference is held at the Doctorow Arts Center in Hunter, New York.  The music and instruments I play and discuss on June 25th, 2022 relate to the conference title since:

1) Each composer studied in Europe, and came into their artistic maturity during the time when interest began to mount in historical keyboard music and the harpsichord and clavichord. 2) It was also during the 19th C. that the harmonium, itself was invented and perfected.  3) All three were grounded in the music of J. S. Bach, but their aesthetics and performance practices were very much a manifestation of the 19th C. Romantic tradition.  It was a time when there was no problem with compositionally re-interpreting music from the past. Further these re-interpretations were conceived and rendered in the highly expressive performance practice of the late romantic period.

The breadth of Frank Milne’s (1887-1959) work is well understood in the player piano and piano roll community, as he was responsible for the creation and manufacture of hundreds of piano rolls, many of the highest musical quality. He is best-known for his piano roll arrangement of George Gershwin's An American in Paris.  The undated 1960s original typescript is a five-page document that survived in the papers of composer, pianist, piano roll artist and roll arranger Frank Milne. The typescript’s author is unattributed in the text, but it can be inferred that Jane Milne Rogers (1919-2000), one of Frank Milne’s three children both initiated and likely typed the document. The typescript has value in that it contains some information about Milne’s life and career not previously published.The narrative of Rogers’ typescript is personal and recalled through the veil of memory.  It reflects a deep reverence for the value of Frank Milne’s work as a musician, and lovingly recalls his generous character.

James Price Johnson (1894–1955) is one of the seminal African-American jazz artists of the 20th century. A virtuoso pianist, Johnson mastered ragtime, and is understood to have created what is called stride piano. A performer and arranger of music by others, Johnson was also a notable composer, beginning with ragtime, but one who went forward to song-writing, Broadway show collaborations, and writing large concert scores as a fusion artist, combining forms and procedures of classical music with his deep knowledge of and practice in popular music. Beginning in his formative years – roughly 1917 through 1927 – Johnson’s extraordinary pianistic skills found a place in the exploding player piano industry. In this medium, Johnson was often able to express his evolving pianistic and compositional innovations, both in his own original material and in arrangements of tunes by others. His fifty-seven rolls, along with his phonograph recordings and notated scores form the basis for our appreciation of the greatness of this artist.

Several of Jelly Roll Morton's 1920s piano rolls are among the greatest musical creations to come from an American composer. They are important because in terms of musical infrastructure — the notes and rhythms — they largely represent what Morton actually sat down and played.  This conclusion can be drawn by comparing them to Morton’s phonograph recordings, particularly those from the same time period in which his rolls were made.  However, as was standard for pop piano rolls of the era, the subtle expressive details — dynamics and tempo variation — that characterize all human performance were extracted in the roll manufacturing process. The fact that Morton had made these extraordinary piano roll renditions from which his unique performance style had been extracted was troubling. How then, could we return to his piano roll renditions the characteristic expressivity of Morton’s live performance? Using his contemporaneous 78 rpm phonograph recordings and new computer technologies that became available in the 1990s, this paper details the method we developed to return Morton's uniquely expressive performance style to his piano rolls.

Part I is the inception of the catalog of legendary piano roll arranger, Frank C. Milne's unpublished manuscripts.  His manuscripts include his own arrangements and original compositions. Milne was one of a handful of great piano roll editors and arrangers who worked with important piano roll artists of the 1920s and 1930s.  He is best known for his work with George Gershwin. Milne's manuscripts are of historic musical interest, and may provide the basis for more information regarding Milne's collaborative and artistic function in the creation of important piano rolls from the period.  Milne worked for three important piano roll companies: the Aeolian Company (Duo Art), the American Piano Company (Ampico), and QRS.

Interest in the piano roll and player pianos has never disappeared.  Beginning in the1990s, computer technology facilitated new developments in the preservation and dissemination of now antique piano rolls. There is currently a building academic interest in these recorded performances. The 1962 BBC radio broadcast has particular relevance to this initiative.

In June of 2003 and again, in November of 2003, I traveled to Michigan for the purpose of making extensive field recordings of piano rolls then held in the important roll collections of Nan Flint in Livonia, the late Michael Montgomery in Southfield, and the late Bill Burkhardt in Grand Rapids. My purpose was to capture as many sound recordings of rolls in certain focussed categories as was feasible. These three generous colleagues spent many hours going over my lists, gathering their rolls together, and permitted me to make recordings of what amounted to roughly 500 selections. Many of the rolls I captured on dozens of cassette tapes were either composed, played, arranged or attributed to women artists who made popular (as opposed to classical) music rolls-songs, ragtime, blues or dances-from the 1910s through the early 1930s. While I recorded both 88-note (those without automatic expression) and reproducing rolls (those having automatic expression), a large number of the women's popular rolls were issued in the 88-note format, often on lesser labels. It is this group, the popular 88-note women's rolls, that I am bringing forward first. Both Nan Flint and particularly Mike Montgomery had the foresight to realize that the contribution of women to the popular roll idiom-particularly in the 88-note format-was important to gather and preserve. But it was the breadth and focus of Mike's extremely well-curated 88-note roll collection (decades in the making) that encompassed not only some of the most recognized female names-Mae Brown, Edythe Baker, Pauline Alpert, Hilda Myers, Vee Lawnhurst, Zema Randale, Doris Goodwin, Mabelle Cowan, Constance Mering and Muriel Pollock-but many others now nearly forgotten. While the rolls of lesser-known women artists contextualize the work of their better-known contemporaries, they also offer in their own right performances of uniquely tantalizing interest. Some of the lesser-known women artists who produced excellent rolls include Eva Reeves, Marg Thompson, and Mandy Randolph, but there are others. The 213 roll performances listed on the spread sheet were originally recorded on my cassette recorder, intended for my personal use. They were roughly captured: Mike Montgomery and I took turns pianolizing through literally hundreds of selections on his Steinway upright. Nan Flint fortunately had an electric motor installed in her 88-note player which made playing through the rolls a simpler operation. But despite the roughness, some tracking problems and the fact that rolls were played once through without any practice for expression, the musical content of the rolls shines through. Whether a focussed grouping of similar materials will emerge any time soon is an open question. The three collections-so carefully gathered by all three of these great Michigan collectors-have in the last decade been dispersed. Even though the rolls I recorded likely still exist and have spread out into the larger collecting community, they are no longer centralized as they were in 2003. Thus, I intend is to make these field recordings available to the public. Any suggestions for a permanent repository for them will gratefully be considered.

Edward Elzear "Zez" Confrey (1895-1971) was a famed American composer and piano roll artist, credited with introducing a late-ragtime idiom called novelty piano.  His most famous compositions are "Kitten on the Keys" and "Dizzy Fingers". Artis Wodehouse interviewed his son, Paul Beaumont Confrey (1933-2008)  on 5/16/93 regarding his father's music and career.

The piano rolls of the American pianist and composer Edythe Baker (1899-1971) have been sought by collectors for decades. Prized for their rarity — but mainly for their musical excellence -- in them we hear a uniquely identifiable voice. Her seventy-five known piano rolls also trace Baker’s remarkable musical journey through the period when ragtime and the blues ascended, the Broadway musical coalesced, and the player piano idiom achieved maturity.

James Price Johnson (1894-1955) is one of the seminal artists of jazz as it emerged in the 20th century. A virtuoso pianist, Johnson mastered ragtime and is understood to have created what is called stride piano. During his formative years — roughly 1917 through 1927 — Johnson’s extraordinary pianistic skills found a place in the exploding player piano industry. In this medium, Johnson was often able to express his evolving pianistic and compositional innovations, both in his own original material and in arrangements of tunes by others. This rollography lists all current salient information about Johnson's piano rolls.

The 19th century American publisher, A. P. Schmidt in 1890 commissioned two prominent French composer/organists, Theodore Dubois and Eugène Gigout to write new music for the Mason & Hamlin Liszt organ.  The Liszt organ, developed during the 1860s by the Boston-based Mason & Hamlin firm was the finest reed organ made in the United States at that time. Schmidt sought to promote the instrument via the work of these two important French artists.  The pieces they wrote for the Liszt Organ have proved to be the most important repertoire written to date for the instrument.

With the explosive growth of the music industry in the United States during the first quarter of the 20th century — in music publishing, recording (both piano rolls and phonograph records) and radio — a new breed of pianists came to the fore in American popular culture.  White, and largely trained in the traditions of classical music, they were lured to assimilate the suspect by wildly popular new idioms of ragtime, jazz, the blues and novelty piano.

Dozens of these gifted pianists enriched mainstream American musical life and created a new piano idiom intended for the general public to both listen to and to play.  The music they produced is the last time a distinctly recognizable piano idiom achieved mass distribution.  After the Second World War and the precipitous drop in amateur piano playing, new piano music for mainstream audiences and home players fragmented.  Sadly, the names, music and performance of these brilliant women American pianist/composers have been largely forgotten.

The artists included in the Scrapbook were chose for their uniqueness, excellence scope of their work and relative familiarity to the general public when musically active.

This document contains links to the full video dance demonstration videos that will function as part of a larger presentation by Artis Wodehouse at the Historic Keyboard Society of North America's 2024 annual convention, held at Colonial Williamsburg , June, 2024. Wodehouse will feature dance music by the British composer, Charles D'Albert, whose sheet music was widely disseminated in the United States in the 19th C.  The presentation will show how the standard dances of the time -- quadrille, waltz, galop and polka mazurka -- were danced. Wodehouse will follow the video demonstrations with own performance of significant D'Albert selections.  She will play on an 1863 foot-pump melodeon manufactured by Treat and Davis, New Haven, Connecticut.

My Vermont Humanities-sponsored presentation was designed for a a general audience interested in learning about the history and repertoire of the player piano. The format was in two parts. Part 1 began with my spoken introductory overview. Part 2 featured selections that illustrated and amplified covered in the spoken overview. Since the Main Street Museum has a Stroud 88-note player piano it was used to play the selected piano rolls.  Below is the YouTube link to the live video presentation of the PART 1 overview followed by its print text. The PART 2 selections are listed below PART 1with respective salient video links (taken, however from my own YouTube Channel) proceeded by a brief print commentary.

“Gershwin Meets the 21st Century” live show at the White Church, Westford VT 10/21/18. Artis Wodehouse, during a 4-month Summer 2018 residency in this unique 1840 venue used a restored antique player piano to study and record over 60 unreleased Gershwin piano rolls from 1916-1920. Quiet and acoustically favorable to the piano, the White Church at Westford was a perfect environment for the project.

The show centered on her 1912 Bush & Lane upright player piano.  Wodehouse foot-pumped several of George Gershwin’s (1898-1937) most provocative piano rolls for the audience, providing a narration that traced Gershwin’s unique personal history as a first-generation child of Jewish immigrants through the mighty social/technological/musical changes that occurred from the 1900s through the roaring 20s and beyond. 

Wodehouse was joined by singers Allison and Cameron Steinmetz.  This husband-and-wife duo demonstrated — probably for the first time in the 21st century — the purpose for which most of Gershwin’s piano rolls were made. Based in popular tunes of the day, they were often intended as an interesting accompaniment for singing around the player piano.

Musical selections as follows:

00:00:39  Swanee 1920 Gershwin piano roll
00:12:56  Gott un Sein Mishpet is Gerecht 1905 phonograph recording
00:16:21  Gott un Sein Mishpet is Gerecht 1916 Gershwin piano roll
00:24:07  The Scandal Walk 1920 Gershwin piano roll
00:30:34  Weeping Willow Rag Scott Joplin 1916 piano roll
00:37:11  Lawdy, Lawdy Blues 1924 Edythe Baker piano roll
00:41:22  I Was So Young, You Were So Beautiful 1920 Gershwin
                piano roll
00:51:01  Nobody But You 1919 Gershwin piano roll
01:01:26  My Faultless Pajama Girl 1917 Gershwin piano roll
01:05:59  Chu Chin Chow 1917 Gershwin piano roll

Gershwin made approximately 140 piano rolls total between 1915 and 1925.

Artis Wodehouse compares and contrasts four small foot pump organs from her collection. They include:
1. An 1889 Mason & Hamlin 49-note portable organ made in Boston;
2. A 1925 Bilhorn Bros. 49-note folding preacher's organ made in Chicago
3. A ca. 1940s 61-note folding Chaplain's organ used during WWII and likely made by A B. White in Chicago;
4. A ca. 1950s-60s 49-note Yamaha portable organ made in Japan.