Asif Inam

Supplemental material, Kahkashan_et_al._Suppporting_Information for Holocene organic geochemical record from the Western Indus continental shelf (northern Arabian Sea) by Sanober Kahkashan, Jianfang Chen, Xinhong Wang, Peter D Clift, Bassem Jalali, Asif Inam, Monawwar Saleem, Javed Aftab, Zhongqiang Ji, Youcheng Bai, Zhongqiao Li, Jin Haiyan, Hongliang Li and Lihua Ran in The Holocene

Field investigations were conducted to study spatial and temporal (seasonal) variations in meteorological, hydrodynamic and hydrological variables in Indus River Estuary. The investigations were undertaken during wet, (moderate fluvial discharge), flood (highest fluvial discharge) and dry (zero fluvial discharge) seasons to obtain surface and near bed data during flood and ebb tides. Tides were semidiurnal, showing an asymmetric pattern with longer ebb tides and shorter flood tides. The hydrodynamic data revealed strong seasonal variation, the ebb velocities were significantly higher than flood current velocities during wet season, whereas a slight difference was found in current velocities during dry season, while the ebb phase lasted longer than flood during wet season; however no significant difference was observed during dry season. On the other hand during flood period the water currents were substantially higher and unidirectional related to the strong river flow. Turbidity va...

Abstract The River Indus is one of the oldest documented rivers, formed by the collision of the Indian and Eurasian Plates more than 45 million years ago. The river runs 2900 km through four countries (Pakistan, India, Afghanistan, and China). It runs the entire length of Pakistan, and the River Indus basin forms 65% of the total country, with smaller rivers joining the course. The riverbanks have altered over geological times, and the delta has shifted westward. Before 1870, the river flowed with 17 branches into the Arabian Sea, which were blocked during the colonial times for the construction of irrigation canals and flood levees. Today there is only one functional channel (Khobar Creek). The freshwater and sediment flows have been reduced with the construction of large dams and man-made structures, and water is consumed to support agriculture production in the catchment area, nevertheless, the water use efficiency is very low. The scarcity of fresh water during the dry season results in the sea moving upstream, reaching several kilometers up the river, thus affecting the position of the estuary and the riverine, deltaic ecosystem. This chapter discusses the political geography, the people historically to the present, and the peoples’ connectivity with the river and the adjacent land. Pre- and postindependence water distribution, transboundary (internal and external) water agreements, and their current relevance are also discussed. Also discussed are natural and anthropogenic factors that the river and its people have to live through. In addition, the complicated politics and socioeconomics of the River Indus and its catchment are presented with a brief overview of the interests and conflicts that surround each.

Sediments preserved in the submarine fan fed by the Indus River record the interactions between climate and tectonics in the western Himalaya since the start of India-Asia collision, especially exhumation of the Greater Himalaya and intensification of the Asian monsoon. Seismic stratigraphic mapping has revealed peaks in sedimentation rates during the Middle Miocene and Plio-Pleistocene. These periods correlate with times of rapid exhumation in the Greater Himalaya and with intense chemical weathering driven by a ...

The 3000 km long Indus is one of the world's larger rivers that has exerted a long lasting fascination on scholars since Alexander the Great's expedition in the region in 325 BC. The discovery of an early advanced civilization in the Indus Valley (Meadows and Meadows, 1999 and references therein) further increased this interest in the history of the river. Its source lies in Tibet, close to sacred Mount Kailas and part of its upper course runs through India, but its channel and drainage basin are mostly in Pakistan. Recent geological and ...

The Indian Plate has been the focus of intensive research concerning the flood basalts of the Deccan Traps. Here we document a volcanostratigraphic analysis of the offshore segment of the western Indian volcanic large igneous province, between the shoreline and the first magnetic anomaly (An 28 ∼63 Ma). We have mapped the different crustal domains of the NW Indian Ocean from stretched continental crust through to oceanic crust, using seismic reflection and potential field data. Two volcanic structures, the Somnath Ridge and the Saurashtra High, are identified, extending ∼305 km NE–SW in length and 155 km NW–SE in width. These show the internal structures of buried shield volcanoes and hyaloclastic mounds, surrounded by mass-wasting deposits and volcanic sediments. The structures observed resemble seismic images from the North Atlantic and northwest Australia, as well as volcanic geometries described for Réunion and Hawaii. The geometry and internal seismic facies within the volcanic...

The role of hotter than ambient plumemantle in the formation of a rifted volcanic margin in the northern Arabian Sea is investigated using subsidence analysis of a drill site located on the seismically defined Somnath volcanic ridge. The ridge has experienced >4 km of subsidence since 65 Ma and lies within oceanic lithosphere. We estimate crustal thickness to be 9.5–11.5km. Curiously <400mof the thermal subsidence occurred prior to 37Ma, when subsidence rates would normally be at a maximum. We reject the hypothesis that this was caused by increasing plume dynamic support after continental break-up because the size of the thermal anomalies required are unrealistic (>600 °C), especially considering the rapid northward drift of India relative to the Deccan-Réunion hotspot.We suggest that this reflects very slowlithospheric growth, possibly caused by vigorous asthenospheric convection lasting >28 m.y., and induced by the steep continent–ocean boundary. Post-rift slow subside...

Primary production on the Western Indus continental shelf has been linked to the large quantities of nutrients delivered to the shelf by the Indus River. Multiple geochemical tracers and biomarker records, including stable isotopes (δ13C and δ15N), total organic carbon (TOC), total nitrogen (TN), molar carbon/nitrogen (C/N) ratio, the branched and isoprenoid tetraether (BIT) index, and glycerol dialkyl glycerol tetraether (GDGT), have been analyzed from the Indus-23AP sediment core recovered from the northern Arabian Sea. Our records show evidence of a mixture of marine and terrestrially derived organic matter (OM) during the last 14,000 years, as indicated by the C/N ratio, δ13C, δ15N, and the BIT index. The three sterol biomarkers (brassicasterol, dinosterol, and cholesterol) show concurrent enrichments during the last 3 millennia reflecting increased phytoplankton abundance because of increased Indus river discharge of nutrients during the summer monsoon. GDGT crenarchaeol enrich...

Suspended Solids Concentration (SSC) in water is related to its quality and transparency. Satellite remote sensing has proven to be an efficient means of monitoring water quality in large deltas because in situ sampling methods are costly, laborious, time consuming, and spatially constrained. In this study, the potential of Landsat's Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus (ETM+) sensor was explored to develop a model for remote sensing-based quantification of SSC within the large, turbid Indus Delta Region (IDR, south of Pakistan). Six scenes were atmospherically corrected using the Dark Object Subtraction (DOS) method, to formulate a model for monitoring water quality of the IDR. An empirical model was developed and validated using in situ SSC measurements (9.4-761.4 mg/L) from several data collection campaigns coinciding (within an 11-day window) with satellite overpasses. It was found that using Band 1 (blue: 450-520 nm), Band 2 (green: 520-600 nm), Band 3 (red: 630-690 nm), and Band ...

ABSTRACT The International Workshop on Integrated Coastal Area Management Planning for Pakistan – 2011 was held in Karachi from 13 to 15 May and was organized by the National Institute of Oceanography, Ministry of Science and Technology, Government of Pakistan with the financial support of the Pakistan National Commission for UNESCO. The workshop was a follow-up of the International Workshop on Integrated Coastal Zone Management that was organized from 10-14 October 1994 in Karachi, by the National Institute of Oceanography, Ministry of Science and Technology Government of Pakistan with the co-operation and financial support of the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC) of UNESCO. The Workshop Report was published by the IOC in 1994 as Workshop Report 114. Focus of the ICAM-2011 workshop i. To evaluate the impact of socio-economic development in coastal areas of Pakistan with special reference to the natural and anthropogenic stresses on the coast. ii. To re-visit the guidelines proposed during the integrated coastal zone management planning process of 1994 and to evaluate the recommendations in the background of present and foreseeable future so as to ensure sustainable development of marine resources and plan adequate protection of the marine environment for future generations. iii. To recommend measures necessary to enhance national capacity for integrated management of the coastal zone which can be considered an important national resource in itself. In the ICAM 2011, the international experts were invited from countries having coastal area management issues/threats similar to the stresses being experienced or expected to be experienced in the coastal zone of Pakistan. Thus the experts from China, Sri Lanka, Vietnam, Bangladesh, Lebanon, Iran and Algeria were invited. The Iranian expert could not participate due to some unavoidable circumstances. Dr. Bilal Ul Haq of US NSF, who happened to be one of the key experts of the ICZM 1994, was the Convener of the ICAM 2011. Dr. Haq is well reputed for his invaluable contribution to the issues of coastal area management. The Day 1 of the Workshop was reserved for the presentations regarding the Sindh and Balochistan coasts as well as for the Case studies from China, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Vietnam etc. The Day 2 was planned to have two parallel sessions of Sindh and Balochistan groups on the core issues of the two coasts for general discussions and also for the formulation of recommendations. On Day 3 a field trip to the coastal area adjacent to the Karachi was organized for the foreign and local experts. The response from the national experts from Sindh and Balochistan was overwhelming and the enthusiasm to share the issues related to the Pakistan coastline resulted in extended sessions. To compensate for the extra time number of the local experts were requested to share their views during the Group Discussions instead of oral presentations. Presentation of scientific papers by national and international experts as well as the discussions which followed during the two Working Groups provided the basis for objective analysis of the existing and projected socioeconomic activities along the entire Sindh and Balochistan coasts; natural and anthropogenic stresses and their impacts on the coastal environment and its resources. The Workshop recognized that the coastal zone is a complex environment, characterized by dynamic relationships amongst the natural environment and its ecosystems, and the societal demands for space and natural resources, and thus subject to both natural and human influences. The stake holders, academicians, researchers, decision makers, members of the NGO’s and local community within the Working groups on Sindh and Balochistan coasts discussed the questionnaire drafted by national and international experts to focus the ICAM-2011 objectives with reference to the coasts of Sindh and Balocistan. After detailed debate on the key issues with their respective coasts, the group leaders presented the views of their group to the participants. This was followed by the Panel Discussion. The participants formulated the following recommendations as the next step towards ICAM development and implementation for Pakistan: 1. An Inter-Ministerial Coordinating Committee set up with the following objectives: develop national-level policies, strategies, guidelines and regulations for ICZM; technical sub-committees could be set up as required to oversee large scale planning and to develop/propose mechanisms to ensure that decisions and issues are exchanged efficiently with the provincial and local levels ensuring the participation of the private sector and community representatives. 2. Carry out a comprehensive program of education and awareness at many levels – schools, communities, public officials, policy and decision makers etc. 3. Identify, collate and collect data and reports relevant to ICZM. The most important is creating a GIS data base with…

The Indian Plate has been the focus of intensive research concerning the flood basalts of the Deccan Traps. Here we document a volcanostratigraphic analysis of the offshore segment of the western Indian volcanic large igneous province, between the shoreline and the first magnetic anomaly (An 28 ∼63 Ma). We have mapped the different crustal domains of the NW Indian Ocean from stretched continental crust through to oceanic crust, using seismic reflection and potential field data. Two volcanic structures, the Somnath Ridge and the Saurashtra High, are identified, extending ∼305 km NE–SW in length and 155 km NW–SE in width. These show the internal structures of buried shield volcanoes and hyaloclastic mounds, surrounded by mass‐wasting deposits and volcanic sediments. The structures observed resemble seismic images from the North Atlantic and northwest Australia, as well as volcanic geometries described for Réunion and Hawaii. The geometry and internal seismic facies within the volcanic...

The Indus River has a total length of more than 3,000 km and a drainage area of some 950,000 km 2. Almost 90% of the water in the upper portion of the river basin comes from glaciers located in the Himalaya and Karakoram mountain ranges, which border China, Pakistan and India, and the Hindu Kush, which borders Pakistan and Afghanistan. The Indus Delta is a typical fan-shaped delta, built up by the discharge of large quantities of silt washed down from upland and mountain areas. The present Delta covers an area of about ...

The Indus River, about 3000 km long, is one of the largest and most important river systems of the world, and predominantly flows through Pakistan towards the western margin of the India-Pakistan subcontinent (Figure 1). It is not only one of the oldest rivers existing today, but has also cradled one of the oldest and historically important civilizations on the earth, and is a life-line for the human consumption and agriculture of Pakistan. The Indus River is draining one of the highest and most tectonically dynamic regions of the world i.e., western Tibet and Himalaya and Karakoram and is fed by the rains of the SW Asian monsoon. The flux from this river has produced a vast sediment body ’the Indus Fan’ in the Arabian Sea (totalling ~5 x 106 km3) (Naini & Kolla 1982), second only to the Bengal Fan in size. The Indus river basin stretches from the Himalayan Mountains in the north to the dry alluvial plains of Sindh in the south. The area of Indus basin is 944, 574 sq. km (Asianics A...

Pakistan has over 10% of its population living in the vicinity of the coastal zone, over 20 % of coastal area of Pakistan is relatively developed, 40% of industry is situated on or near the coast. Protecting these human assets will be costly, particularly if the effects of climate change are sudden rather than gradual. A rise sea level of a few mm per year, although not threatening but direct and indirect impact of this rise would have a profound impact on the coastal resources for sustainable coastal zone management. Direct land loss of low-lying areas can rapidly damage or destroy coastal ecosystems. In addition to sea level change a rise in global warming will also increase the frequency of tropical cyclones and will further add to the miseries of the coastal states. Pakistan's coastline with the Arabian Sea stretches to over 990 km. It comprises two distinct units in physiographic outline and geological characteristics. The coastal and offshore geology of Pakistan tectonical...

The Makran slope-apron system is a stepped convergent margin across an active subduction complex. Shallow penetration piston cores have been recovered from the upper slope region (1325m), three mid-slope basins (1768m-2482m) and the abyssal plain (3274m). In these regions turbidites and hemipelagites are seen to be closely interbedded, with generally more turbidites in the ponded basin areas and more hemipelagites on the open slope region. These facies characteristics and their distribution has been further studied using 3.5 kHz profiles,which show transparent drape sheet echofacies (Type A; hemipelagites)most common over the open slope and interbasinal highs; and strong parallel mutiple echofacies (Type D; turbidites) within the basins and on the abyssal plain. The basin margins and the steep flanks of interbasinal highs are characterised by irregular-chaotic echofacies(Type C; slumps and debrites). The lateral distribution of both Type A and D echofacies (hemipelagites and turbidi...

During the past ten years the Makran offshore area has attracted considerable attention of national and international scientists, exploration, and petroleum companies to have a better understanding of the peculiar geological and oceanographic setting and to considerably broaden the geological knowledge about Pakistan's EEZ off the Makran margin and its resource potential. The morphological structure of the Makran, which is strongly influenced by deformation during the subduction processes, is very complex. On the continent and on the upper part of the slope, there are five to seven E-W striking, folded, and elevated accretionary ridges which have been thrust northward, these ridges are separated by ponded slope basins filled with turbidites and hemipelagic sediments, which are horizontal or dip downslope. The large part of the accretionary wedge is well exposed on the continent. A morphologically characteristic deep-sea trench associated with active convergent margins does not e...

The research presented here is a study of fine-grained sediments of the Indus River, Indus Shelf/slope, Indus Canyon, and the pelagic/hemipelagic and the turbidite units of the Indus Fan. The material presented herein propose the source, dispersal patterns and mode of transportation of fine-grained sediments in the fluvial, littoral and deep-sea environments. At present, the supply of sediment from the Arabian Sea to the estuary of the Indus River is apparently more pronounced than the sediment supplied by the river to the sea. This is a consequence of the reduction of sediment load resulting from the construction of dams and barrages on the Indus River. Two dispersal patterns are proposed for the dispersion of Indus River derived fine-grained sediments on the Indus Shelf. The first dispersal pattern originates from the Indus River mouth and flows roughly parallel to the coast. The wind-induced currents move the sediments to the southeast or northwest depending upon the prevailing m...

The Indus River, that has created one of the world's largest delta and submarine fan system, is currently contributing a fraction of fresh water or sediment in to the Arabian Sea. Consequently, the seawater intrusion has resulted in tidal intrusion in the prime agricultural land in the Indus Deltaic region. Extensive use of fresh water for irrigation in recent years has caused a decline in the down stream discharge of the Indus River. Construction of barrages, dams, and link canals has further reduced the freshwater flow downstream Kotri Barrage from 146 MAF/year to less than 10 MAF/year. While in the Northeast monsoon period, Indus River downstream Kotri Barrage has practically zero discharge. As a consequence, the river below Kotri shows increased braiding and sand bar development. Sediment passing down the system tends to be deposited in the section south of Kotri, rather than maintaining the growth of the delta. As a result the Indus Delta that used to occupy an area of abou...

The paper describes the survival and existence problem of coastal forest like mangroves. The mangroves inhabit estuarine habitats in warm climate in general. In Pakistan, they occur mainly in the vicinity of Indus delta. The coastline of Pakistan is 990 km long; 260 km belonging to the province of Sindh and 720 km to the Balochistan. The entire coastline of Sindh is studded with dense forests of mangroves, whereas the coastal belt of Balochistan is barren except for a few spots. Presently the mangrove forest of Pakistan faced the most serious problem for their survival due to scarcity of freshwaters. A few decades ago there was no such problem as Indus used to discharge almost to its full capacity into the sea. But with the increase in population in due course of time, the demand for agriculture products increased several times. In order to meet the requirement for supply of water for irrigation, a number of dams and barrages were constructed. Now Pakistan possesses one of the large...

Offshore geology of Pakistan is indicative that the country has a broad continental margin and therefore, may very likely extend its legal continental shelf beyond the 200 nautical mile limit in the Indus offshore region, if the UNCLOS Article 76 criteria in this regard are satisfied. If the entitlement is proved scientifically, it is expected that a substantial seabed area may possibly be added to the national maritime jurisdiction, in addition to the already existing EEZ area of about 240,000 sq. km. The potential area for continental extension is considered extremely important from the point of view of natural resources and other seabed related activities. The new developments and innovations in the offshore technology and ever-growing interests of the petroleum industry in the exploration and exploitation of the deeper ocean waters are making the areas like Indus deep offshore of great economical importance. The basement underlying the sedimentary cover in the upper/middle Indus...

On a global scale, humans have become the major cause of a rapidly changing marine environment. This will have far-reaching implications for the future of this environment. Karachi, the largest city of Pakistan, is situated along the coastline in close proximity of Indus Delta. Coastal zone of Karachi consists of sandy beaches, creeks, muddy backwaters and mangrove swamps. Being an industrial and commercial hub, Karachi is expanding rapidly. The largest industrial estate of Karachi is situated close to the coastline. During 1970's Port Bin Qasim was started to facilitate the industrial sector. The deepening and widening of a 45Km long navigational channel in the Phitti Creek has apparently initiated severe coastal erosion problem in the area and so far resulted in the massive destruction of barrier islands which used to act as the nature's first line of defense against coastal erosion. Although the coastal changes on island and offshore areas were noted since charting time i...

The Makran accretionary wedge is located in the southern part of western Pakistan and off the south coast of this area. It has formed by the subduction of oceanic crust under the Eurasian Plate which lasts since 70 - 80 mill. years. Two features make this accretionary wedge especially interesting: Firstly, the sediment thickness on the oceanic crust is extremely high, secondly the angle of subduction is extremely small. On this cruise with R/V SONNE réflection seismic, gravimetric, magnetic, sediment echographic and bathymetric me{rsurementsw ere planned to investigate the structure of the submarine part of the accretionary wedge and to dcfine targets for sampling fluid discharge areas in early 1998. The cruise was financially supported by the Federal Ministry of Education, Science, Research and Technology. The cruise was severely affected by the problem that - at least at the end of the SW monsoon - fishery with several km long gill nets was very intense off the Makran coast. Alrea...

United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP) through its OCA/PAC regional seas programme (1989) has grouped Pakistan in the countries, which are most vulnerable to the impacts of a rising sea level. Recently, the Planning Division's Task Force on Climate Change (TFCC) projected that climate change will increase the variability of monsoon rains and enhance the frequency and severity of extreme events such as floods and droughts (TFCC, 2010). This has already been witnessed recently by one of the world's devastating floods faced by all the provinces of Pakistan. The coastal as well as deltaic areas of Sindh, especially Thatta and Badin are vulnerable to the impacts of the climate change for various reasons that include intensified monsoon, flash floods, increased frequency/intensity of tropical cyclones and Sea Level Rise. Though the tsunami has no direct association with the climate change however, the geological setup of the coastal and offshore areas of Pakistan do not rul...

Marine resources have an immense potential in contributing towards national economic growth and progress. The coastal zone is one of the most important national assets of a country where socio-economic activities are highly concentrated. They are fragile and therefore any attempt to deplete them for alternative uses may result in irreparable loss of natural systems with serious consequences to the productive potential and economic uses of associated natural systems. Because coastal systems are sensitive to changes in the environment, there are uncertainties and risk involved; once a coastal ecosystem is damaged, it will have far reaching impact on many uses of coastal amenities. Coastal zones are capable of producing rich fisheries, mineral, oil and gas resources. The importance of developing marine resources in the coastal zone of Pakistan has not been fully perceived. The coastal zones of Pakistan are bestowed with large natural resources and demands serious efforts to explore. Ex...

Pakistan has a coastline about 990km long. The arid coastline of Makran/Balochistan coast stretches from the Iranian border at the mouth of River Dasht eastward 670 km towards the Hub River, while the Sindh coast is about 320km long. The Makran coast is along the tectonically active zone where the Arabian Plate is being subducted under the Eurasian Plate. The Sindh coast is tectonically passive and has one of the major river and delta systems in the world. The Southwest monsoon in this area is known to have one of the highest wave energy. The continuous pounding by these high energy waves, on one hand has created spectacular coastal land forms and on the other hand influenced the massive longshore sand deposition along the Makran Coast. Any man made structural development along the Makran coast has resulted in a swift response both in terms of accretion and erosion. This presentation is based on the case study about a fishing harbor constructed in 1989. After serving the fishermen o...

To date more than 60 submissions have so far been made by different coastal States. In addition to that there are number of States that are actively pursuing for submission of their cases for the extension of the Continental Shelf. The process for the preparation of the case for the submission to the Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf has different challenges for different States. Some of the most developed States have the technology and resources to tackle with challenges faced in the areas like Arctic to fulfil the data requirement as per the Technical & Scientific Guideline (CLCS/11). However as far as the under developed or developing coastal States are concerned the presence of required technology, technical/scientific manpower and Technical/financial resources to undertake the task to fulfil the requirement to prove the natural prolongation and for the preparation of the case for extending the continental shelf are a big challenge. The normal expected time from ...

The International Workshop on Integrated Coastal Area Management Planning for Pakistan – 2011 was held in Karachi from 13 to 15 May and was organized by the National Institute of Oceanography, Ministry of Science and Technology, Government of Pakistan with the financial support of the Pakistan National Commission for UNESCO. The workshop was a follow-up of the International Workshop on Integrated Coastal Zone Management that was organized from 10-14 October 1994 in Karachi, by the National Institute of Oceanography, Ministry of Science and Technology Government of Pakistan with the co-operation and financial support of the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC) of UNESCO. The Workshop Report was published by the IOC in 1994 as Workshop Report 114. Focus of the ICAM-2011 workshop i. To evaluate the impact of socio-economic development in coastal areas of Pakistan with special reference to the natural and anthropogenic stresses on the coast. ii. To re-visit the guidelines pr...

The Indus River and Delta system was formed shortly after the collision between the Indian and Eurasian Plates prior to 45 million years ago. During, the Holocene, vast deltaic complex in southern Sindh experienced abandonment of several creeks due to frequent natural channel avulsions. Abandoned Indus delta channels have been reworked by tides all along the coast into dendritic tidal creeks. The tidal creek network appears to be most extensive and mature east of the present mouth of the Indus. The lobate delta of the Indus formed under arid climatic conditions under highly variable river discharge, a moderate tidal range, extremely high wave energy, and a strong monsoonal wind system. A stronger wave influence along this part of the coast compared to conditions further east is suggested by the frequent occurrence of drumstick-shaped barrier islands, characteristic of island systems significantly influenced by both waves and tides. Because of the high sea-level stand, the impact of ...

The rapidly increasing gap in the production and consumption of oil, gas and electricity in Pakistan is being felt severely at all levels of public and private sectors and even by a common man. Demand for natural gas is growing and is expected to increase substantially in the next couple of decades. Pakistan is fortunate to have some very productive gas fields on land but heavy dependence on these resources is resulting in over production and over consumption therefore, concerns about energy security are influencing energy decisions for the future. Thar coal deposits in Sindh province is one of the World’s largest coal reserves with a resource potential of about 175 billion tonnes (PPIB, 2004). However, only one per cent coal is being used for power generation in Pakistan. Compared to this, 68 per cent electricity is being generated by coal in India, 94 per cent in South Africa, 93 per cent in Poland, 76 per cent in Australia and 81 per cent in China (IEA, 2009). The unstable oil pr...

The Indus was formed shortly after the collision between the Indian and then Eurasian Plates prior to 45 million years ago. During, the Holocene, the Indus has formed a vast deltaic complex in southern Sindh, most of which has been abandoned due to frequent natural channel avulsions. The Indus Delta was formed under arid climatic conditions with highly variable river discharge, a moderate tidal range, extremely high wave energy, and a strong monsoonal wind system. Abandoned Indus delta channels have been reworked by tides all along the coast into dendritic tidal creeks. The tidal creek network appears to be most extensive and mature east of the present mouth of the Indus. The deltaic coast from Karachi to the river mouths exhibits a dense less mature tidal channel network. A stronger wave influence along this part of the coast compared to conditions further east is suggested by the frequent occurrence of drumstick-shaped barrier islands, characteristic of island systems significantl...

Gas hydrate deposits have become the focus of much attention in recent years because of the potential availability of vast natural resources that could possibly be tapped as one of the future energy source. There are several published estimates of the total amount of methane stored in gas hydrates worldwide. Gas hydrate deposits may account for approximately twice that of all other hydrocarbon resources combined and 100 times that of conventional gas resources. A joint collaborative research programme PAKOMIN between BGR Germany and National Institute of Oceanography, Pakistan envisaged investigating the influence of the oxygen minimum zone (OMZ) on the sedimentation at the continental margin off Pakistan. During these cruises the Pak-German scientists investigated the Makran accretionary wedge off Pakistan in detail to search for submarine gas seeps, vents of fluids, gas hydrates, and the detailed sampling of "cold seep" sites within the Makran accretionary complex. Detai...