Silver exchanged by weight for its intrinsic value was the most important measure of value and me... more Silver exchanged by weight for its intrinsic value was the most important measure of value and means of payment in the southern Levant, starting from the Middle Bronze Age II-III through the Iron Age (~1700/1650-600 BC). Since silver is not available locally in the Levant, its ongoing use as currency in the region triggered long-distance trade initiatives, and its availability or lack thereof had a direct impact on the economy. The continued use is evidenced in 40 silver hoards found in various sites across the region. A comprehensive study of lead isotopes and chemical analyses of samples obtained from 19 hoards enabled us to trace the origin of silver in the millennium during which it was extensively used as currency in the southern Levant and to identify constantly changing silver sources and concomitant trade routes. The results indicate that silver originated initially in Anatolia and Greece (~1700/1650-1600 BC) and shortly after from an unknown location in the Aegean/Carpathian/ Anatolian sphere (~1600-1200 BC). After the collapse of Late Bronze Age Mediterranean trade routes, during Iron Age I (~1200-950 BC), there was a period of shortage. Silver trade was revived by the Phoenicians, who brought silver to the Levant from Sardinia and Anatolia (~950-900 BC), and later from Iberia (~900-630 BC). Further change occurred after the Assyrian retreat from the Levant, when silver was shipped from the Aegean (~630-600 BC). Following the devastation caused by the expanding Babylonian empire, silver consumption in the Levant practically ended for a century. Considering the isotopic results, combined with a detailed study of the context, chronology, and chemical composition, we demonstrate that all these factors are essential for the reconstruction of developments in the supply of silver in the southern Levant, and more generally. The changes in trade routes closely follow political and social transformations for over a millennium; exchange in this case was not only, not even mainly preconditioned by the environmental/geographic circumstances, as has often been argued for the Mediterranean. From an analytical point of view, we offer a protocol for the provenance of silver in general.
Silver exchanged by weight for its intrinsic value was the most important measure of value and me... more Silver exchanged by weight for its intrinsic value was the most important measure of value and means of payment in the southern Levant, starting from the Middle Bronze Age II-III through the Iron Age (~1700/1650-600 BC). Since silver is not available locally in the Levant, its ongoing use as currency in the region triggered long-distance trade initiatives, and its availability or lack thereof had a direct impact on the economy. The continued use is evidenced in 40 silver hoards found in various sites across the region. A comprehensive study of lead isotopes and chemical analyses of samples obtained from 19 hoards enabled us to trace the origin of silver in the millennium during which it was extensively used as currency in the southern Levant and to identify constantly changing silver sources and concomitant trade routes. The results indicate that silver originated initially in Anatolia and Greece (~1700/1650-1600 BC) and shortly after from an unknown location in the Aegean/Carpathian/ Anatolian sphere (~1600-1200 BC). After the collapse of Late Bronze Age Mediterranean trade routes, during Iron Age I (~1200-950 BC), there was a period of shortage. Silver trade was revived by the Phoenicians, who brought silver to the Levant from Sardinia and Anatolia (~950-900 BC), and later from Iberia (~900-630 BC). Further change occurred after the Assyrian retreat from the Levant, when silver was shipped from the Aegean (~630-600 BC). Following the devastation caused by the expanding Babylonian empire, silver consumption in the Levant practically ended for a century. Considering the isotopic results, combined with a detailed study of the context, chronology, and chemical composition, we demonstrate that all these factors are essential for the reconstruction of developments in the supply of silver in the southern Levant, and more generally. The changes in trade routes closely follow political and social transformations for over a millennium; exchange in this case was not only, not even mainly preconditioned by the environmental/geographic circumstances, as has often been argued for the Mediterranean. From an analytical point of view, we offer a protocol for the provenance of silver in general.
Silver exchanged by weight for its intrinsic value was the most important measure of value and me... more Silver exchanged by weight for its intrinsic value was the most important measure of value and means of payment in the southern Levant, starting from the Middle Bronze Age II-III through the Iron Age (~1700/1650-600 BC). Since silver is not available locally in the Levant, its ongoing use as currency in the region triggered long-distance trade initiatives, and its availability or lack thereof had a direct impact on the economy. The continued use is evidenced in 40 silver hoards found in various sites across the region. A comprehensive study of lead isotopes and chemical analyses of samples obtained from 19 hoards enabled us to trace the origin of silver in the millennium during which it was extensively used as currency in the southern Levant and to identify constantly changing silver sources and concomitant trade routes. The results indicate that silver originated initially in Anatolia and Greece (~1700/1650-1600 BC) and shortly after from an unknown location in the Aegean/Carpathian/ Anatolian sphere (~1600-1200 BC). After the collapse of Late Bronze Age Mediterranean trade routes, during Iron Age I (~1200-950 BC), there was a period of shortage. Silver trade was revived by the Phoenicians, who brought silver to the Levant from Sardinia and Anatolia (~950-900 BC), and later from Iberia (~900-630 BC). Further change occurred after the Assyrian retreat from the Levant, when silver was shipped from the Aegean (~630-600 BC). Following the devastation caused by the expanding Babylonian empire, silver consumption in the Levant practically ended for a century. Considering the isotopic results, combined with a detailed study of the context, chronology, and chemical composition, we demonstrate that all these factors are essential for the reconstruction of developments in the supply of silver in the southern Levant, and more generally. The changes in trade routes closely follow political and social transformations for over a millennium; exchange in this case was not only, not even mainly preconditioned by the environmental/geographic circumstances, as has often been argued for the Mediterranean. From an analytical point of view, we offer a protocol for the provenance of silver in general.
Silver exchanged by weight for its intrinsic value was the most important measure of value and me... more Silver exchanged by weight for its intrinsic value was the most important measure of value and means of payment in the southern Levant, starting from the Middle Bronze Age II-III through the Iron Age (~1700/1650-600 BC). Since silver is not available locally in the Levant, its ongoing use as currency in the region triggered long-distance trade initiatives, and its availability or lack thereof had a direct impact on the economy. The continued use is evidenced in 40 silver hoards found in various sites across the region. A comprehensive study of lead isotopes and chemical analyses of samples obtained from 19 hoards enabled us to trace the origin of silver in the millennium during which it was extensively used as currency in the southern Levant and to identify constantly changing silver sources and concomitant trade routes. The results indicate that silver originated initially in Anatolia and Greece (~1700/1650-1600 BC) and shortly after from an unknown location in the Aegean/Carpathian/ Anatolian sphere (~1600-1200 BC). After the collapse of Late Bronze Age Mediterranean trade routes, during Iron Age I (~1200-950 BC), there was a period of shortage. Silver trade was revived by the Phoenicians, who brought silver to the Levant from Sardinia and Anatolia (~950-900 BC), and later from Iberia (~900-630 BC). Further change occurred after the Assyrian retreat from the Levant, when silver was shipped from the Aegean (~630-600 BC). Following the devastation caused by the expanding Babylonian empire, silver consumption in the Levant practically ended for a century. Considering the isotopic results, combined with a detailed study of the context, chronology, and chemical composition, we demonstrate that all these factors are essential for the reconstruction of developments in the supply of silver in the southern Levant, and more generally. The changes in trade routes closely follow political and social transformations for over a millennium; exchange in this case was not only, not even mainly preconditioned by the environmental/geographic circumstances, as has often been argued for the Mediterranean. From an analytical point of view, we offer a protocol for the provenance of silver in general.
The history of Tel Shiqmona, on Israel's Carmel coast, in the Iron Age has remained almos... more The history of Tel Shiqmona, on Israel's Carmel coast, in the Iron Age has remained almost totally obscure since its excavation some 50 years ago. Recent analysis has revealed the site's singularity-the only one around the Mediterranean that can be demonstrated to have produced the luxurious purple dye for half a millennium. This article is the first discussion of a central episode (three strata) in the site's history. We argue that during the Late Iron IIA, the Kingdom of Israel, probably under the Omrides, replaced a small Phoenician village with a fortified casemate enclosure in order to control and institutionalise the production of the dye and other industries. These peaked under Jeroboam II, and subsequently the fort was ravaged during the period of unrest in Israel after this monarch's reign. We discuss the historical and cultural picture emerging from a meticulous analysis of the stratigraphy and finds and address trade contacts and regional, historical and geopolitical contexts.
The majority of research to date on the translocation of livestock in the premodern (before 1500 ... more The majority of research to date on the translocation of livestock in the premodern (before 1500 CE) Mediterranean Basin has focused on expansive movements out from geographic origins of domestication or from colonizer-to-colonized territories. Fewer zooarchaeological studies have investigated the lateral trajectories of distinct varieties of domesticated animals around the post-Neolithic eastern Mediterranean, partially due to the difficulty in detecting intra-species variation osteologically. The research conducted in the present study sought to improve understanding of the human-mediated mobility of domestic sheep (Ovis aries) from Iron Age settlements in the southern Levant. Variability in body size and a greater variety of morphotypes were expected from coastal flocks in southern Phoenicia in comparison to inland herds, possibly due to the dynamic influence of maritime trade. Biometric data analysis of zooarchaeological materials using log size index and astragalar dimension index methods revealed evidence for the possible optimization of coastal sheep for wool production and a potential introduction event in the Persian period. The Aegean region could be a source for this introduction; however, further research is needed to specify the geographic origin of this phenomenon.
The 7th century in the southern Levant is characterized by Assyrian rule and subsequent Egyptian ... more The 7th century in the southern Levant is characterized by Assyrian rule and subsequent Egyptian domination. Despite the relatively violent nature of this century, and abundant historical documentation, occupations both in the southern Levant and Lebanon are dated with low resolution. This deficiency was mainly created by a lack of destruction layers within this century, resulting in a dearth of chronological anchors for ceramic developments. At Tel Shiqmona, a unique purple-production centre that had been frequently destroyed, an unparalleled sequence of five layers of late Iron Age destructions/abandonments has been preserved, spanning a little over 100 years. These enable the definition of detailed typological developments of Phoenician transport jars. Being a widely distributed commercial vessel, exhibiting frequent typological changes and originating from a limited number of workshops, these jars constitute the best chronological index yet for the late Iron Age Levant. This paper presents the Tel Shiqmona sequence, outlines the typological development of the jars and explains their chronological designations. The benefits of defining archaeological sub-divisions within the 7th century BCE are highlighted by two examples: the chronology of Tyre; and settlement/geopolitical dynamics in the Assyrian province of Megiddo. It is argued that this chronological tool can be applied broadly around the Mediterranean.
The study of silver, which was an important means of currency in the Levant during the Bronze and... more The study of silver, which was an important means of currency in the Levant during the Bronze and Iron Ages (~ 1950-600 BCE), provides a large and extendable dataset for silver provenance. In this paper, nine silver hoards from the Southern Levant dating to the Iron Age IIB-C (eighth, seventh, and early-sixth centuries BCE) are discussed in an effort to determine the source/s of the metal. The results show that Iberia, which was exploited by the Phoenicians and provided silver to the Levant already in the ninth century BCE, continued to dominate the Levantine market for more than a century and was the main silver source for Judah and Philistia throughout the Iron Age IIB (eighth century BCE). Later, during the Iron Age IIC, hoards in the Levant reflect a momentous change, as they contain, for the first time since the Late Bronze Age, mostly silver from Laurion (mainland Greece) and Siphnos in the Aegean. This shift, which is dated to the 2 nd half of the seventh century BCE, appears to be related to historic developments: After the Assyrian Empire retreated from Western Asia ca. ~ 640/630 BCE, it left behind a political and administrative void, which the Saitic Egyptians took advantage of, attempting to regain power in the Levant. As a result, the Phoenicians lost their privileged position as sole providers of silver to the Neo-Assyrian Empire, and the market opened to new agents-especially East Greek traders. This shift probably affected the Phoenicians' apparatus in the Western Mediterranean and may have been one of the factors that eventually contributed to their detachment from the homeland, in the sixth century BCE.
Israel Exploration Journal 47: 29–56Area by area and phase by phase presentation of the stratigra... more Israel Exploration Journal 47: 29–56Area by area and phase by phase presentation of the stratigrapy, and its dating, of Tel Dor as of the 1994-1995 seasons
Bulletin of the American Society of Overseas Research, 2022
I propose here a new way to look at the process through which, following the Bronze Age collapse ... more I propose here a new way to look at the process through which, following the Bronze Age collapse and culminating in the second half of the 9th century b.c.e., polities in south Lebanon became the most important Levantine commercial hubs in the Mediterranean and the main patrons of the so-called Phoenician expansion. My approach differs from others dealing with the Phoenician question in that its definitions are not projected from a yet-to-happen “Phoenician” phenomenon in the West. It is an archaeological bottom-up diachronic approach and considers the entire Levantine coast and not Lebanon only, which is traditionally considered the Phoenician homeland. I argue that what may be termed the earliest Phoenician mercantile maritime ventures, in the early Iron Age, were launched mainly from the Carmel Coast and were directed mainly toward Egypt. Gradually this phenomenon expanded geographically, a process that can be followed closely. It was stimulated and conditioned mainly by the effects of Egypt’s withdrawal from Canaan, by the Late Cypriot IIIA collapse, by the slow recovery of the Syrian coast in the early Iron Age, and by environmental factors. The paper synthesizes several decades of research on Mediterranean issues, mainly in connection to Tel Dor on Israel’s Carmel Coast.
We respond to Hani E. Elsayed-Ali's critique according to which silver-copper alloys prod... more We respond to Hani E. Elsayed-Ali's critique according to which silver-copper alloys produced in the Southern Levant during the Late Bronze Age III (~1200-1150 BCE) do not constitute forgery, as we proposed. We argue that the technical analyses of weight and reflectance suggested by Elsayed-Ali are not reliable stand-alone means for the identification of forgery in silver-copper-(arsenic) alloys, and that deliberateness, rather than identifiability should be used to tell apart debasement from forgery. We stand behind our original claim, that the addition of arsenic, and the use of silver coatings of copper cores are evidence of deliberate, standardized forgery.
A crucial step in any typological analysis is the determination of the prototypes according to wh... more A crucial step in any typological analysis is the determination of the prototypes according to which the assemblage is to be classified. Two conflicting requirements dictate this choice: the number of prototypes should be minimal to allow an efficient classification. At the same time, the set of prototypes should be comprehensive so that the essential variability of the original assemblage is reproduced by the prototypes. This problem is especially complex when the assemblage consists of ceramic vessels of the same genre such as e.g., storage jars, cooking pots or drinking cups. Here, we would like to present a computerized method to identify an optimal set of prototypes, which is based on the analysis of pottery profiles in terms of their curvature functions. The profiles are clustered according to their correlations (defined as the scalar products of the curvature functions). Averaging the curvature functions in each of the dominant branches yield a set of curvature functions, who...
Silver exchanged by weight for its intrinsic value was the most important measure of value and me... more Silver exchanged by weight for its intrinsic value was the most important measure of value and means of payment in the southern Levant, starting from the Middle Bronze Age II-III through the Iron Age (~1700/1650-600 BC). Since silver is not available locally in the Levant, its ongoing use as currency in the region triggered long-distance trade initiatives, and its availability or lack thereof had a direct impact on the economy. The continued use is evidenced in 40 silver hoards found in various sites across the region. A comprehensive study of lead isotopes and chemical analyses of samples obtained from 19 hoards enabled us to trace the origin of silver in the millennium during which it was extensively used as currency in the southern Levant and to identify constantly changing silver sources and concomitant trade routes. The results indicate that silver originated initially in Anatolia and Greece (~1700/1650-1600 BC) and shortly after from an unknown location in the Aegean/Carpathian/ Anatolian sphere (~1600-1200 BC). After the collapse of Late Bronze Age Mediterranean trade routes, during Iron Age I (~1200-950 BC), there was a period of shortage. Silver trade was revived by the Phoenicians, who brought silver to the Levant from Sardinia and Anatolia (~950-900 BC), and later from Iberia (~900-630 BC). Further change occurred after the Assyrian retreat from the Levant, when silver was shipped from the Aegean (~630-600 BC). Following the devastation caused by the expanding Babylonian empire, silver consumption in the Levant practically ended for a century. Considering the isotopic results, combined with a detailed study of the context, chronology, and chemical composition, we demonstrate that all these factors are essential for the reconstruction of developments in the supply of silver in the southern Levant, and more generally. The changes in trade routes closely follow political and social transformations for over a millennium; exchange in this case was not only, not even mainly preconditioned by the environmental/geographic circumstances, as has often been argued for the Mediterranean. From an analytical point of view, we offer a protocol for the provenance of silver in general.
Silver exchanged by weight for its intrinsic value was the most important measure of value and me... more Silver exchanged by weight for its intrinsic value was the most important measure of value and means of payment in the southern Levant, starting from the Middle Bronze Age II-III through the Iron Age (~1700/1650-600 BC). Since silver is not available locally in the Levant, its ongoing use as currency in the region triggered long-distance trade initiatives, and its availability or lack thereof had a direct impact on the economy. The continued use is evidenced in 40 silver hoards found in various sites across the region. A comprehensive study of lead isotopes and chemical analyses of samples obtained from 19 hoards enabled us to trace the origin of silver in the millennium during which it was extensively used as currency in the southern Levant and to identify constantly changing silver sources and concomitant trade routes. The results indicate that silver originated initially in Anatolia and Greece (~1700/1650-1600 BC) and shortly after from an unknown location in the Aegean/Carpathian/ Anatolian sphere (~1600-1200 BC). After the collapse of Late Bronze Age Mediterranean trade routes, during Iron Age I (~1200-950 BC), there was a period of shortage. Silver trade was revived by the Phoenicians, who brought silver to the Levant from Sardinia and Anatolia (~950-900 BC), and later from Iberia (~900-630 BC). Further change occurred after the Assyrian retreat from the Levant, when silver was shipped from the Aegean (~630-600 BC). Following the devastation caused by the expanding Babylonian empire, silver consumption in the Levant practically ended for a century. Considering the isotopic results, combined with a detailed study of the context, chronology, and chemical composition, we demonstrate that all these factors are essential for the reconstruction of developments in the supply of silver in the southern Levant, and more generally. The changes in trade routes closely follow political and social transformations for over a millennium; exchange in this case was not only, not even mainly preconditioned by the environmental/geographic circumstances, as has often been argued for the Mediterranean. From an analytical point of view, we offer a protocol for the provenance of silver in general.
Silver exchanged by weight for its intrinsic value was the most important measure of value and me... more Silver exchanged by weight for its intrinsic value was the most important measure of value and means of payment in the southern Levant, starting from the Middle Bronze Age II-III through the Iron Age (~1700/1650-600 BC). Since silver is not available locally in the Levant, its ongoing use as currency in the region triggered long-distance trade initiatives, and its availability or lack thereof had a direct impact on the economy. The continued use is evidenced in 40 silver hoards found in various sites across the region. A comprehensive study of lead isotopes and chemical analyses of samples obtained from 19 hoards enabled us to trace the origin of silver in the millennium during which it was extensively used as currency in the southern Levant and to identify constantly changing silver sources and concomitant trade routes. The results indicate that silver originated initially in Anatolia and Greece (~1700/1650-1600 BC) and shortly after from an unknown location in the Aegean/Carpathian/ Anatolian sphere (~1600-1200 BC). After the collapse of Late Bronze Age Mediterranean trade routes, during Iron Age I (~1200-950 BC), there was a period of shortage. Silver trade was revived by the Phoenicians, who brought silver to the Levant from Sardinia and Anatolia (~950-900 BC), and later from Iberia (~900-630 BC). Further change occurred after the Assyrian retreat from the Levant, when silver was shipped from the Aegean (~630-600 BC). Following the devastation caused by the expanding Babylonian empire, silver consumption in the Levant practically ended for a century. Considering the isotopic results, combined with a detailed study of the context, chronology, and chemical composition, we demonstrate that all these factors are essential for the reconstruction of developments in the supply of silver in the southern Levant, and more generally. The changes in trade routes closely follow political and social transformations for over a millennium; exchange in this case was not only, not even mainly preconditioned by the environmental/geographic circumstances, as has often been argued for the Mediterranean. From an analytical point of view, we offer a protocol for the provenance of silver in general.
Silver exchanged by weight for its intrinsic value was the most important measure of value and me... more Silver exchanged by weight for its intrinsic value was the most important measure of value and means of payment in the southern Levant, starting from the Middle Bronze Age II-III through the Iron Age (~1700/1650-600 BC). Since silver is not available locally in the Levant, its ongoing use as currency in the region triggered long-distance trade initiatives, and its availability or lack thereof had a direct impact on the economy. The continued use is evidenced in 40 silver hoards found in various sites across the region. A comprehensive study of lead isotopes and chemical analyses of samples obtained from 19 hoards enabled us to trace the origin of silver in the millennium during which it was extensively used as currency in the southern Levant and to identify constantly changing silver sources and concomitant trade routes. The results indicate that silver originated initially in Anatolia and Greece (~1700/1650-1600 BC) and shortly after from an unknown location in the Aegean/Carpathian/ Anatolian sphere (~1600-1200 BC). After the collapse of Late Bronze Age Mediterranean trade routes, during Iron Age I (~1200-950 BC), there was a period of shortage. Silver trade was revived by the Phoenicians, who brought silver to the Levant from Sardinia and Anatolia (~950-900 BC), and later from Iberia (~900-630 BC). Further change occurred after the Assyrian retreat from the Levant, when silver was shipped from the Aegean (~630-600 BC). Following the devastation caused by the expanding Babylonian empire, silver consumption in the Levant practically ended for a century. Considering the isotopic results, combined with a detailed study of the context, chronology, and chemical composition, we demonstrate that all these factors are essential for the reconstruction of developments in the supply of silver in the southern Levant, and more generally. The changes in trade routes closely follow political and social transformations for over a millennium; exchange in this case was not only, not even mainly preconditioned by the environmental/geographic circumstances, as has often been argued for the Mediterranean. From an analytical point of view, we offer a protocol for the provenance of silver in general.
The history of Tel Shiqmona, on Israel's Carmel coast, in the Iron Age has remained almos... more The history of Tel Shiqmona, on Israel's Carmel coast, in the Iron Age has remained almost totally obscure since its excavation some 50 years ago. Recent analysis has revealed the site's singularity-the only one around the Mediterranean that can be demonstrated to have produced the luxurious purple dye for half a millennium. This article is the first discussion of a central episode (three strata) in the site's history. We argue that during the Late Iron IIA, the Kingdom of Israel, probably under the Omrides, replaced a small Phoenician village with a fortified casemate enclosure in order to control and institutionalise the production of the dye and other industries. These peaked under Jeroboam II, and subsequently the fort was ravaged during the period of unrest in Israel after this monarch's reign. We discuss the historical and cultural picture emerging from a meticulous analysis of the stratigraphy and finds and address trade contacts and regional, historical and geopolitical contexts.
The majority of research to date on the translocation of livestock in the premodern (before 1500 ... more The majority of research to date on the translocation of livestock in the premodern (before 1500 CE) Mediterranean Basin has focused on expansive movements out from geographic origins of domestication or from colonizer-to-colonized territories. Fewer zooarchaeological studies have investigated the lateral trajectories of distinct varieties of domesticated animals around the post-Neolithic eastern Mediterranean, partially due to the difficulty in detecting intra-species variation osteologically. The research conducted in the present study sought to improve understanding of the human-mediated mobility of domestic sheep (Ovis aries) from Iron Age settlements in the southern Levant. Variability in body size and a greater variety of morphotypes were expected from coastal flocks in southern Phoenicia in comparison to inland herds, possibly due to the dynamic influence of maritime trade. Biometric data analysis of zooarchaeological materials using log size index and astragalar dimension index methods revealed evidence for the possible optimization of coastal sheep for wool production and a potential introduction event in the Persian period. The Aegean region could be a source for this introduction; however, further research is needed to specify the geographic origin of this phenomenon.
The 7th century in the southern Levant is characterized by Assyrian rule and subsequent Egyptian ... more The 7th century in the southern Levant is characterized by Assyrian rule and subsequent Egyptian domination. Despite the relatively violent nature of this century, and abundant historical documentation, occupations both in the southern Levant and Lebanon are dated with low resolution. This deficiency was mainly created by a lack of destruction layers within this century, resulting in a dearth of chronological anchors for ceramic developments. At Tel Shiqmona, a unique purple-production centre that had been frequently destroyed, an unparalleled sequence of five layers of late Iron Age destructions/abandonments has been preserved, spanning a little over 100 years. These enable the definition of detailed typological developments of Phoenician transport jars. Being a widely distributed commercial vessel, exhibiting frequent typological changes and originating from a limited number of workshops, these jars constitute the best chronological index yet for the late Iron Age Levant. This paper presents the Tel Shiqmona sequence, outlines the typological development of the jars and explains their chronological designations. The benefits of defining archaeological sub-divisions within the 7th century BCE are highlighted by two examples: the chronology of Tyre; and settlement/geopolitical dynamics in the Assyrian province of Megiddo. It is argued that this chronological tool can be applied broadly around the Mediterranean.
The study of silver, which was an important means of currency in the Levant during the Bronze and... more The study of silver, which was an important means of currency in the Levant during the Bronze and Iron Ages (~ 1950-600 BCE), provides a large and extendable dataset for silver provenance. In this paper, nine silver hoards from the Southern Levant dating to the Iron Age IIB-C (eighth, seventh, and early-sixth centuries BCE) are discussed in an effort to determine the source/s of the metal. The results show that Iberia, which was exploited by the Phoenicians and provided silver to the Levant already in the ninth century BCE, continued to dominate the Levantine market for more than a century and was the main silver source for Judah and Philistia throughout the Iron Age IIB (eighth century BCE). Later, during the Iron Age IIC, hoards in the Levant reflect a momentous change, as they contain, for the first time since the Late Bronze Age, mostly silver from Laurion (mainland Greece) and Siphnos in the Aegean. This shift, which is dated to the 2 nd half of the seventh century BCE, appears to be related to historic developments: After the Assyrian Empire retreated from Western Asia ca. ~ 640/630 BCE, it left behind a political and administrative void, which the Saitic Egyptians took advantage of, attempting to regain power in the Levant. As a result, the Phoenicians lost their privileged position as sole providers of silver to the Neo-Assyrian Empire, and the market opened to new agents-especially East Greek traders. This shift probably affected the Phoenicians' apparatus in the Western Mediterranean and may have been one of the factors that eventually contributed to their detachment from the homeland, in the sixth century BCE.
Israel Exploration Journal 47: 29–56Area by area and phase by phase presentation of the stratigra... more Israel Exploration Journal 47: 29–56Area by area and phase by phase presentation of the stratigrapy, and its dating, of Tel Dor as of the 1994-1995 seasons
Bulletin of the American Society of Overseas Research, 2022
I propose here a new way to look at the process through which, following the Bronze Age collapse ... more I propose here a new way to look at the process through which, following the Bronze Age collapse and culminating in the second half of the 9th century b.c.e., polities in south Lebanon became the most important Levantine commercial hubs in the Mediterranean and the main patrons of the so-called Phoenician expansion. My approach differs from others dealing with the Phoenician question in that its definitions are not projected from a yet-to-happen “Phoenician” phenomenon in the West. It is an archaeological bottom-up diachronic approach and considers the entire Levantine coast and not Lebanon only, which is traditionally considered the Phoenician homeland. I argue that what may be termed the earliest Phoenician mercantile maritime ventures, in the early Iron Age, were launched mainly from the Carmel Coast and were directed mainly toward Egypt. Gradually this phenomenon expanded geographically, a process that can be followed closely. It was stimulated and conditioned mainly by the effects of Egypt’s withdrawal from Canaan, by the Late Cypriot IIIA collapse, by the slow recovery of the Syrian coast in the early Iron Age, and by environmental factors. The paper synthesizes several decades of research on Mediterranean issues, mainly in connection to Tel Dor on Israel’s Carmel Coast.
We respond to Hani E. Elsayed-Ali's critique according to which silver-copper alloys prod... more We respond to Hani E. Elsayed-Ali's critique according to which silver-copper alloys produced in the Southern Levant during the Late Bronze Age III (~1200-1150 BCE) do not constitute forgery, as we proposed. We argue that the technical analyses of weight and reflectance suggested by Elsayed-Ali are not reliable stand-alone means for the identification of forgery in silver-copper-(arsenic) alloys, and that deliberateness, rather than identifiability should be used to tell apart debasement from forgery. We stand behind our original claim, that the addition of arsenic, and the use of silver coatings of copper cores are evidence of deliberate, standardized forgery.
A crucial step in any typological analysis is the determination of the prototypes according to wh... more A crucial step in any typological analysis is the determination of the prototypes according to which the assemblage is to be classified. Two conflicting requirements dictate this choice: the number of prototypes should be minimal to allow an efficient classification. At the same time, the set of prototypes should be comprehensive so that the essential variability of the original assemblage is reproduced by the prototypes. This problem is especially complex when the assemblage consists of ceramic vessels of the same genre such as e.g., storage jars, cooking pots or drinking cups. Here, we would like to present a computerized method to identify an optimal set of prototypes, which is based on the analysis of pottery profiles in terms of their curvature functions. The profiles are clustered according to their correlations (defined as the scalar products of the curvature functions). Averaging the curvature functions in each of the dominant branches yield a set of curvature functions, who...
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Papers by Ayelet Gilboa