Jonathan W Lo

Although Matthew’s Temptation Narrative contains valuable lessons for the Christian life in regard to avoiding temptation, I have argued that it is primarily a Christological text. Its purpose is to inform the reader about Jesus in relation to the broader themes in the gospel (e.g. Jesus and the Law, Jesus as the Teacher, Jesus in relation to Israel, etc.) I identified two specific functions of Matthew’s depiction of Jesus’ use of the Jewish Scriptures: 1) to establish a Jesus-Israel typology, and 2) to reinforce the portrayal of Jesus as the Teacher of Israel par excellence. First, the original contexts of the citations, as well as the larger context of Deut 6-8 enables the reader to clearly see the similarities between Jesus and Israel’s wilderness situation, as well as the contrasts in their responses to temptation. In addition to the other typologies that may exist in Matthew’s gospel (e.g. Jesus and Moses, Jesus and David, etc.), “Jesus and Israel” is also an appropriate and significant typology.  Through the concept of corporate solidarity, the parallels between Jesus’ temptations and Israel’s wilderness experience (Disobedience at the Wilderness of Sin, Testing God at Massah, the Golden Calf Incident), and relating the Temptation Narrative with Jesus’ baptism, I have argued that Matthew presents Jesus as the true “Son of God” that emerges victorious out from the wilderness approved and ready to do God’s work.  Jesus’ use of the Jewish Scriptures not only endorses the authority of the Law, but also embodies what the Law emphasizes: loyalty to God, especially in the face of uncertainty. 

Second, Jesus’ use of Scriptures emphasizes his worthiness to be the only one authorized Teacher of Israel. Not only does Jesus not quote Scripture knowledgeably and skillfully, his actions are consistent with his use of Scripture, unlike his Jewish opponents that comprise the scribal elite and do not practice what they teach. And unlike the Pharisees and Scribes, who practice their righteousness to be seen by others, Jesus reveals the authenticity of his righteousness through obedient acts of self-denial and trust in the wilderness. In the same way that Jesus is the Son of God, not only because God conferred to him a title but because he was also faithful to that calling, he is Israel’s one teacher because he is qualified for and deserving of such a task. Isaiah 48:1-2 laments that Israel has become “Israel-in-name” only but not “Israel-in-practice”: “Hear this, O house of Jacob, who are called by the name of Israel, and who came forth from the loins of Judah; who swear by the name of the LORD, and invoke the God of Israel, but not in truth or right. In fact, this theme is repeated in many other biblical texts.  In Matt 3:9, the Jews boast that they are Israelites who have Abraham as their ancestor, but John reminds warns them that being Israel-in-name is not enough. They must repent because “God is able to raise up children to Abraham” from the stones on the ground. The Temptation Narrative demonstrates that Jesus, which represents Israel, is truly the Son of God, “the Beloved one in whom God is well pleased” (3:17), not just in name but also in essence and praxis.

Although Paul uses a variety of ways to describe the ethical demands he places on his churches, “obedience” is one of the most meaningful ideas within Paul’s theological formulations with regard to ethics. In a stirring and skillfully-crafted letter to Philemon, Paul defends and pleads for the runaway slave Onesimus, urging his master to forgive him and to welcome him home as a brother in Christ. The way Paul handles this issue is not only a demonstration of his art of persuasion and skillful rhetoric; it is also a testament to the reality and essence of the gospel, and a window into Paul’s ethical thought. Paul tells Philemon that he has full confidence in his “obedience” (Phlmn 21), and that he will do even more than what Paul has said. While interpreters typically understand “obedience” in Phlmn 21 as referring to obedience to Paul’s command, this seems to undermine Paul’s efforts throughout the letter to downplay his authority. Furthermore, “obedience” has a rich theological meaning within Paul’s other letters, suggesting that he may have something greater in view when he uses the term in Philemon. In Paul’s theological and ethical discourse, “obedience” is a concept that is closely related to “faith” and “love,” and in Philemon these ideas intersect to construct a grand display of the gospel in action. This essay discusses the concept of “obedience” within Paul’s ethical discourse, using the Letter to Philemon as a case study. The study comprises three parts: 1) a survey of the language of “obedience” in Paul’s ethical discourse,  2) a study of the role of “obedience” in the Letter of Philemon, and 3) a discussion about the implications of this study for contemporary Christian ethics. “Obedience” for Paul connotes an ongoing ethical journey rather than a moral destination; a journey that begins with faith and moves towards love, with an ever-increasing realization of every good thing the believer can do for Christ.

In an age when peace is fragile and religious violence is rampant, those who turn to the Bible to find a way to peace may be shocked by what they find. It is an inescapable fact that the Bible is replete with violence and has been used to justify the use of violence.  Acts of atrocity and barbarity can be located within many of its pages without great difficulty: murder, rape, war, execution, even genocide. Ancient Israel, the “chosen people of God,” were both on the giving and the receiving ends of violence; they were beneficiaries of war as well as its victims. Within Israel’s prophetic literature, God himself is depicted as a vengeful warrior who will fight Israel’s battles; the eschatological judgement of God is described as a “great winepress of wrath,” from which the blood of the slain wicked will gush forth––a horrific and visceral image of violence.  How can the Bible, which contains so much violence, be a guide to peace? What are normative, biblical views on violence, non-violence, and peace? Is there a theology of war and peace to be found? The following essay is an attempt to explore these concepts in light of the relevant biblical data to see whether there is biblical support for advocating non-violence as an ethical principle to uphold in the face of contemporary challenges. [Originally published in Chinese]

In this paper I will examine Mark’s portrayal of Jesus as Messiah from the perspective of his use of composite references to Old Testament scripture. Composite references appear in strategic locations within Mark’s narrative and function as signposts to the divine significance of Mark’s story. The overarching motif of Mark’s composite references is that the Messiah is God’s kingly representative, appointed to accomplish God’s purposes on earth. With reference to Isa. 40/Mal. 3 in 1:2-3, Mark asserts that the Messiah’s appearance signifies God’s own return, “the embodiment of God’s presence.” Through the use of Ps. 2/Isa. 42 in 1:11, Mark claims that Jesus is chosen by God and has been anointed with the Holy Spirt to accomplish the work of God’s mighty deliverance. The reference to Is. 56/Jer. 7 in 11:17 shows that Mark believes an important task of the Messiah is to purify and rebuild the Temple, and it implies a scathing critique and a decisive condemnation of the existing religious leadership which mainly operated out of the Temple. The reference to Ps. 110/Dan. 7 in 14:62 depicts the Messiah as a highly exalted figure who will be enthroned alongside God, even sharing God’s authority and acting as his eschatological vizier who will have everlasting dominion over the whole world. These various messianic traditions are conflated and used to interpret Jesus’ life in innovative and unexpected ways that become the building blocks of a distinctively Markan Christology. [Originally published in Chinese]

After comparing the three Synoptic adaptations of Isa 6:9-10, I conclude that the data supports Markan Priority but undermines the Two Document Hypothesis insofar as Matthew and Luke were independently composed. As far as whether Matthew or Luke had the “final say” on this passage, the evidence can be used to support both the Farrer Hypothesis or the Matthew Conflator Hypothesis. The direction of influence can go either way. Either Luke was a redactor who condensed Mark’s text while inserting Matthean influences, or Matthew was a conflator who enriched Mark’s text with help from Luke. Given Matthew’s stylized structure and arrangement of the “Double Tradition” traditionally regarded as Q outside this passage, I would lean towards Matthew as the final author because it makes more sense for Matthew to amplify the existing tradition with an identification of the Isaiah context, rather than for Luke to intentionally remove Matthew’s contributions while retaining Mark’s jumbled quotation. Furthermore, in light of Luke’s tendency elsewhere to separate, rather than conflate, his sources, it is more likely for Matthew to be the conflator. Finally, the “Q” material in Matthew’s text is also more fitting to the context than its location in Luke, perhaps pointing to the fact that Matthew was the final redactor and not Luke. However, within the limited scope of this particular passage, both options are possible.

The New Testament describes the Christian identity and vocation in many different ways, but in the Acts of the Apostles the dominant focus is the theme of “witness.” In the following essay, the Lukan theme of witness in Acts is explored with the purpose of understanding more fully the early Christians’ identity in light of its vocation to be a witness. The discussion begins with a brief introduction to the vocabulary of witness in the first century Greco-Roman and Jewish historical contexts, as well as its usage in Acts. This is followed by an analysis of the theme of witness in the narrative of Acts through the interpretive lens of Acts 1:8, which many consider to be a programmatic text that that provides the key to understanding the primary structures and themes of the book. The essay concludes with some implications for understanding the relationship between the contemporary Christian identity and vocation to be a witness for Jesus in the tradition of Acts.

The early Christians are to be eye-witnesses to the resurrection of Jesus and to proclaim the good news that his resurrection entails. The historical fact of Jesus’ resurrection means that there is hope for all people, because there is forgiveness of sins through repentance and faith in his name. The powerful and guiding presence of the Holy Spirit means that the eschatological restoration of God’s kingdom has begun, and this will be a kingdom that includes everyone: Jew and Gentile, woman and man, rich and poor, slave and free. This is the good news, the “word of God”, that the early Christians both embodied and tirelessly proclaimed. Within the theological framework of Acts, it is difficult to accept any understanding of discipleship that does not have a missional outlook at its core, because mission is at the heart of the Christian identity. For Luke, there is no dichotomy between “being” and “doing”, for the simple fact that Christians are called to “be” a witness” and to “do” the work of a witness.

This paper was written for a conference and publication by the Centre for Life and Ethics Studies (Hong Kong). It addresses the social issue of unaffordable housing in Hong Kong from the perspective of biblical theology. The goal of this essay was not to find in the bible a strategy to solve the current housing crisis—there can be no clear answer in this regard. Rather, the goal was to provide the biblical foundation for social change and action. The three biblical theologies—creation, covenant, and eschatology—enable us to better understand our task as Christian citizens who live in a democratic society. The current housing crisis in Hong Kong requires a Christian response, but this response must be undergirded with the realization that 1) our identity, and our neighbors’ identities, as created beings intended to live together within a physical space both now and in the future, 2) our responsibility as people who have been given land as a gift to be good and faithful stewards and caretakers, and 3) our mission is to live in accordance with the vision of the new creation God will ultimately bring about. It is clear that from a biblical perspective, Christians should strive towards creating a society in which basic human needs, such as the need for a physical home, is available to as many people as possible regardless of their socio-economic standing.

http://www.truth-light.org.hk/event/title/n5253

This essay discusses the basis for Paul’s pastoral concern through the study of the language, rhetoric, and themes Paul uses to refer to the church and his own responsibility in relation to it. The aim of this paper is to analyze this body of evidence within the Pauline letters in order to better understand Paul’s pastoral expectations for his congregations, the nature of Paul’s pastoral responsibility, and the contours of his pastoral concern. Paul’s use of the language of progress, maturity, and growth with respect to the church reveals that he understands that salvation is not a punctiliar event but continuous. Paul’s pastoral role is that of a parent who longs for a child’s development and maturation; his task is to assist the church on their journey of faith. Paul’s frequent use of the rhetoric of “being worthy” reveals that he considers the congregation’s conduct to be of vital importance. The reason for this is the reality of the gospel of Jesus––those who accept this gift must also live in a manner worthy of it. The language of “calling” reveals that the power of the gospel enables Gentiles to become part of Israel, whom God called and elected to be his own people; God’s people are to be holy as he is holy, and consecrated to his service. Paul also uses a sacrificial metaphor to describe the church, revealing his desire to present the church as a perfect and pleasing offering to God. By observing Paul’s thanksgiving for his churches, one can observe what Paul values most, and what he wishes to promote in his communities. The phrase “faith and love” appears most often in Paul’s thanksgiving, revealing Paul’s concern for the church to continue and progress in a faith that is enacted in love. Finally, Paul’s rhetoric of seeing the church as the grounds for his boasting in Christ reveals his joy in seeing the progress of his churches, who receive the word of God with joy, who endure under persecution, and who live as God’s children in the world like stars shining in the night sky. The language Paul employs is highly illuminating for understanding his view of the church’s identity and mission, as well as his own pastoral role with respect to the church. Paul has a vision of what the church should be, and an understanding of his role in fulfilling that vision. Inevitably, attempts to engage with Paul’s pastoral concern and responsibility will lead to a better understanding of his thought and writings, and yield practical insights for the modern pastor that will contribute to a more Biblical vision of pastoral care.

In the introduction of Xiào Jìng (Classic of Filial Piety), Confucius refers to xiào as “a perfect virtue and all-embracing rule of conduct” that enables people to live together in peace and harmony.  Together with benevolence (rén) and righteousness (yì), filial piety (xiào) is one of the fundamental Confucian virtues within Chinese culture. Xiào refers to an attitude of devotion to one’s parents and ancestors that one expresses through obedience, loyalty, and respect.  The concept of xiào is discussed at length in Xiào Jìng, which details a dialogue between Confucius and his disciple Zengzi regarding the observance of filial xiào: “In serving his parents, a filial son reveres them in daily life; he makes them happy while he nourishes them; he takes anxious care of them in sickness; he shows great sorrow over their death; and he sacrifices to them with solemnity.”  In another classic, Èrshí-sì Xiào (The Twenty-Four Filial Exemplars), xiào is vividly demonstrated through twenty-four stories depicting the children who go to extraordinary lengths to show respect to their elders. One such story tells of a son who kills a tiger to save his father; in another story a son sells himself into slavery in order to give his father a proper burial. These stories praise the protagonists for their selfless actions, reinforcing the ideal of xiào as a virtue to be emulated and upheld.

The New Testament (NT) also refers to obedience, represented by the u(pakoh& / u(pakou&w word group. In Rom 1:5, Paul defines the function of his apostolic calling as “bringing about the obedience of faith” among the Gentiles, and similar language is used in Acts 6:7 to describe Christian converts who became “obedient to the faith”.  In the Gospels, Jesus is the object of obedience—people, unclean spirits, and even the wind and waves of the sea obey him (Matt 8:27; Mark 1:27)—and in Hebrews, he is the source of eternal salvation for “all who obey him” (Heb 5:9; cf. 1 Pet 1:2). Jesus himself is also considered to be a model of obedience, as demonstrated by his suffering and death (Rom 5:19; Phil 2; Heb 5:8 ). Paul also commands his churches’ obedience (Phil 2:12; 2 Thess 3:14), and in the household codes of Ephesians and Colossians he exhorts children to obey their parents (Eph 6:1—3 ; Col 3:20), and slaves to obey their masters (Eph 6:5—8; Col 3:22—25). Obedience—whether to Jesus, to the Faith, or to parents and masters—is an important concept within the NT.

On the surface, these Confucian and NT concepts of obedience are similar; but where do the points of intersection begin and end? What are the nuances in their respective meanings? This is a comparative study of the concepts of obedience as expressed by xiào in Confucian literature, and the NT u(pakoh& / u(pakou&w word group in the NT literature. I will first look at obedience in the Confucian classics Xiào Jìng and Èrshí-sì Xiào, followed by an analysis of the theme of obedience in the NT, and conclude with a discussion that highlights their points of similarities and differences. Although no interdependence or relationship between the Confucian and NT ideas of obedience can be established, given the importance of the concept within Chinese culture, I hope my preliminary but focused study will enable fellow Chinese scholars and students of the NT to better understand our own cultural assumptions, and in so doing, to arrive at better interpretations of biblical texts.

In Matt 5:9, Jesus tells his disciples: "Blessed are the peacemakers, for they will be called children of God" What is the meaning of peacemaker in the original context of the Matthean beatitude? "Peacemaker" is an obscure expression in the NT—it can only be found in Matt 5:9; its cognate verb is also rare, appearing only in Col 1:20. And given that the Jewish meaning of peace is theological and multifaceted, the task of interpretation is further complicated. The following essay is an exegetical analysis of Matt 5:9 for the purpose of illuminating the meaning of the expression peacemaker.

This study consists of two components: (1) a lexical study of "peacemaker", and (2) an exegetical analysis of the beatitudes in Matthew's gospel (Matt 5:1–10), with particular emphasis given to the meaning of Matt 5:9. The lexical study analyzes the use of "peacemaker" and related terms outside of Matt 5:9—in the NT, in the LXX, as well as the OT Pseudepigrapha. There is some indication that the meaning of the expression is not determined by the sum of its lexical components but by its surrounding context. While the expression refers to reconciliation in the writings of Paul, in the Septuagint and Pseudepigrapha it can also convey the broader meaning of a divine blessing that results in a state of well-being, as expressed by the Jewish concept of shalom.

The exegetical analysis of the beatitudes includes (1) an introduction of their setting, function, and arrangement within the Sermon on the Mount, (2) explanations of each beatitude, and (3) a fuller discussion of the beatitude concerning the peacemakers. An observation of the arrangement of the beatitudes reveals a chiastic structure in which the first and last beatitudes proclaim that the poor and those persecuted for the sake of righteousness will receive the kingdom of God. The second, third, and fourth beatitudes concern those in the kingdom who are in need, while the fifth, sixth, and seventh beatitudes relate to those who are in a position to help those in need. However, those who are in need in the seventh beatitude are not only the poor, the mourning, the hungry, or the oppressed––they are those who have committed offences and are in need of restoration. Therefore, the peacemakers refer to those who not only keep the peace, but those who initiate the process of restoring shalom in interpersonal relationships. In light of various teachings about interpersonal relationships in Matthew, peacemaking is also closely related to the ideas of reconciliation, forgiveness, and love for one's enemies (Matt 5:23, 38–42, 43–48). A blessing is pronounced upon those who are peacemakers, because they are the true children of God, who resemble God and who do the things God does. The essay concludes with some comments on the implications of the study and suggestions for contextualization. Those who participate in the activity of peacemaking can rightly share in the blessing of the peacemakers––they may truly be called the children of God.

In an episode that appears in all three synoptic gospels (Matt 19:16-30; Mark 10:17-31; Luke 18:18-30), a rich man inquires of Jesus the means to “eternal life”.  The rich man’s question is a curious one because “eternal life”, which is a common expression in the Gospel of John, seldomly occurs in the synoptic gospels.  Outside of the “Call of the Rich Man” narrative, the expression “eternal life” only appears twice, in the Parable of the Sheep and the Goats in Matt 25:46 and in the lawyer’s question in Luke 10:25.  For this reason, the “Call of the Rich Man” narrative is valuable for exploring the concept of “eternal life”in the synoptic tradition.  The following paper is an exegetical study of the “Call of the Rich Man” narrative in each of synoptic gospels (Matt 19:16-30; Mark 10:17-31; Luke 18:18-30) with particular emphasis on the implications for understanding “eternal life”. 

It can be seen that ‘eternal life’ in the synoptic tradition is a conceptually rich expression that denotes more than just immortality.  For the synoptic gospel writers, ‘eternal life’ is a theologically loaded expression that is best understood as belonging to a constellation of ideas that together represent their eschatological convictions in a decidedly Judeo-Christian framework.  In the “Call of the Rich Man” in all three synoptic gospels, ‘eternal life’ is closely related to the kingdom of God/Heaven, as well as salvation.  The rich man wishes to inherit ‘eternal life’, but his failure to do so is described in terms of ‘entering the kingdom of God’ and ‘being saved’.  In Matthew’s parallel of Mark 9:47 (18:9), entrance into ‘life’ is used in place of Mark’s entrance into the ‘kingdom of God’.  The ancillary verbs used in association with these expressions (inheriting, entering, etc.) are also used somewhat interchangeably.  Finally, because the synoptic evangelists interpret ‘eternal life’ from a Jewish context, notions like righteousness, inheritance, and the eschatological Son of Man figure are also present.

Many commentators have already observed the connection between ‘eternal life’ and entry into the kingdom of God, but the implications of the association have yet to be fully realized.  For instance, it is generally acknowledged that ‘eternal life’ does not figure prominently in the synoptic gospels.  However, this contention may have to be re-evaluated if ‘eternal life’ might also be in view whenever the kingdom of God (or salvation, in the Gospel of Luke) is mentioned.