SciELO - Scientific Electronic Library Online Browse SciELO, SciELO Library Error Detector An une... more SciELO - Scientific Electronic Library Online Browse SciELO, SciELO Library Error Detector An unexpected error occurred in SciELO servers. Click on the SciELO logo to browse the SciELO Library or use the browser "BACK" button to return to the previous page. ...
The presence of direct reciprocity in animals is a debated topic, because, despite its evolutiona... more The presence of direct reciprocity in animals is a debated topic, because, despite its evolutionary plausibility, it is believed to be uncommon. Some authors claim that stable reciprocal exchanges require sophisticated cognition which has acted as a constraint on its evolution across species. In contrast, a more recent trend of research has focused on the possibility that direct reciprocity occurs within long-term bonds and relies on simple as well as more complex affective mechanisms such as emotional book-keeping, rudimentary and higher forms of empathy, and inequity aversion, among others. First, we present evidence supporting the occurrence of long-term reciprocity in the context of existing bonds in social birds and mammals. Second, we discuss the evidence for affective responses which, modulated by bonding, may underlie altruistic behaviours in different species. We conclude that the mechanisms that may underlie reciprocal exchanges are diverse, and that some act in interaction with bonding processes. From simple associative learning in social contexts, through emotional contagion and behavioural mimicry, to empathy and a sense of fairness, widespread and diverse social affective mechanisms may explain why direct reciprocity may not be a rare phenomenon among social vertebrates.
El objetivo del presente artículo es estudiar si el alojamiento en refugios caninos altera las re... more El objetivo del presente artículo es estudiar si el alojamiento en refugios caninos altera las respuestas de mirar a la cara humana, el acercamiento y las conductas de miedo-apaciguamiento (cola y orejas bajas, agazapamiento) hacia una per-sona desconocida y si existe una relación entre estos comportamientos. Para ello se evaluaron ocho perros alojados por al menos dos años en un refugio y nueve perros de familia, adultos, mestizos y de ambos sexos. La evaluación se dividió en dos situaciones: una prueba de sociabilidad consistente en la exposición a la presencia de una persona desconocida que se comporta de manera pasiva, y una tarea comunicativa en la que una persona desconocida se coloca cerca de una fuente de comida que está a la vista pero inaccesible a los animales. Los resul-tados muestran que en ambas pruebas los perros de refugio mostraron mayores conductas de miedo-apaciguamiento hacia la persona, pero no mostraron dife-rencias en sus respuestas de acercamiento ni en la mi...
Successi ve negati ve contrast (SNC) is one of the paradoxical effects of reinforcement, resultin... more Successi ve negati ve contrast (SNC) is one of the paradoxical effects of reinforcement, resulting from the sudden lessening of the quality/quantity of an expected reinforcer. The present work is a review of the existing information concerning the neurobiological basis of SNC, using both instrumental and consummatory procedures. The effects of drugs, cerebral lesions, electrical simulation, and electrophysiological studies of
Resumen El envejecimiento normal produce una serie de cambios que se presentan asociados a una de... more Resumen El envejecimiento normal produce una serie de cambios que se presentan asociados a una declinación general de las funciones fisiológicas. Como consecuencia surge un conjunto de déficit conductuales, cognitivos y emocionales. Aunque es relativamente artificial separar las funciones cognitivas de las emocionales, en esta revisión se presentan estudios conduc- tuales y neurofisiológicos, especialmente realizados con mo- delos animales, que
During extinction a previously learned behavior stops being reinforced. In addition to the decrea... more During extinction a previously learned behavior stops being reinforced. In addition to the decrease in the rate of the instrumental response, it produces an aversive emotional state known as frustration. This state can be assimilated with the fear reactions that occur after aversive stimuli are introduced at both the physiological and behavioral levels. This study evaluated frustration reactions of domestic dogs (Canis familiaris) during a communicative situation involving interactions with a human. The task included the reinforcement and extinction of the gaze response toward the experimenter's face when the dogs tried to obtain inaccessible food. The dog's frustration reactions during extinction involved an increase in withdrawal and side orientation to the location of the human as well as lying down, ambulation, sniffing, and vocalizations compared with the last acquisition trial. These results are especially relevant for domestic dog training situations in which the extinction technique is commonly used to discourage undesirable behaviors.
Domestic dogs are very successful at following human cues like gazing or pointing to find hidden ... more Domestic dogs are very successful at following human cues like gazing or pointing to find hidden food in an object choice task. They solve this kind of situation at their first attempts and from early stages of their development and perform better than wolves. Most of the authors proposed that these abilities are a domestication product, and independent from learning processes. There are few systematic studies on the effects of learning on dogs' communicative skills. We aim to evaluate the effect of extinction and reversal learning procedures on the use of the pointing gesture in an object choice task. The results showed that dogs stopped following the pointing cue in the extinction and that they learned to choose the not pointed container in the reversal learning. Results suggest that instrumental learning plays an important role in interspecific communication mechanisms between humans and dogs. In both experiments for half of the subjects the pointer was the owner and for the rest was a stranger. A differential effect was found: extinction was slower but reversal learning was faster when the owner gave the cue. This data indicates that the relationship of the dog with the person who emits the cue influences performance.
Communication involves a wide range of behaviours that animals emit in their daily lives and can ... more Communication involves a wide range of behaviours that animals emit in their daily lives and can take place between different species, as is the case of domestic dogs (Canis familiaris) and humans. Dogs have shown to be successful at following human cues to solve the object choice task. The question is what are the mechanisms involved in these communicative abilities. This article presents a review of studies about the communicative capacities of domestic dogs emphasizing the ones that considered the effect of associative learning upon these skills. In addition, evidence about differences in dogs' performance in following physical or social cues is summarized and two studies where both signals compete are presented here. The obtained results suggest that the training of a colour cue reverses the dogs' preference for the social one. These results are discussed in light of the findings that gave importance to the learning effect, concluding that the dogs fundamentally follow those cues that allowed them to obtain reinforcers in their previous learning history.
Domestic dogs (Canis familiaris) are especially skillful in communicating with humans, and they r... more Domestic dogs (Canis familiaris) are especially skillful in communicating with humans, and they rely on special abilities to do that. One of these skills involves gazing at human faces in cases of uncertainty or when seeking for something out of reach. In this study, we evaluated the relationship between dogs' sociability level and the ability to learn to gaze in a situation with food in sight but out of their reach. Thirty-nine adult dogs were tested in two procedures: (1) a sociability test that involved interacting with an unknown person, and (2) a learning task that consisted of training trials in which gazing at the experimenter's face was food reinforced, followed by extinction trials in which gazing was not followed by food. A significant positive correlation was found between the duration of physical contact with the unknown person in the sociability test and gaze duration during extinction. Moreover, high sociability dogs gazed significantly longer at humans during extinction trials. We discuss the possibility that, more sociable animals, such as those who pay more attention to the person in our sociability test, may be more persistent in their communicative attempts because the presence of the human is intrinsically reinforcing to them. Finally, we comment on the importance of these findings for training purposes.
Domestic dogs show remarkable communicative abilities in their interaction with people. These ski... more Domestic dogs show remarkable communicative abilities in their interaction with people. These skills maybe explained by the interaction between the domestication process and learning experiences during ontogeny. Studies carried out on other species of canids, which have not been domesticated are relevant to this topic. The purpose of this article is to study the effect of instrumental learning on captive Pampas foxes' (Lycalopex gymnocercus) communicative responses to humans. Seven foxes were tested in a conflict situation involving food within sight but out of their reach. In these situations dogs typically gaze at the human face to ask for food. In Study 1, there was an increase in gaze duration as a consequence of reinforcement and a decrease during extinction, when animals did not receive any more food. In Study 2, all of the four foxes tested successfully followed proximal pointing gesture to find hidden food. When a distal pointing cue was given, three out of four followed it in the first session and one in the second session. These results are consistent with those previously found in dogs, and suggest that learning experiences allow the development of communicative skills, even in not domesticated canid species.
SciELO - Scientific Electronic Library Online Browse SciELO, SciELO Library Error Detector An une... more SciELO - Scientific Electronic Library Online Browse SciELO, SciELO Library Error Detector An unexpected error occurred in SciELO servers. Click on the SciELO logo to browse the SciELO Library or use the browser "BACK" button to return to the previous page. ...
The presence of direct reciprocity in animals is a debated topic, because, despite its evolutiona... more The presence of direct reciprocity in animals is a debated topic, because, despite its evolutionary plausibility, it is believed to be uncommon. Some authors claim that stable reciprocal exchanges require sophisticated cognition which has acted as a constraint on its evolution across species. In contrast, a more recent trend of research has focused on the possibility that direct reciprocity occurs within long-term bonds and relies on simple as well as more complex affective mechanisms such as emotional book-keeping, rudimentary and higher forms of empathy, and inequity aversion, among others. First, we present evidence supporting the occurrence of long-term reciprocity in the context of existing bonds in social birds and mammals. Second, we discuss the evidence for affective responses which, modulated by bonding, may underlie altruistic behaviours in different species. We conclude that the mechanisms that may underlie reciprocal exchanges are diverse, and that some act in interaction with bonding processes. From simple associative learning in social contexts, through emotional contagion and behavioural mimicry, to empathy and a sense of fairness, widespread and diverse social affective mechanisms may explain why direct reciprocity may not be a rare phenomenon among social vertebrates.
El objetivo del presente artículo es estudiar si el alojamiento en refugios caninos altera las re... more El objetivo del presente artículo es estudiar si el alojamiento en refugios caninos altera las respuestas de mirar a la cara humana, el acercamiento y las conductas de miedo-apaciguamiento (cola y orejas bajas, agazapamiento) hacia una per-sona desconocida y si existe una relación entre estos comportamientos. Para ello se evaluaron ocho perros alojados por al menos dos años en un refugio y nueve perros de familia, adultos, mestizos y de ambos sexos. La evaluación se dividió en dos situaciones: una prueba de sociabilidad consistente en la exposición a la presencia de una persona desconocida que se comporta de manera pasiva, y una tarea comunicativa en la que una persona desconocida se coloca cerca de una fuente de comida que está a la vista pero inaccesible a los animales. Los resul-tados muestran que en ambas pruebas los perros de refugio mostraron mayores conductas de miedo-apaciguamiento hacia la persona, pero no mostraron dife-rencias en sus respuestas de acercamiento ni en la mi...
Successi ve negati ve contrast (SNC) is one of the paradoxical effects of reinforcement, resultin... more Successi ve negati ve contrast (SNC) is one of the paradoxical effects of reinforcement, resulting from the sudden lessening of the quality/quantity of an expected reinforcer. The present work is a review of the existing information concerning the neurobiological basis of SNC, using both instrumental and consummatory procedures. The effects of drugs, cerebral lesions, electrical simulation, and electrophysiological studies of
Resumen El envejecimiento normal produce una serie de cambios que se presentan asociados a una de... more Resumen El envejecimiento normal produce una serie de cambios que se presentan asociados a una declinación general de las funciones fisiológicas. Como consecuencia surge un conjunto de déficit conductuales, cognitivos y emocionales. Aunque es relativamente artificial separar las funciones cognitivas de las emocionales, en esta revisión se presentan estudios conduc- tuales y neurofisiológicos, especialmente realizados con mo- delos animales, que
During extinction a previously learned behavior stops being reinforced. In addition to the decrea... more During extinction a previously learned behavior stops being reinforced. In addition to the decrease in the rate of the instrumental response, it produces an aversive emotional state known as frustration. This state can be assimilated with the fear reactions that occur after aversive stimuli are introduced at both the physiological and behavioral levels. This study evaluated frustration reactions of domestic dogs (Canis familiaris) during a communicative situation involving interactions with a human. The task included the reinforcement and extinction of the gaze response toward the experimenter's face when the dogs tried to obtain inaccessible food. The dog's frustration reactions during extinction involved an increase in withdrawal and side orientation to the location of the human as well as lying down, ambulation, sniffing, and vocalizations compared with the last acquisition trial. These results are especially relevant for domestic dog training situations in which the extinction technique is commonly used to discourage undesirable behaviors.
Domestic dogs are very successful at following human cues like gazing or pointing to find hidden ... more Domestic dogs are very successful at following human cues like gazing or pointing to find hidden food in an object choice task. They solve this kind of situation at their first attempts and from early stages of their development and perform better than wolves. Most of the authors proposed that these abilities are a domestication product, and independent from learning processes. There are few systematic studies on the effects of learning on dogs' communicative skills. We aim to evaluate the effect of extinction and reversal learning procedures on the use of the pointing gesture in an object choice task. The results showed that dogs stopped following the pointing cue in the extinction and that they learned to choose the not pointed container in the reversal learning. Results suggest that instrumental learning plays an important role in interspecific communication mechanisms between humans and dogs. In both experiments for half of the subjects the pointer was the owner and for the rest was a stranger. A differential effect was found: extinction was slower but reversal learning was faster when the owner gave the cue. This data indicates that the relationship of the dog with the person who emits the cue influences performance.
Communication involves a wide range of behaviours that animals emit in their daily lives and can ... more Communication involves a wide range of behaviours that animals emit in their daily lives and can take place between different species, as is the case of domestic dogs (Canis familiaris) and humans. Dogs have shown to be successful at following human cues to solve the object choice task. The question is what are the mechanisms involved in these communicative abilities. This article presents a review of studies about the communicative capacities of domestic dogs emphasizing the ones that considered the effect of associative learning upon these skills. In addition, evidence about differences in dogs' performance in following physical or social cues is summarized and two studies where both signals compete are presented here. The obtained results suggest that the training of a colour cue reverses the dogs' preference for the social one. These results are discussed in light of the findings that gave importance to the learning effect, concluding that the dogs fundamentally follow those cues that allowed them to obtain reinforcers in their previous learning history.
Domestic dogs (Canis familiaris) are especially skillful in communicating with humans, and they r... more Domestic dogs (Canis familiaris) are especially skillful in communicating with humans, and they rely on special abilities to do that. One of these skills involves gazing at human faces in cases of uncertainty or when seeking for something out of reach. In this study, we evaluated the relationship between dogs' sociability level and the ability to learn to gaze in a situation with food in sight but out of their reach. Thirty-nine adult dogs were tested in two procedures: (1) a sociability test that involved interacting with an unknown person, and (2) a learning task that consisted of training trials in which gazing at the experimenter's face was food reinforced, followed by extinction trials in which gazing was not followed by food. A significant positive correlation was found between the duration of physical contact with the unknown person in the sociability test and gaze duration during extinction. Moreover, high sociability dogs gazed significantly longer at humans during extinction trials. We discuss the possibility that, more sociable animals, such as those who pay more attention to the person in our sociability test, may be more persistent in their communicative attempts because the presence of the human is intrinsically reinforcing to them. Finally, we comment on the importance of these findings for training purposes.
Domestic dogs show remarkable communicative abilities in their interaction with people. These ski... more Domestic dogs show remarkable communicative abilities in their interaction with people. These skills maybe explained by the interaction between the domestication process and learning experiences during ontogeny. Studies carried out on other species of canids, which have not been domesticated are relevant to this topic. The purpose of this article is to study the effect of instrumental learning on captive Pampas foxes' (Lycalopex gymnocercus) communicative responses to humans. Seven foxes were tested in a conflict situation involving food within sight but out of their reach. In these situations dogs typically gaze at the human face to ask for food. In Study 1, there was an increase in gaze duration as a consequence of reinforcement and a decrease during extinction, when animals did not receive any more food. In Study 2, all of the four foxes tested successfully followed proximal pointing gesture to find hidden food. When a distal pointing cue was given, three out of four followed it in the first session and one in the second session. These results are consistent with those previously found in dogs, and suggest that learning experiences allow the development of communicative skills, even in not domesticated canid species.
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