Background: Accurate and timely diagnosis is usually the first step towards appropriate disease m... more Background: Accurate and timely diagnosis is usually the first step towards appropriate disease management. In resource-limited settings, healthcare workers lack proper facilities to perform vital tests, and the diagnosis of disease is often determined by non-specific, physiological symptoms alone. Simple and rapid tests are needed as prerequisite tools for patient care and must conform to the criteria set out by the World Health Organization. To address the challenge of specific diagnosis for diseases that present with similar symptoms, multiplex diagnostic platforms must be designed. Methods: Simple designs for multiplexed paper-based diagnostic platforms were developed. Laser cutting and wax printing were used to create specific patterns on paper to guide the flow of sample and reagents towards reaction zones. Multi-arm and single strip multiplex platforms were designed and tested using Human Immunoglobulin G, Hepatitis B virus surface antigen (HBsAg), and Helicobacter pylori antigens. Results: All designs produced promising results with the lowest limit of detection for antigens being 30ng/ml for single strip designs. Conclusions: The use of glass fibre conjugate pad was found to be more sensitive compared wax-printed chromatography paper. Results from this study indicate great potential for further application in development of diagnostic low-cost paper-based diagnostic devices.
Foot-and-Mouth Disease (FMD) is still one of the major trans-boundary animal diseases (TADs) in T... more Foot-and-Mouth Disease (FMD) is still one of the major trans-boundary animal diseases (TADs) in Tanzania. The disease is an obstacle to development of the livestock sector because it adversely affect livestock production and trade of animals and animal products. A cross-sectional study was conducted in Serengeti ecosystem (Wildlife-livestock Interface) and in the Central part of Tanzania (Non-interface) with the aim of assessing the social and economic impacts of FMD among livestock keepers in the two ecosystems. Forty households were selected, 10 from each district and to each household, a structured questionnaire was administered. The results showed that, the social impacts due to, FMD outbreaks include food insecurity (85.0%), failure to meet education costs (90.0%) and medical costs (77.5%). The observed economic impacts of FMD were losses associated with treatment costs (87.5%), milk productivity (85.0%), draught power (80.0%), livestock market loss (67.5), lower weight gain (60.0%), lower fertility (37.5%), abortion (35.0%), death of animals (25.0%) and vaccine supply cost (2.5%). Statistically, there were no significant differences in observed impacts of FMD among livestock keepers from wildlife-livestock interface and those from the non-interface. The study found no significant difference in opinion among livestock keepers from wildlife-livestock interface and non-interface areas as well as among study districts on foot-and mouth-disease impacts. Higher percentages in case responses on social impacts and economic losses indicated magnitude of the problem and feelings of livestock keepers about FMD. However, lower percentage in case response on vaccine supply cost indicated that there is no control of FMD by vaccination.
After incursion of Peste des Petits ruminants (PPR) in Tanzania in 2008, Ministry of Livestock an... more After incursion of Peste des Petits ruminants (PPR) in Tanzania in 2008, Ministry of Livestock and Fisheries Development (MLDF) in collaboration with development partners started to control the disease by vaccination of sheep and goats through the Vaccination for Control of Neglected Animal Diseases in Africa (VACNADA) project. Vaccination was carried out in Northern and Lake Zones, where Tanzania borders Kenya, the known entry point for the disease in East Africa. A cross sectional epidemiological study was carried out in Tarime district to evaluate the effectiveness of PPR control by vaccination implemented in Tanzania. A total of 360 serum samples, 180 pre-vaccination and 180 post-vaccination from sheep and goats were randomly retrieved from lake zone. Retrieved serum samples were serologically analyzed using a monoclonal antibody-based competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (c-ELISA) to assess the seroprevalence of PPR before and after vaccination. There was a statistically significant difference in seroconversion between pre- and post-vaccination samples. The pre-vaccination and post-vaccination seroprevalence of PPR in sheep and goats from nine representative villages were found to be 3.3% and 71.3% respectively (P<0.0001). Mean change in seroconversion rates across villages was found to be 67.8% (range 45 to 80%). Significantly higher acquisition of antibodies following vaccination suggests positive response that could be protective for sheep and goats against PPR. Efforts should be made to upscale vaccination coverage as well as carrying out further studies to evaluate the role of PPR vaccination in protection against this disease in small ruminants.
Foot-and-Mouth Disease (FMD) is still one of the major trans-boundary animal diseases (TADs) in T... more Foot-and-Mouth Disease (FMD) is still one of the major trans-boundary animal diseases (TADs) in Tanzania. The disease is an obstacle to development of the livestock sector because it adversely affect livestock production and trade of animals and animal products. A cross-sectional study was conducted in Serengeti ecosystem (Wildlifelivestock Interface) and in the Central part of Tanzania (Non-interface) with the aim of assessing the social and economic impacts of FMD among livestock keepers in the two ecosystems. Forty households were selected, 10 from each district and to each household, a structured questionnaire was administered. The results showed that, the social impacts due to, FMD outbreaks include food insecurity (85.0%), failure to meet education costs (90.0%) and medical costs (77.5%). The observed economic impacts of FMD were losses associated with treatment costs (87.5%), milk productivity (85.0%), draught power (80.0%), livestock market loss (67.5), lower weight gain (60.0%), lower fertility (37.5%), abortion (35.0%), death of animals (25.0%) and vaccine supply cost (2.5%). Statistically, there were no significant differences in observed impacts of FMD among livestock keepers from wildlife-livestock interface and those from the non-interface. The study found no significant difference in opinion among livestock keepers from wildlife-livestock interface and non-interface areas as well as among study districts on foot-and mouth-disease impacts. Higher percentages in case responses on social impacts and economic losses indicated magnitude of the problem and feelings of livestock keepers about FMD. However, lower percentage in case response on vaccine supply cost indicated that there is no control of FMD by vaccination.
The significance of animals in research cannot be over-emphasized. The use of animals for researc... more The significance of animals in research cannot be over-emphasized. The use of animals for research and training in research centres, hospitals and schools is progressively increasing. Advances in biotechnology to improve animal productivity require animal research. Drugs being developed and new interventions or therapies being invented for cure and palliation of all sorts of animal diseases and conditions need to be tested in animals for their safety and efficacy at some stages of their development. Drugs and interventions for human use pass through a similar development process and must be tested pre-clinically in laboratory animals before clinical trials in humans can be conducted. Therefore, animals are important players in research processes which directly and indirectly benefit animals and humans. However, questions remain as to whether these uses of animals consider the best interests of animals themselves. Various research and training institutions in Tanzania have established some guidelines on animal use, including establishing animal ethics committees. However, most institutions have not established oversight committees. In institutions where there may be guidelines and policies, there are no responsible committees or units to directly oversee if and how these guidelines and policies are enforced; thus, implementation becomes difficult or impossible. This paper endeavours to raise some issues associated with the responsible use of animals in research and training in Tanzania and highlights suggestions for improvement of deficiencies that exist in order to bridge the gap between what ought to be practised and what is practised.
A cross sectional study was conducted in the Serengeti ecosystem (wildlife-livestock interface) a... more A cross sectional study was conducted in the Serengeti ecosystem (wildlife-livestock interface) and central part of Tanzania (non-interface) area to determine the prevalence of foot and mouth disease (FMD) in Serengeti, Bunda, Kongwa and Iramba Districts. Seroprevalence investigation using 3ABC–ELISA technique indicated that the overall prevalence of antibodies against FMD virus was 66.3%. Significantly high prevalence was recorded in wildlife-livestock interface areas (71.5%) compared to non-interface areas (61.0%). District-wise, higher prevalence was recorded in Kongwa district (89.0%) followed by Serengeti (78.0%), Bunda (65.0%) and Iramba (33.0%). Species-wise, higher prevalence was found in bovines (69.8%), ovines (52.4%) and caprines (11.1%). From various risk factors, ecosystem distribution (X 2 = 4.9308, p = 0.0264) and species distribution (X 2 = 28.3236, P = 0.0001), the results indicated that FMD is highly prevalent in wildlife-livestock interface areas than in non-inter...
Foot-and-Mouth Disease (FMD) is still one of the major trans-boundary animal diseases (TADs) in T... more Foot-and-Mouth Disease (FMD) is still one of the major trans-boundary animal diseases (TADs) in Tanzania. The disease is an obstacle to development of the livestock sector because it adversely affect livestock production and trade of animals and animal products. A cross-sectional study was conducted in Serengeti ecosystem (Wildlifelivestock Interface) and in the Central part of Tanzania (Non-interface) with the aim of assessing the social and economic impacts of FMD among livestock keepers in the two ecosystems. Forty households were selected, 10 from each district and to each household, a structured questionnaire was administered. The results showed that, the social impacts due to, FMD outbreaks include food insecurity (85.0%), failure to meet education costs (90.0%) and medical costs (77.5%). The observed economic impacts of FMD were losses associated with treatment costs (87.5%), milk productivity (85.0%), draught power (80.0%), livestock market loss (67.5), lower weight gain (60.0%), lower fertility (37.5%), abortion (35.0%), death of animals (25.0%) and vaccine supply cost (2.5%). Statistically, there were no significant differences in observed impacts of FMD among livestock keepers from wildlife-livestock interface and those from the non-interface. The study found no significant difference in opinion among livestock keepers from wildlife-livestock interface and non-interface areas as well as among study districts on foot-and mouth-disease impacts. Higher percentages in case responses on social impacts and economic losses indicated magnitude of the problem and feelings of livestock keepers about FMD. However, lower percentage in case response on vaccine supply cost indicated that there is no control of FMD by vaccination.
Background: Accurate and timely diagnosis is usually the first step towards appropriate disease m... more Background: Accurate and timely diagnosis is usually the first step towards appropriate disease management. In resource-limited settings, healthcare workers lack proper facilities to perform vital tests, and the diagnosis of disease is often determined by non-specific, physiological symptoms alone. Simple and rapid tests are needed as prerequisite tools for patient care and must conform to the criteria set out by the World Health Organization. To address the challenge of specific diagnosis for diseases that present with similar symptoms, multiplex diagnostic platforms must be designed. Methods: Simple designs for multiplexed paper-based diagnostic platforms were developed. Laser cutting and wax printing were used to create specific patterns on paper to guide the flow of sample and reagents towards reaction zones. Multi-arm and single strip multiplex platforms were designed and tested using Human Immunoglobulin G, Hepatitis B virus surface antigen (HBsAg), and Helicobacter pylori antigens. Results: All designs produced promising results with the lowest limit of detection for antigens being 30ng/ml for single strip designs. Conclusions: The use of glass fibre conjugate pad was found to be more sensitive compared wax-printed chromatography paper. Results from this study indicate great potential for further application in development of diagnostic low-cost paper-based diagnostic devices.
Foot-and-Mouth Disease (FMD) is still one of the major trans-boundary animal diseases (TADs) in T... more Foot-and-Mouth Disease (FMD) is still one of the major trans-boundary animal diseases (TADs) in Tanzania. The disease is an obstacle to development of the livestock sector because it adversely affect livestock production and trade of animals and animal products. A cross-sectional study was conducted in Serengeti ecosystem (Wildlife-livestock Interface) and in the Central part of Tanzania (Non-interface) with the aim of assessing the social and economic impacts of FMD among livestock keepers in the two ecosystems. Forty households were selected, 10 from each district and to each household, a structured questionnaire was administered. The results showed that, the social impacts due to, FMD outbreaks include food insecurity (85.0%), failure to meet education costs (90.0%) and medical costs (77.5%). The observed economic impacts of FMD were losses associated with treatment costs (87.5%), milk productivity (85.0%), draught power (80.0%), livestock market loss (67.5), lower weight gain (60.0%), lower fertility (37.5%), abortion (35.0%), death of animals (25.0%) and vaccine supply cost (2.5%). Statistically, there were no significant differences in observed impacts of FMD among livestock keepers from wildlife-livestock interface and those from the non-interface. The study found no significant difference in opinion among livestock keepers from wildlife-livestock interface and non-interface areas as well as among study districts on foot-and mouth-disease impacts. Higher percentages in case responses on social impacts and economic losses indicated magnitude of the problem and feelings of livestock keepers about FMD. However, lower percentage in case response on vaccine supply cost indicated that there is no control of FMD by vaccination.
After incursion of Peste des Petits ruminants (PPR) in Tanzania in 2008, Ministry of Livestock an... more After incursion of Peste des Petits ruminants (PPR) in Tanzania in 2008, Ministry of Livestock and Fisheries Development (MLDF) in collaboration with development partners started to control the disease by vaccination of sheep and goats through the Vaccination for Control of Neglected Animal Diseases in Africa (VACNADA) project. Vaccination was carried out in Northern and Lake Zones, where Tanzania borders Kenya, the known entry point for the disease in East Africa. A cross sectional epidemiological study was carried out in Tarime district to evaluate the effectiveness of PPR control by vaccination implemented in Tanzania. A total of 360 serum samples, 180 pre-vaccination and 180 post-vaccination from sheep and goats were randomly retrieved from lake zone. Retrieved serum samples were serologically analyzed using a monoclonal antibody-based competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (c-ELISA) to assess the seroprevalence of PPR before and after vaccination. There was a statistically significant difference in seroconversion between pre- and post-vaccination samples. The pre-vaccination and post-vaccination seroprevalence of PPR in sheep and goats from nine representative villages were found to be 3.3% and 71.3% respectively (P<0.0001). Mean change in seroconversion rates across villages was found to be 67.8% (range 45 to 80%). Significantly higher acquisition of antibodies following vaccination suggests positive response that could be protective for sheep and goats against PPR. Efforts should be made to upscale vaccination coverage as well as carrying out further studies to evaluate the role of PPR vaccination in protection against this disease in small ruminants.
Foot-and-Mouth Disease (FMD) is still one of the major trans-boundary animal diseases (TADs) in T... more Foot-and-Mouth Disease (FMD) is still one of the major trans-boundary animal diseases (TADs) in Tanzania. The disease is an obstacle to development of the livestock sector because it adversely affect livestock production and trade of animals and animal products. A cross-sectional study was conducted in Serengeti ecosystem (Wildlifelivestock Interface) and in the Central part of Tanzania (Non-interface) with the aim of assessing the social and economic impacts of FMD among livestock keepers in the two ecosystems. Forty households were selected, 10 from each district and to each household, a structured questionnaire was administered. The results showed that, the social impacts due to, FMD outbreaks include food insecurity (85.0%), failure to meet education costs (90.0%) and medical costs (77.5%). The observed economic impacts of FMD were losses associated with treatment costs (87.5%), milk productivity (85.0%), draught power (80.0%), livestock market loss (67.5), lower weight gain (60.0%), lower fertility (37.5%), abortion (35.0%), death of animals (25.0%) and vaccine supply cost (2.5%). Statistically, there were no significant differences in observed impacts of FMD among livestock keepers from wildlife-livestock interface and those from the non-interface. The study found no significant difference in opinion among livestock keepers from wildlife-livestock interface and non-interface areas as well as among study districts on foot-and mouth-disease impacts. Higher percentages in case responses on social impacts and economic losses indicated magnitude of the problem and feelings of livestock keepers about FMD. However, lower percentage in case response on vaccine supply cost indicated that there is no control of FMD by vaccination.
The significance of animals in research cannot be over-emphasized. The use of animals for researc... more The significance of animals in research cannot be over-emphasized. The use of animals for research and training in research centres, hospitals and schools is progressively increasing. Advances in biotechnology to improve animal productivity require animal research. Drugs being developed and new interventions or therapies being invented for cure and palliation of all sorts of animal diseases and conditions need to be tested in animals for their safety and efficacy at some stages of their development. Drugs and interventions for human use pass through a similar development process and must be tested pre-clinically in laboratory animals before clinical trials in humans can be conducted. Therefore, animals are important players in research processes which directly and indirectly benefit animals and humans. However, questions remain as to whether these uses of animals consider the best interests of animals themselves. Various research and training institutions in Tanzania have established some guidelines on animal use, including establishing animal ethics committees. However, most institutions have not established oversight committees. In institutions where there may be guidelines and policies, there are no responsible committees or units to directly oversee if and how these guidelines and policies are enforced; thus, implementation becomes difficult or impossible. This paper endeavours to raise some issues associated with the responsible use of animals in research and training in Tanzania and highlights suggestions for improvement of deficiencies that exist in order to bridge the gap between what ought to be practised and what is practised.
A cross sectional study was conducted in the Serengeti ecosystem (wildlife-livestock interface) a... more A cross sectional study was conducted in the Serengeti ecosystem (wildlife-livestock interface) and central part of Tanzania (non-interface) area to determine the prevalence of foot and mouth disease (FMD) in Serengeti, Bunda, Kongwa and Iramba Districts. Seroprevalence investigation using 3ABC–ELISA technique indicated that the overall prevalence of antibodies against FMD virus was 66.3%. Significantly high prevalence was recorded in wildlife-livestock interface areas (71.5%) compared to non-interface areas (61.0%). District-wise, higher prevalence was recorded in Kongwa district (89.0%) followed by Serengeti (78.0%), Bunda (65.0%) and Iramba (33.0%). Species-wise, higher prevalence was found in bovines (69.8%), ovines (52.4%) and caprines (11.1%). From various risk factors, ecosystem distribution (X 2 = 4.9308, p = 0.0264) and species distribution (X 2 = 28.3236, P = 0.0001), the results indicated that FMD is highly prevalent in wildlife-livestock interface areas than in non-inter...
Foot-and-Mouth Disease (FMD) is still one of the major trans-boundary animal diseases (TADs) in T... more Foot-and-Mouth Disease (FMD) is still one of the major trans-boundary animal diseases (TADs) in Tanzania. The disease is an obstacle to development of the livestock sector because it adversely affect livestock production and trade of animals and animal products. A cross-sectional study was conducted in Serengeti ecosystem (Wildlifelivestock Interface) and in the Central part of Tanzania (Non-interface) with the aim of assessing the social and economic impacts of FMD among livestock keepers in the two ecosystems. Forty households were selected, 10 from each district and to each household, a structured questionnaire was administered. The results showed that, the social impacts due to, FMD outbreaks include food insecurity (85.0%), failure to meet education costs (90.0%) and medical costs (77.5%). The observed economic impacts of FMD were losses associated with treatment costs (87.5%), milk productivity (85.0%), draught power (80.0%), livestock market loss (67.5), lower weight gain (60.0%), lower fertility (37.5%), abortion (35.0%), death of animals (25.0%) and vaccine supply cost (2.5%). Statistically, there were no significant differences in observed impacts of FMD among livestock keepers from wildlife-livestock interface and those from the non-interface. The study found no significant difference in opinion among livestock keepers from wildlife-livestock interface and non-interface areas as well as among study districts on foot-and mouth-disease impacts. Higher percentages in case responses on social impacts and economic losses indicated magnitude of the problem and feelings of livestock keepers about FMD. However, lower percentage in case response on vaccine supply cost indicated that there is no control of FMD by vaccination.
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Papers by Misago Seth
Methods: Simple designs for multiplexed paper-based diagnostic platforms were developed. Laser cutting and wax printing were used to create specific patterns on paper to guide the flow of sample and reagents towards reaction zones. Multi-arm and single strip multiplex platforms were designed and tested using Human Immunoglobulin G, Hepatitis B virus surface antigen (HBsAg), and Helicobacter pylori antigens.
Results: All designs produced promising results with the lowest limit of detection for antigens being 30ng/ml for single strip designs.
Conclusions: The use of glass fibre conjugate pad was found to be more sensitive compared wax-printed chromatography paper. Results from this study indicate great potential for further application in development of diagnostic low-cost paper-based diagnostic devices.
disease is an obstacle to development of the livestock sector because it adversely affect livestock production and
trade of animals and animal products. A cross-sectional study was conducted in Serengeti ecosystem (Wildlifelivestock
Interface) and in the Central part of Tanzania (Non-interface) with the aim of assessing the social and
economic impacts of FMD among livestock keepers in the two ecosystems. Forty households were selected, 10 from
each district and to each household, a structured questionnaire was administered. The results showed that, the social
impacts due to, FMD outbreaks include food insecurity (85.0%), failure to meet education costs (90.0%) and
medical costs (77.5%). The observed economic impacts of FMD were losses associated with treatment costs
(87.5%), milk productivity (85.0%), draught power (80.0%), livestock market loss (67.5), lower weight gain
(60.0%), lower fertility (37.5%), abortion (35.0%), death of animals (25.0%) and vaccine supply cost (2.5%).
Statistically, there were no significant differences in observed impacts of FMD among livestock keepers from
wildlife-livestock interface and those from the non-interface. The study found no significant difference in opinion
among livestock keepers from wildlife-livestock interface and non-interface areas as well as among study districts
on foot-and mouth-disease impacts. Higher percentages in case responses on social impacts and economic losses
indicated magnitude of the problem and feelings of livestock keepers about FMD. However, lower percentage in
case response on vaccine supply cost indicated that there is no control of FMD by vaccination.
articles by Misago Seth
disease is an obstacle to development of the livestock sector because it adversely affect livestock production and
trade of animals and animal products. A cross-sectional study was conducted in Serengeti ecosystem (Wildlifelivestock
Interface) and in the Central part of Tanzania (Non-interface) with the aim of assessing the social and
economic impacts of FMD among livestock keepers in the two ecosystems. Forty households were selected, 10 from
each district and to each household, a structured questionnaire was administered. The results showed that, the social
impacts due to, FMD outbreaks include food insecurity (85.0%), failure to meet education costs (90.0%) and
medical costs (77.5%). The observed economic impacts of FMD were losses associated with treatment costs
(87.5%), milk productivity (85.0%), draught power (80.0%), livestock market loss (67.5), lower weight gain
(60.0%), lower fertility (37.5%), abortion (35.0%), death of animals (25.0%) and vaccine supply cost (2.5%).
Statistically, there were no significant differences in observed impacts of FMD among livestock keepers from
wildlife-livestock interface and those from the non-interface. The study found no significant difference in opinion
among livestock keepers from wildlife-livestock interface and non-interface areas as well as among study districts
on foot-and mouth-disease impacts. Higher percentages in case responses on social impacts and economic losses
indicated magnitude of the problem and feelings of livestock keepers about FMD. However, lower percentage in
case response on vaccine supply cost indicated that there is no control of FMD by vaccination.
Methods: Simple designs for multiplexed paper-based diagnostic platforms were developed. Laser cutting and wax printing were used to create specific patterns on paper to guide the flow of sample and reagents towards reaction zones. Multi-arm and single strip multiplex platforms were designed and tested using Human Immunoglobulin G, Hepatitis B virus surface antigen (HBsAg), and Helicobacter pylori antigens.
Results: All designs produced promising results with the lowest limit of detection for antigens being 30ng/ml for single strip designs.
Conclusions: The use of glass fibre conjugate pad was found to be more sensitive compared wax-printed chromatography paper. Results from this study indicate great potential for further application in development of diagnostic low-cost paper-based diagnostic devices.
disease is an obstacle to development of the livestock sector because it adversely affect livestock production and
trade of animals and animal products. A cross-sectional study was conducted in Serengeti ecosystem (Wildlifelivestock
Interface) and in the Central part of Tanzania (Non-interface) with the aim of assessing the social and
economic impacts of FMD among livestock keepers in the two ecosystems. Forty households were selected, 10 from
each district and to each household, a structured questionnaire was administered. The results showed that, the social
impacts due to, FMD outbreaks include food insecurity (85.0%), failure to meet education costs (90.0%) and
medical costs (77.5%). The observed economic impacts of FMD were losses associated with treatment costs
(87.5%), milk productivity (85.0%), draught power (80.0%), livestock market loss (67.5), lower weight gain
(60.0%), lower fertility (37.5%), abortion (35.0%), death of animals (25.0%) and vaccine supply cost (2.5%).
Statistically, there were no significant differences in observed impacts of FMD among livestock keepers from
wildlife-livestock interface and those from the non-interface. The study found no significant difference in opinion
among livestock keepers from wildlife-livestock interface and non-interface areas as well as among study districts
on foot-and mouth-disease impacts. Higher percentages in case responses on social impacts and economic losses
indicated magnitude of the problem and feelings of livestock keepers about FMD. However, lower percentage in
case response on vaccine supply cost indicated that there is no control of FMD by vaccination.
disease is an obstacle to development of the livestock sector because it adversely affect livestock production and
trade of animals and animal products. A cross-sectional study was conducted in Serengeti ecosystem (Wildlifelivestock
Interface) and in the Central part of Tanzania (Non-interface) with the aim of assessing the social and
economic impacts of FMD among livestock keepers in the two ecosystems. Forty households were selected, 10 from
each district and to each household, a structured questionnaire was administered. The results showed that, the social
impacts due to, FMD outbreaks include food insecurity (85.0%), failure to meet education costs (90.0%) and
medical costs (77.5%). The observed economic impacts of FMD were losses associated with treatment costs
(87.5%), milk productivity (85.0%), draught power (80.0%), livestock market loss (67.5), lower weight gain
(60.0%), lower fertility (37.5%), abortion (35.0%), death of animals (25.0%) and vaccine supply cost (2.5%).
Statistically, there were no significant differences in observed impacts of FMD among livestock keepers from
wildlife-livestock interface and those from the non-interface. The study found no significant difference in opinion
among livestock keepers from wildlife-livestock interface and non-interface areas as well as among study districts
on foot-and mouth-disease impacts. Higher percentages in case responses on social impacts and economic losses
indicated magnitude of the problem and feelings of livestock keepers about FMD. However, lower percentage in
case response on vaccine supply cost indicated that there is no control of FMD by vaccination.