Abstract The recent increase in aquaculture production has been possible because of production in... more Abstract The recent increase in aquaculture production has been possible because of production intensification, development of formulated feeds and feed management. However, increased intensification can cause oxidative stress and immune breakdown in shrimp, resulting in poor performance. The problems associated with increased aquacultural intensification can be managed with proper nutrition. Therefore, the objective of this study was to examine the effects of different dietary carbohydrate/protein and lipid/protein ratios on the growth performance, immune response, and oxidative parameters of Litopenaeus vannamei cultured under high stocking density. L. vannamei juveniles were randomly fed 20 experimental diets, comprising five carbohydrate/protein ratios (CBH:P; 0.6, 0.8, 1.1, 1.5, and 2.1) and four lipid/protein ratios (Lip:P; 0.2, 0.23, 0.3, and 0.36), for 49 days. Samples were collected from the shrimp at the end of the feeding trial for immunological, oxidative, and performance analyses. The results of the study showed that the weight gain, specific growth rate, protein efficiency, and nitrogen retention of the shrimp were significantly affected by dietary CBH:P ratios, and the best growth performance was observed in shrimp subjected to the 2.1 CBH:P and 0.3 Lip:P treatments. Similarly, the total hemocyte count of the shrimp was significantly affected by CBH:P treatment, with the highest value obtained in shrimp subjected to 2.1 CBH:P treatment. In contrast, the phagocytic index of the shrimp was not significantly affected by dietary CBH:P and Lip:P ratios. TBARS concentration and superoxide dismutase activity of the muscles were not significantly affected by the treatments; however, protein carbonyl concentration was significantly affected by the treatments. Overall, the findings of the study showed that high dietary CBH:P ratio improved the growth performance of the shrimp, while high dietary Lip:P ratio improved the oxidative status of the shrimp, with the best performance obtained in shrimp subjected to 2.1 CBH:P and 0.3 Lip:P treatments, respectively.
Abstract Most flower buds do not open after the cut flower has been separate from the plant witho... more Abstract Most flower buds do not open after the cut flower has been separate from the plant without having an external energy source. Sugar added in vase solutions usually has positive effects; however, it can also elicit and generate greater senescence. The objective of this paper was to determine the effects of sucrose, another external elicitor such as oligosaccharins, and the synergy of these compounds applied in vase solutions on the opening and pigmentation of lisianthus (Eustoma grandiflorum cv. 'Mariachi blue') flower buds. Different vase solutions were applied, including a negative control (water alone) and a positive control (commercial Floralife Crystal Clear®). The treatments were sucrose (4 %), pectin-derived oligosaccharins (Pectimorf® at 1 mg L−1 and 2 mg L−1), and the combination (2 mg L−1 oligosaccharins and 4 % sucrose). Physical and biochemical parameters were evaluated in flowers and leaves. Results suggest that oligosaccharins and sucrose synergy caused greater bud opening (12 % greater than negative control) and flower diameter (74 mm, 20 % greater than negative control), produced more intense color in young flowers, and modified antioxidant compounds content. These effects allow for prolonging vase life, maintaining the appearance, and increasing the color and flower size of lisianthus during postharvest as compared to water or sucrose alone treatments.
Exercise may cause an imbalance between pro-oxidants and antioxidants. In skeletal muscle, oxygen... more Exercise may cause an imbalance between pro-oxidants and antioxidants. In skeletal muscle, oxygen flow can increase considerably during vigorous exercise. The antioxidant system in athletes contributes to neutralize the concomitant rise in reactive oxygen species (ROS) production. The objective of this study was to compare the antioxidant system in muscle of three species of elasmobranchs and teleosts, considering differences in swimming capacity among species within each group and evolutionary differences between the two groups. Muscle samples were collected from elasmobranchs (Isurus oxyrinchus, Prionace glauca, Mustelus henlei) and teleosts (Totoaba macdonaldi, Kajikia audax and Coryphaena hippurus) in the coast of the Baja California peninsula, Mexico. The enzymatic activity of superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), glutathione peroxidase (GPx), glutathione reductase (GR) and glutathione S-transferase (GST) was determined by spectrophotometry. The activity of the antioxidant enzymes CAT, GPx and GST was higher in elasmobranchs, as a group, than in teleosts. In fish species with high swimming capacities, P. glauca, K. audax and C. hippurus, antioxidant enzyme activity was higher in comparison with species with lower swimming capacities, M. henlei and T. macdonaldi. It is possible that antioxidant enzymes, particularly SOD, GPx and GST, contribute to avoidance of oxidative damage in teleost and elasmobranch species with higher swimming capacities. The antioxidant enzyme activities in fish appear to depend mainly on their swimming capacity and life style rather than the evolutionary group (elasmobranchs, teleosts).
Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology A-molecular & Integrative Physiology, 2016
In mammalian tissues under hypoxic conditions, ATP degradation results in accumulation of purine ... more In mammalian tissues under hypoxic conditions, ATP degradation results in accumulation of purine metabolites. During exercise, muscle energetic demand increases and oxygen consumption can exceed its supply. During breath-hold diving, oxygen supply is reduced and, although oxygen utilization is regulated by bradycardia (low heart rate) and peripheral vasoconstriction, tissues with low blood flow (ischemia) may become hypoxic. The goal of this study was to evaluate potential differences in the circulating levels of purine metabolism components between diving and exercise in bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus). Blood samples were taken from captive dolphins following a swimming routine (n=8) and after a 2min dive (n=8). Activity of enzymes involved in purine metabolism (hypoxanthine-guanine phosphoribosyl transferase (HGPRT), inosine monophosphate deshydrogenase (IMPDH), xanthine oxidase (XO), purine nucleoside phosphorylase (PNP)), and purine metabolite (hypoxanthine (HX), xanthine (X), uric acid (AU), inosine monophosphate (IMP), inosine, nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD(+)), adenosine, adenosine monophosphate (AMP), adenosine diphosphate (ADP), ATP, guanosine diphosphate (GDP), guanosine triphosphate (GTP)) concentrations were quantified in erythrocyte and plasma samples. Enzymatic activity and purine metabolite concentrations involved in purine synthesis and degradation, were not significantly different between diving and exercise. Plasma adenosine concentration was higher after diving than exercise (p=0.03); this may be related to dive-induced ischemia. In erythrocytes, HGPRT activity was higher after diving than exercise (p=0.007), suggesting an increased capacity for purine recycling and ATP synthesis from IMP in ischemic tissues of bottlenose dolphins during diving. Purine recycling and physiological adaptations, may maintain the ATP concentrations in bottlenose dolphins after diving and exercise.
The present study reports unique data on concentrations of several classes of organochlorine pest... more The present study reports unique data on concentrations of several classes of organochlorine pesticides and polychlorinated biphenyls in blubber biopsies from healthy living fin whales (Balaenoptera physalus) from the Gulf of California, Mexico, one of the most isolated and unstudied population in the world. OC levels in this population were generally lower than levels reported in fin whales from other regions. The rank order of OCs were ∑DDTs (range from 300 to 2400 ng g−1 lw) > ∑PCBs (range from 40 to 290 ng g−1 lw) > ∑HCHs (range from
ABSTRACT Tissue hypoxia and ischemia-reperfusion pose a dangerous situation for oxidative stress.... more ABSTRACT Tissue hypoxia and ischemia-reperfusion pose a dangerous situation for oxidative stress. However, diving mammals and birds show pronounced resistance to oxidative injury under such conditions, which are a consequence of selective vasoconstriction during a dive. As the function of Hypoxia-Inducible Factor-1alpha (HIF-1alpha) in protection against and adaptation to hypoxia has been recognized in terrestrial animals, we have investigated the genomics and expression of this protein in ringed seal (Phoca hispida) in order to determine if it may play a protective role in this diving mammal. PCR studies using primers based on sequences from mouse HIF-1alpha exons 3, 4, 5, 6, 9, 10, 11, 12 and 15 showed that DNA from seal lung generated PCR products similar to those from mouse DNA. These studies have established that a putative HIF-1alpha gene exists in the seal genome that appears to have a similar but not identical sequence to the mouse gene. Seal lung and skeletal muscle tissues showed the highest relative levels of HIF-1alpha protein expression, with heart muscle showing significantly lower levels, and levels of HIF-1beta protein expression paralleled this situation. Analysis of oxidized cellular protein levels indicated that seal lung and heart muscle had the lowest levels of oxidized proteins. Thus, as seal lung tissue had the highest level of HIF-1alpha protein expression and the second lowest level of protein oxidation, this suggests that HIF-1alpha expression may have an important protective effect in this tissue in diving mammals. Our results support the hypothesis that HIF-1alpha expression is dependent on both tissue-specific energy requirements and adequate metabolic supply-to-demand ratio. Combined, the evidence available suggests that diving mammals have an overall anticipatory response to avoid the ill effects of dive-associated ischemia-reperfusion which may involve the HIF-1 system.
Aerobic organisms have developed a complex system of endogenous antioxidants to manage the reacti... more Aerobic organisms have developed a complex system of endogenous antioxidants to manage the reactivity of oxygen and its byproducts [...]
Allelopathy between phytoplankton organisms is promoted by substances released into the marine en... more Allelopathy between phytoplankton organisms is promoted by substances released into the marine environment that limit the presence of the dominating species. We evaluated the allelopathic effects and response of cell-free media of Chattonella marina var. marina and Gymnodinium impudicum in the toxic dinoflagellate Gymnodinium catenatum. Additionally, single- and four-cell chains of G. catenatum isolated from media with allelochemicals were cultured to evaluate the effects of post exposure on growth and cell viability. Cell diagnosis showed growth limitation and an increase in cell volume, which reduced mobility and led to cell lysis. When G. catenatum was exposed to cell-free media of C. marina and G. impudicum, temporary cysts and an increased concentration of paralytic shellfish toxins were observed. After exposure to allelochemicals, the toxin profile of G. catenatum cells in the allelopathy experiments was composed of gonyautoxins 2/3 (GTX2/3), decarcarbamoyl (dcSTX, dcGTX2/3), ...
Mercury (Hg) is a well-known toxicant in wildlife and humans. High total Hg concentrations ([THg]... more Mercury (Hg) is a well-known toxicant in wildlife and humans. High total Hg concentrations ([THg]) have been reported in central California harbor seals Phoca vitulina richardii. We evaluated the effects of presence/absence of early natal coat (lanugo), year (2012 to 2017), sex, stranding location, and trophic ecology (ẟ13C and ẟ15N values) on hair [THg] along coastal central California. Also examined were [THg] effects on growth rates of pups in rehabilitation and probability of release (e.g., successful rehabilitation). The [THg] ranged from 0.46-81.98 mg kg-1 dw, and ẟ15N and ẟ13C ranged from 13.6-21.5‰, and -17.2 to -13.0‰, respectively. Stranding location, year, and presence of lanugo coat were important factors explaining variation in [THg]. Seals from Sonoma and San Mateo County had higher [THg] than other locations. Seals with full or partial lanugo coat had lower [THg]. Seals from 2016 and 2017 had higher [THg] than those from 2015. Hair [THg] exceeded lower and upper toxicological thresholds (>20 mg kg-1 by year (5.88% to 23.53%); >30 mg kg-1 (0% to 12.31%)) with a pronounced increase from 2015 to 2016. Pups in 2017 had significantly higher odds ratio of [THg] above 20 mg kg-1 than pups of 2015, and pups in 2016 had significantly higher odds ratio than those from 2013 and 2015 (similar when using 30 mg kg-1). Pups in Sonoma County had the highest odds ratio for [THg] in lanugo above 20 mg kg-1. ẟ15N values were higher in 2015-2017, particularly relative to 2014, probably associated with the El Niño event. The [THg] was not a good predictor for probability of release and mass-specific growth rates in captivity. Further investigation of temporal trends of [THg] in harbor seals is warranted given the relatively high percentage of samples exceeding threshold values, particularly in the most recent sampling years.
Abstract The recent increase in aquaculture production has been possible because of production in... more Abstract The recent increase in aquaculture production has been possible because of production intensification, development of formulated feeds and feed management. However, increased intensification can cause oxidative stress and immune breakdown in shrimp, resulting in poor performance. The problems associated with increased aquacultural intensification can be managed with proper nutrition. Therefore, the objective of this study was to examine the effects of different dietary carbohydrate/protein and lipid/protein ratios on the growth performance, immune response, and oxidative parameters of Litopenaeus vannamei cultured under high stocking density. L. vannamei juveniles were randomly fed 20 experimental diets, comprising five carbohydrate/protein ratios (CBH:P; 0.6, 0.8, 1.1, 1.5, and 2.1) and four lipid/protein ratios (Lip:P; 0.2, 0.23, 0.3, and 0.36), for 49 days. Samples were collected from the shrimp at the end of the feeding trial for immunological, oxidative, and performance analyses. The results of the study showed that the weight gain, specific growth rate, protein efficiency, and nitrogen retention of the shrimp were significantly affected by dietary CBH:P ratios, and the best growth performance was observed in shrimp subjected to the 2.1 CBH:P and 0.3 Lip:P treatments. Similarly, the total hemocyte count of the shrimp was significantly affected by CBH:P treatment, with the highest value obtained in shrimp subjected to 2.1 CBH:P treatment. In contrast, the phagocytic index of the shrimp was not significantly affected by dietary CBH:P and Lip:P ratios. TBARS concentration and superoxide dismutase activity of the muscles were not significantly affected by the treatments; however, protein carbonyl concentration was significantly affected by the treatments. Overall, the findings of the study showed that high dietary CBH:P ratio improved the growth performance of the shrimp, while high dietary Lip:P ratio improved the oxidative status of the shrimp, with the best performance obtained in shrimp subjected to 2.1 CBH:P and 0.3 Lip:P treatments, respectively.
Abstract Most flower buds do not open after the cut flower has been separate from the plant witho... more Abstract Most flower buds do not open after the cut flower has been separate from the plant without having an external energy source. Sugar added in vase solutions usually has positive effects; however, it can also elicit and generate greater senescence. The objective of this paper was to determine the effects of sucrose, another external elicitor such as oligosaccharins, and the synergy of these compounds applied in vase solutions on the opening and pigmentation of lisianthus (Eustoma grandiflorum cv. 'Mariachi blue') flower buds. Different vase solutions were applied, including a negative control (water alone) and a positive control (commercial Floralife Crystal Clear®). The treatments were sucrose (4 %), pectin-derived oligosaccharins (Pectimorf® at 1 mg L−1 and 2 mg L−1), and the combination (2 mg L−1 oligosaccharins and 4 % sucrose). Physical and biochemical parameters were evaluated in flowers and leaves. Results suggest that oligosaccharins and sucrose synergy caused greater bud opening (12 % greater than negative control) and flower diameter (74 mm, 20 % greater than negative control), produced more intense color in young flowers, and modified antioxidant compounds content. These effects allow for prolonging vase life, maintaining the appearance, and increasing the color and flower size of lisianthus during postharvest as compared to water or sucrose alone treatments.
Exercise may cause an imbalance between pro-oxidants and antioxidants. In skeletal muscle, oxygen... more Exercise may cause an imbalance between pro-oxidants and antioxidants. In skeletal muscle, oxygen flow can increase considerably during vigorous exercise. The antioxidant system in athletes contributes to neutralize the concomitant rise in reactive oxygen species (ROS) production. The objective of this study was to compare the antioxidant system in muscle of three species of elasmobranchs and teleosts, considering differences in swimming capacity among species within each group and evolutionary differences between the two groups. Muscle samples were collected from elasmobranchs (Isurus oxyrinchus, Prionace glauca, Mustelus henlei) and teleosts (Totoaba macdonaldi, Kajikia audax and Coryphaena hippurus) in the coast of the Baja California peninsula, Mexico. The enzymatic activity of superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), glutathione peroxidase (GPx), glutathione reductase (GR) and glutathione S-transferase (GST) was determined by spectrophotometry. The activity of the antioxidant enzymes CAT, GPx and GST was higher in elasmobranchs, as a group, than in teleosts. In fish species with high swimming capacities, P. glauca, K. audax and C. hippurus, antioxidant enzyme activity was higher in comparison with species with lower swimming capacities, M. henlei and T. macdonaldi. It is possible that antioxidant enzymes, particularly SOD, GPx and GST, contribute to avoidance of oxidative damage in teleost and elasmobranch species with higher swimming capacities. The antioxidant enzyme activities in fish appear to depend mainly on their swimming capacity and life style rather than the evolutionary group (elasmobranchs, teleosts).
Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology A-molecular & Integrative Physiology, 2016
In mammalian tissues under hypoxic conditions, ATP degradation results in accumulation of purine ... more In mammalian tissues under hypoxic conditions, ATP degradation results in accumulation of purine metabolites. During exercise, muscle energetic demand increases and oxygen consumption can exceed its supply. During breath-hold diving, oxygen supply is reduced and, although oxygen utilization is regulated by bradycardia (low heart rate) and peripheral vasoconstriction, tissues with low blood flow (ischemia) may become hypoxic. The goal of this study was to evaluate potential differences in the circulating levels of purine metabolism components between diving and exercise in bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus). Blood samples were taken from captive dolphins following a swimming routine (n=8) and after a 2min dive (n=8). Activity of enzymes involved in purine metabolism (hypoxanthine-guanine phosphoribosyl transferase (HGPRT), inosine monophosphate deshydrogenase (IMPDH), xanthine oxidase (XO), purine nucleoside phosphorylase (PNP)), and purine metabolite (hypoxanthine (HX), xanthine (X), uric acid (AU), inosine monophosphate (IMP), inosine, nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD(+)), adenosine, adenosine monophosphate (AMP), adenosine diphosphate (ADP), ATP, guanosine diphosphate (GDP), guanosine triphosphate (GTP)) concentrations were quantified in erythrocyte and plasma samples. Enzymatic activity and purine metabolite concentrations involved in purine synthesis and degradation, were not significantly different between diving and exercise. Plasma adenosine concentration was higher after diving than exercise (p=0.03); this may be related to dive-induced ischemia. In erythrocytes, HGPRT activity was higher after diving than exercise (p=0.007), suggesting an increased capacity for purine recycling and ATP synthesis from IMP in ischemic tissues of bottlenose dolphins during diving. Purine recycling and physiological adaptations, may maintain the ATP concentrations in bottlenose dolphins after diving and exercise.
The present study reports unique data on concentrations of several classes of organochlorine pest... more The present study reports unique data on concentrations of several classes of organochlorine pesticides and polychlorinated biphenyls in blubber biopsies from healthy living fin whales (Balaenoptera physalus) from the Gulf of California, Mexico, one of the most isolated and unstudied population in the world. OC levels in this population were generally lower than levels reported in fin whales from other regions. The rank order of OCs were ∑DDTs (range from 300 to 2400 ng g−1 lw) > ∑PCBs (range from 40 to 290 ng g−1 lw) > ∑HCHs (range from
ABSTRACT Tissue hypoxia and ischemia-reperfusion pose a dangerous situation for oxidative stress.... more ABSTRACT Tissue hypoxia and ischemia-reperfusion pose a dangerous situation for oxidative stress. However, diving mammals and birds show pronounced resistance to oxidative injury under such conditions, which are a consequence of selective vasoconstriction during a dive. As the function of Hypoxia-Inducible Factor-1alpha (HIF-1alpha) in protection against and adaptation to hypoxia has been recognized in terrestrial animals, we have investigated the genomics and expression of this protein in ringed seal (Phoca hispida) in order to determine if it may play a protective role in this diving mammal. PCR studies using primers based on sequences from mouse HIF-1alpha exons 3, 4, 5, 6, 9, 10, 11, 12 and 15 showed that DNA from seal lung generated PCR products similar to those from mouse DNA. These studies have established that a putative HIF-1alpha gene exists in the seal genome that appears to have a similar but not identical sequence to the mouse gene. Seal lung and skeletal muscle tissues showed the highest relative levels of HIF-1alpha protein expression, with heart muscle showing significantly lower levels, and levels of HIF-1beta protein expression paralleled this situation. Analysis of oxidized cellular protein levels indicated that seal lung and heart muscle had the lowest levels of oxidized proteins. Thus, as seal lung tissue had the highest level of HIF-1alpha protein expression and the second lowest level of protein oxidation, this suggests that HIF-1alpha expression may have an important protective effect in this tissue in diving mammals. Our results support the hypothesis that HIF-1alpha expression is dependent on both tissue-specific energy requirements and adequate metabolic supply-to-demand ratio. Combined, the evidence available suggests that diving mammals have an overall anticipatory response to avoid the ill effects of dive-associated ischemia-reperfusion which may involve the HIF-1 system.
Aerobic organisms have developed a complex system of endogenous antioxidants to manage the reacti... more Aerobic organisms have developed a complex system of endogenous antioxidants to manage the reactivity of oxygen and its byproducts [...]
Allelopathy between phytoplankton organisms is promoted by substances released into the marine en... more Allelopathy between phytoplankton organisms is promoted by substances released into the marine environment that limit the presence of the dominating species. We evaluated the allelopathic effects and response of cell-free media of Chattonella marina var. marina and Gymnodinium impudicum in the toxic dinoflagellate Gymnodinium catenatum. Additionally, single- and four-cell chains of G. catenatum isolated from media with allelochemicals were cultured to evaluate the effects of post exposure on growth and cell viability. Cell diagnosis showed growth limitation and an increase in cell volume, which reduced mobility and led to cell lysis. When G. catenatum was exposed to cell-free media of C. marina and G. impudicum, temporary cysts and an increased concentration of paralytic shellfish toxins were observed. After exposure to allelochemicals, the toxin profile of G. catenatum cells in the allelopathy experiments was composed of gonyautoxins 2/3 (GTX2/3), decarcarbamoyl (dcSTX, dcGTX2/3), ...
Mercury (Hg) is a well-known toxicant in wildlife and humans. High total Hg concentrations ([THg]... more Mercury (Hg) is a well-known toxicant in wildlife and humans. High total Hg concentrations ([THg]) have been reported in central California harbor seals Phoca vitulina richardii. We evaluated the effects of presence/absence of early natal coat (lanugo), year (2012 to 2017), sex, stranding location, and trophic ecology (ẟ13C and ẟ15N values) on hair [THg] along coastal central California. Also examined were [THg] effects on growth rates of pups in rehabilitation and probability of release (e.g., successful rehabilitation). The [THg] ranged from 0.46-81.98 mg kg-1 dw, and ẟ15N and ẟ13C ranged from 13.6-21.5‰, and -17.2 to -13.0‰, respectively. Stranding location, year, and presence of lanugo coat were important factors explaining variation in [THg]. Seals from Sonoma and San Mateo County had higher [THg] than other locations. Seals with full or partial lanugo coat had lower [THg]. Seals from 2016 and 2017 had higher [THg] than those from 2015. Hair [THg] exceeded lower and upper toxicological thresholds (>20 mg kg-1 by year (5.88% to 23.53%); >30 mg kg-1 (0% to 12.31%)) with a pronounced increase from 2015 to 2016. Pups in 2017 had significantly higher odds ratio of [THg] above 20 mg kg-1 than pups of 2015, and pups in 2016 had significantly higher odds ratio than those from 2013 and 2015 (similar when using 30 mg kg-1). Pups in Sonoma County had the highest odds ratio for [THg] in lanugo above 20 mg kg-1. ẟ15N values were higher in 2015-2017, particularly relative to 2014, probably associated with the El Niño event. The [THg] was not a good predictor for probability of release and mass-specific growth rates in captivity. Further investigation of temporal trends of [THg] in harbor seals is warranted given the relatively high percentage of samples exceeding threshold values, particularly in the most recent sampling years.
Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are increasingly appreciated as down-stream effectors of cellular ... more Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are increasingly appreciated as down-stream effectors of cellular damage and dysfunction under natural and anthropogenic stress scenarios in aquatic systems. This comprehensive volume describes oxidative stress phenomena in different climatic zones and groups of organisms, taking into account specific habitat conditions and how they affect susceptibility to ROS damage. A comprehensive and detailed methods section is included which supplies complete protocols for analyzing ROS production, oxidative damage, and antioxidant systems. Methods are also evaluated with respect to applicability and constraints for different types of research.
The authors are all internationally recognized experts in particular fields of oxidative stress research.
This comprehensive reference volume is essential for students, researchers, and technicians in the field of ROS research, and also contains information useful for veterinarians, environmental health professionals, and decision makers.
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A comprehensive and detailed methods section is included which supplies complete protocols for analyzing ROS production, oxidative damage, and antioxidant systems. Methods are also evaluated with respect to applicability and constraints for different types of research.
The authors are all internationally recognized experts in particular fields of oxidative stress research.
This comprehensive reference volume is essential for students, researchers, and technicians in the field of ROS research, and also contains information useful for veterinarians, environmental health professionals, and decision makers.