Explicit and Implicit Knowledge and Learning by Yuichi Suzuki
Suzuki, Y., Jeong, H., Cui, H., Okamoto, K., Kawashima, R., & Sugiura, M. (2023). fMRI reveals the dynamic interface between explicit and implicit knowledge recruited during elicited imitation task. Research Methods in Applied Linguistics, 2(2) Development of valid tasks that tap into implicit knowledge is a prerequisite for understanding t... more Development of valid tasks that tap into implicit knowledge is a prerequisite for understanding the interface between explicit and implicit grammatical knowledge in second language (L2) acquisition. However, the extent to which elicited imitation tasks (EITs) draw on implicit or/and explicit knowledge has been a subject of controversy, due in part to the limitations of behavioral methods. To overcome this drawback, in this study, we used functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to examine the neural circuits underlying explicit and implicit knowledge (i.e., declarative and procedural memory) during the listening and speaking phases of an EIT performed by advanced L2 speakers of Japanese living in Japan. While the behavioral data suggest that the EIT primarily draws on automatized (speeded-up) explicit knowledge, the neuroimaging data revealed learners' dynamic use of explicit and implicit knowledge during its comprehension and production phases. Higher explicit knowledge scores (derived from a metalinguistic knowledge task) were associated with greater declarative memory (left hippocampus) activation during the speaking EIT phase, indicating a prominent role of explicit knowledge in production. During the listening phase, however, higher explicit knowledge scores predicted lower activation in declarative memory (left hippocampus) and higher activation in procedural memory (left inferior frontal gyrus), suggesting that explicit knowledge plays both inhibitory and facilitative role in the use of implicit knowledge for comprehension. Taken together, these findings suggest that advanced L2 speakers utilize their explicit and implicit knowledge efficiently and dynamically-characterized as a hallmark of automaticity-for comprehension and production during the EIT.
The current study investigated to what extent two aptitude components, one for explicit and the o... more The current study investigated to what extent two aptitude components, one for explicit and the other for implicit learning, could predict the acquisition of English grammatical structures by late L2 English learners in a naturalistic acquisition context. Sixty-five L2 English learners of Chinese Mandarin, as well as a group of English native speakers performed a visual-world eyetracking task. In this task, real-time processing of two grammatical properties of the English nominal phrase that differ in terms of L2 psycholinguistic difficulty: (1) definiteness (a difficult structure) and (2) mass-count (an easy structure). Predictors were implicit learning aptitude, measured by the serial-reaction time (SRT) task and explicit learning aptitude measured by subtests of the Modern Language Aptitude Test (MLAT Part 4) and the LLAMA_F test. A majority of L2 learners were unaware of target grammatical structures tested in the visual-world task, which is construed as evidence for the use of linguistic knowledge without awareness (i.e., implicit knowledge). While explicit learning aptitude was not related to either grammatical feature, implicit learning aptitude was related to definiteness, but not to mass-count. These findings suggest that explicit and implicit learning mechanisms are recruited differentially for learning different grammatical properties.
Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 2022
In this study, neural representation of adult second language (L2) speakers' implicit grammatical... more In this study, neural representation of adult second language (L2) speakers' implicit grammatical knowledge was investigated. Advanced L2 speakers of Japanese living in Japan, as well as L1 Japanese speakers, performed a word-monitoring task (proposed as an implicit knowledge test) in the MRI scanner. Behavioral measures were obtained from aptitude tests for explicit (language analytic ability) and implicit (statistical learning ability) learning. Findings indicate that, although both L1 and L2 speakers recruited neural circuits associated with procedural memory during the word-monitoring task, different brain regions were activated: premotor cortex (L1 speakers) and left caudate (L2 speakers). The premotor cortex activation was weaker in L2 than L1 speakers but was positively correlated with the left caudate activation, suggesting that their grammatical knowledge, while less automatized, was still developing. Behavioral sensitivity to errors was predicted only by explicit language aptitude, which may play a key role in the automatization of grammatical knowledge.
Recent research has called for the use of fine-grained measures that distinguish implicit knowled... more Recent research has called for the use of fine-grained measures that distinguish implicit knowledge from automatized explicit knowledge. In the current study, such measures were used to determine how the two systems interact in a naturalistic second language (L2) acquisition context. One hundred advanced L2 speakers of Japanese living in Japan were assessed with automatized explicit knowledge and implicit knowledge tests along with tests of phonological short-term memory and aptitude tests for explicit and implicit learning. Structural equation modeling demonstrated that aptitude for explicit learning significantly predicted acquisition of automatized explicit knowledge, and automatized explicit knowledge significantly predicted acquisition of implicit knowledge. The effects of implicit learning aptitude and phonological short-term memory on acquisition of automatized explicit knowledge and implicit knowledge were limited. These findings provide the first empirical evidence that automatized explicit knowledge, which develops through explicit learning mechanisms, may impact the acquisition of implicit knowledge.
Accumulating evidence suggests that time-pressured form-focused tasks like grammaticality judgmen... more Accumulating evidence suggests that time-pressured form-focused tasks like grammaticality judgment tests (GJTs) can measure second language (L2) implicit knowledge. The current paper, however, proposes that these tasks draw on automatized explicit knowledge. A battery of six grammar tests was designed to distinguish automatized explicit knowledge and implicit knowledge. While three time-pressured form-focused tasks (an auditory GJT, a visual GJT, and a fill-in-the-blank test) were hypothesized to measure automatized explicit knowledge, three real-time comprehension tasks (a visual-world task, a word-monitoring task, and a self-paced reading task) were hypothesized to measure implicit knowledge. One hundred advanced L2 Japanese learners with L1 Chinese residing in Japan took all six tests. Confirmatory factor analysis and multi-trait multi-method analysis provided an array of evidence supporting that these tests assessed two types of linguistic knowledge separately with little influence from the method effects. Results analyzed separately by length of residence in Japan (a proxy for the amount of naturalistic L2 exposure) showed that learners with longer residence in Japan can draw on implicit knowledge in the real-time comprehension tasks with more stability than those with shorter residence. These findings indicate the potential of finely tuned real-time comprehension tasks as measures of implicit knowledge.
The present study challenges the validity of Elicited Imitation (EI) as a measure for implicit kn... more The present study challenges the validity of Elicited Imitation (EI) as a measure for implicit knowledge. When L2 speakers repeat the sentences and correct the ones with a grammatical error, there appears to be room for advanced speakers to use explicit knowledge quickly. In the listening stage, in contrast, explicit knowledge is far less available for detecting the error in real time. The study investigated to what extent the online error detection and the subsequent sentence repetition draw on implicit knowledge. To assess the online detection during listening, a word-monitoring component was built into the EI task. Advanced-level Japanese L2 speakers with L1 Chinese performed the EI task with the built-in word-monitoring component, a metalinguistic knowledge test, and a probabilistic Serial Reaction Time (SRT) task (as a measure of aptitude for implicit learning). Results showed that the EI scores were correlated positively with metalinguistic knowledge, but they were not related to the SRT scores. The word-monitoring performance, in contrast, was not related to metalinguistic knowledge but correlated positively with the SRT scores only among L2 speakers with longer lengths of residence. These results suggest that online error detection can index implicit knowledge, whereas EI may measure automatized explicit knowledge.
Practice in Second Language & Cog. Psychology by Yuichi Suzuki
2024
The present study examines the optimal schedule of second language (L2) grammar practice. Fifty-f... more The present study examines the optimal schedule of second language (L2) grammar practice. Fifty-four English-asa-foreign language learners practiced using hypothetical conditionals through written production-based dictogloss tasks, accompanied by an explicit grammatical explanation, in three learning sessions over several weeks. Learners in the longer spaced group engaged in dictogloss tasks at intervals of 7 days (Day 1, 8, and 15), while those in the shorter spaced
This chapter presents an overview of extant research on practice and automatization. Identifying ... more This chapter presents an overview of extant research on practice and automatization. Identifying what kind of “practice” is effective for automatization—the gradual and extended learning process—is essential. Automaticity is an advanced stage in acquisition at which knowledge and skills are accurate, quick, efficient, effortless, stable, and unconscious. It intersects with core theoretical constructs in SLA, such as explicit and implicit knowledge and learning as well as the skill acquisition theory and usage-based approach. Research on L2 practice specifically aimed at automatization is reviewed, focusing on five key research streams related to automatization in instructed L2 contexts.
We discuss receptive and semi-productive (as opposed to open, communicative) practice that aims a... more We discuss receptive and semi-productive (as opposed to open, communicative) practice that aims at optimizing second language (L2) input and intake processing mechanisms. A variety of L2 learning activities are categorized as isolated (e.g., deliberate word learning), guided (e.g., processing instruction, guided induction), and contextualized practice (e.g., reading aloud, shadowing, dictation/dictogloss). In order to examine the potential and limits of these practice activities in automatization, the extant body of empirical work is reviewed with the focus on explicit learning mechanisms. Consequently, we highlight the beneficial roles of deliberate memorization, guided instruction, noticing, hypothesis testing, explicit instruction, reconstruction, imitation, feedback, and monitoring of their own performance. We argue that the quantity of practice, as well as timing of practice variables (i.e., repetition, instruction, and feedback), plays a pivotal role in developing robust L2 knowledge and skills.
Throughout the history of applied linguistics, “practice” and “automatization” have frequently el... more Throughout the history of applied linguistics, “practice” and “automatization” have frequently elicited negative connotations with mechanical, mindless drills of structural patterns and superficial parroting of dialogues in the audiolingual era. At the start of the 21st century, however, the concept of practice was updated and expanded to capture a wide range of activities aimed at second language (L2) knowledge and skill development (DeKeyser, 2007). The goal of this opening chapter is to provide a fresh perspective on this obsolete coupling of practice and automatization. First, I explain recent theorizations of practice and automatization from the skill acquisition theory perspective. Second, I offer five principles of effective practice that are rooted in cognitive psychology: (a) deliberate, (b) systematic, (c) transfer-appropriate, (d) feedback, and (e) desirable difficulty. As these principles are central to the current edited volume, I present a survey of empirical research on these topics conducted in different contexts/rooted in different teaching approaches. Finally, I provide an overview of this edited volume, explaining how each chapter contributes unique insights into the evolving concepts of L2 practice and automatization.
This chapter presents an overview of extant research on practice and automatization. Identifying ... more This chapter presents an overview of extant research on practice and automatization. Identifying what kind of “practice” is effective for automatization—the gradual and extended learning process—is essential. Automaticity is an advanced stage in acquisition at which knowledge and skills are accurate, quick, efficient, effortless, stable, and unconscious. It intersects with core theoretical constructs in SLA, such as explicit and implicit knowledge and learning as well as the skill acquisition theory and usage-based approach. Research on L2 practice specifically aimed at automatization is reviewed, focusing on five key research streams related to automatization in instructed L2 contexts.
This chapter discusses second language (L2) learning processes from
cognitive perspectives gained... more This chapter discusses second language (L2) learning processes from
cognitive perspectives gained from psychology and second language
acquisition (SLA) research. A particularly useful cognitive theory for
elucidating L2 learning processes from a cognitive perspective is skill
acquisition theory. In L2 learning, declarative knowledge consists of
exemplars and rules that L2 learners are usually aware of, while procedural
knowledge is used by applying declarative knowledge to behaviors/skills,
such as L2 comprehension and production. Optimal practice scheduling is a
particularly burgeoning research area and is inspired by cognitive
psychology research. L2 researchers have started to reveal the optimal
timing to repeat L2 practice activities for proceduralization and
automatization. In cognitive psychology research, distributing practice
opportunities over multiple study sessions has been proven to be more
valuable for long-term retention. Compared to cognitive factors like
aptitude, however, relatively little attention have been given to the affective
and motivational factors for research on L2 practice. Implications of many
of the findings are somewhat straightforward.
Language Learning, 2023
Research has suggested that long spacing (i.e., temporal intervals) within a training session fac... more Research has suggested that long spacing (i.e., temporal intervals) within a training session facilitates second language vocabulary learning. Studies, however, have been limited to treatment that involved sessions for only initial learning but not subsequent relearning. Furthermore, most studies have investigated only the benefits of spacing without considering its potential costs (i.e., increased duration of the treatment). In our study, we examined the benefits and costs of within-session spacing for both initial learning and relearning. In this study, 170 Japanese-speaking university students learned 20 English-Japanese word pairs using one of the following four CRediT author statement-Tatsuya Nakata: conceptualization (equal); data curation (supporting); funding acquisition (lead); methodology (equal); project administration (lead); software (supporting); supervision (lead); writing-original draft (lead); writing-review & editing (lead).
RELC Journal, 2022
Shadowing is the act of vocalizing the speech one is listening to as simultaneously as possible. ... more Shadowing is the act of vocalizing the speech one is listening to as simultaneously as possible. The primary function of shadowing is learners' listening skill and pronunciation skill development. Despite the importance of second language (L2) listening skills, this pedagogical technique has not received focal attention in the field. In this paper, shadowing is situated in the framework of systematic and deliberate practice, which is supported by an L2 acquisition theory called the skill acquisition theory. Based on this framework, a total of 16 different primary types of shadowing are classified into shadowing for phonological processing and shadowing for intake through meaning-focused processing. The proposed classification and guideline will be useful for teachers to adapt a variety of shadowing techniques for their teaching context and learners as well as highlighting shadowing as an important pedagogical tool of teaching bottom-up listening skills.
TESOL Quarterly, 2022
In this task-repetition intervention study, L2 learners' reuse of linguistic constructions was an... more In this task-repetition intervention study, L2 learners' reuse of linguistic constructions was analyzed to investigate to what extent recurring reliance on specific constructions during the same task repetition predicts fluency development. English-as-a-foreignlanguage (EFL) learners performed oral narrative tasks three times per day under two task
Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 2021
To examine the effects of task repetition with different schedules, English-as-a-foreign-language... more To examine the effects of task repetition with different schedules, English-as-a-foreign-language classroom learners performed the same oral narrative task six times under three different schedules. They narrated the same six-frame cartoon story (a) six times consecutively in one class (massed practice), (b) three times at the beginning and at the end of a class (short-spaced practice), and (c) three times as a part of two classes 1 week apart (long-spaced practice). The results yielded by an immediate posttest using a novel cartoon showed that massed practice reduced breakdown fluency (mid-clause and clause-final pauses) the most. However, the participants in the massed-practice group showed degraded speed (slower articulation rate) and repair fluency (more verbatim repetition). The effects of repetition schedule seem limited on a 1-week delayed posttest involving a novel cartoon. Yet, when participants narrated the same practiced cartoon 1 week later, massed practice also resulted in more verbatim repetition.
Language Learning, 2021
In an exploration of the effects of task-repetition practice on fluency de-Q1 Q2 velopment, Engli... more In an exploration of the effects of task-repetition practice on fluency de-Q1 Q2 velopment, English-as-a-foreign language learners performed three oral narrative tasks involving six-frame cartoons for 3 consecutive days. They engaged in task-repetition practice under either a blocked (Day 1: A-A-A; Day 2: B-B-B; Day 3: CC -C) or an interleaved (Day 1: A-B-C; Day 2: A-B-C; Day 3: A-B-C) task repetition schedule. The results yielded by a posttest involving new six-frame cartoons indicated that blocked practice resulted in greater fluency development (faster articulation rate and shorter mid-clause pause duration) than did interleaved practice. Moreover, the learners in the blocked-practice group tended to pause more frequently at clause boundaries. Blocked practice also led to significantly longer mean length of run and higher phonation/time ratio during training, although this advantage failed to transfer to meaningful pretestposttest changes. These dynamic fluency developmental patterns are discussed to elucidate the underlying proceduralization in L2 speech processes.
In the coda chapter of the special issue on second language (L2) practice and cognitive psycholog... more In the coda chapter of the special issue on second language (L2) practice and cognitive psychology, we proposed a theoretical framework for optimizing and researching L2 practice (Suzuki, Nakata, & DeKeyser, 2019). Rogers and Leow's commentary (this issue) raised three potential issues regarding this framework, and the present response article aims at addressing them. First, we introduce two recent studies to illustrate the importance of expounding on learning processes during L2 practice. Second, we argue that our framework can guide researchers to systematically investigate multiple key factors toward a more comprehensive picture of L2 learning. Last, we expect that L2 practice research can potentially lead to broader pedagogical implications beyond classroom teaching (material development and technology-mediated learning). Keywords: second language practice; desirable difficulty framework; second language difficulty; cognitive psychology IT WAS OUR PLEASURE TO RECEIVE A commentary from Rogers and Leow (this issue) on Suzuki, Nakata, and DeKeyser (2019), the coda chapter of the special issue (Optimizing Second Language Practice in the Classroom: Perspectives from Cognitive Psychology) in The Modern Language Journal 103(3). Their commentary was overall positive toward a theoretical framework for systematic and deliberate second language (L2) practice that we proposed in the chapter. Our framework is derived from (a) the cognitive difficulty framework in the area of L2 acquisition research (Housen & Simoens, 2016), and (b) the desirable difficulty framework proposed in the realm of
To investigate the skill transfer and the effects of practice schedules in the learning of second... more To investigate the skill transfer and the effects of practice schedules in the learning of second language syntax, 129 intermediate-level English learners were divided into six groups, based on practice format (input vs. output practice) and practice schedule (blocked vs. interleaved vs. hybrid [blocked 1 interleaved]). Analyses revealed that the learners tested on the skill they had practiced outperformed those who were tested on the nonpracticed skill. This pattern was particularly pronounced in comprehension processing speed and production accuracy. Moreover, hybrid practice facilitated skill development more than blocked or interleaved practice alone. Furthermore, a dynamic interplay was detected among practice format, schedule, and learners' prior knowledge. Hybrid practice led to the least transfer from receptive skills (gained through input practice) to productive skills. Unlike interleaved practice effects, the effects of blocked practice on comprehension speed were more susceptible to learners' prior processing speed.
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Explicit and Implicit Knowledge and Learning by Yuichi Suzuki
Practice in Second Language & Cog. Psychology by Yuichi Suzuki
cognitive perspectives gained from psychology and second language
acquisition (SLA) research. A particularly useful cognitive theory for
elucidating L2 learning processes from a cognitive perspective is skill
acquisition theory. In L2 learning, declarative knowledge consists of
exemplars and rules that L2 learners are usually aware of, while procedural
knowledge is used by applying declarative knowledge to behaviors/skills,
such as L2 comprehension and production. Optimal practice scheduling is a
particularly burgeoning research area and is inspired by cognitive
psychology research. L2 researchers have started to reveal the optimal
timing to repeat L2 practice activities for proceduralization and
automatization. In cognitive psychology research, distributing practice
opportunities over multiple study sessions has been proven to be more
valuable for long-term retention. Compared to cognitive factors like
aptitude, however, relatively little attention have been given to the affective
and motivational factors for research on L2 practice. Implications of many
of the findings are somewhat straightforward.
cognitive perspectives gained from psychology and second language
acquisition (SLA) research. A particularly useful cognitive theory for
elucidating L2 learning processes from a cognitive perspective is skill
acquisition theory. In L2 learning, declarative knowledge consists of
exemplars and rules that L2 learners are usually aware of, while procedural
knowledge is used by applying declarative knowledge to behaviors/skills,
such as L2 comprehension and production. Optimal practice scheduling is a
particularly burgeoning research area and is inspired by cognitive
psychology research. L2 researchers have started to reveal the optimal
timing to repeat L2 practice activities for proceduralization and
automatization. In cognitive psychology research, distributing practice
opportunities over multiple study sessions has been proven to be more
valuable for long-term retention. Compared to cognitive factors like
aptitude, however, relatively little attention have been given to the affective
and motivational factors for research on L2 practice. Implications of many
of the findings are somewhat straightforward.
were no significant differences between semantically related and unrelated items in posttest scores, semantically related items led to more interference errors than unrelated items. Furthermore, contrary to the authors’ hypothesis that spacing is particularly beneficial for semantically related items, spacing benefited unrelated items more than it did related items.
ているようだが、その英文の意味を理解できていない学習者も一部いることが分かった。調査 2では、KB テストを改良し、全部で 9 種類の名詞句構造をテスト項目に含めて、より包括的に名詞句構造の習得を調べた。高校生 42 名を対象として、改良版 KB テストを実施した結果、調査 1の結果が支持された。調査 1 と 2 の結果から、KB テストは十分な信頼性を持ち、高校生の名詞句構造の習得を測ることができ、高校生の名詞句構造の習得を調べるためのツールとして役立つと考えられる。
研究課題は以下の3点であった。①スラッシュリーディングによって関係代名詞の文の理解が促進されるのか。②文法の知識（関係代名詞）がどれくらいあると、スラッシュが内容理解を促進する効果が発揮されるか。③関係代名詞の種類によって、スラッシュの効果に違いはあるかを調べた。
調査参加者は、日本人の高校生580名で、関係節に関する文法的知識を測定するテストと、スラッシュなしとありの単文英文和訳のテストを行った。
結果、スラッシュなしに比べて、スラッシュありの英文和訳の得点は、統計的に有意に高かった。しかし、関係代名詞の知識量とスラッシュリーディングの内容理解への効果を比べた結果、関係代名詞の知識を測るテストの得点が約70%以上の場合、スラッシュによって約50％の生徒の内容理解が促進されるが、得点が70％以下の学習者にとっては、スラッシュがあっても、生徒の10％以下しか内容理解が促進されないことが明らかになった。更に、主格・目的格より、接触節の関係代名詞の方が、スラッシュリーディングの効果が高い傾向にあった。
以上の結果から、学習者がしっかりとチャンキングの役割・意味を理解できない段階で、チャンクリーディング指導を行っても効果は限定的になってしまうため、学習者の発達段階をしっかり見極め、必要あれば文の構造などを重点的に指導することが重要である。