Koh Ker Archaeological Project by Sarah Klassen
Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory, 2021
A dominant view in economic anthropology is that farmers must overcome decreasing marginal return... more A dominant view in economic anthropology is that farmers must overcome decreasing marginal returns in the process of intensification. However, it is difficult to reconcile this view with the emergence of urban systems, which require substantial increases in labor productivity to support a growing non-farming population. This quandary is starkly posed by the rise of Angkor (Cambodia, 9th-fourteenth centuries CE), one of the most extensive preindustrial cities yet documented through archaeology. Here, we leverage extensive documentation of the Greater Angkor Region to illustrate how the social and spatial organization of agricultural production contributed to its food system. First, we find evidence for supra-household-level organization that generated increasing returns to farming labor. Second, we find spatial patterns which indicate that land-use choices took transportation costs to the urban core into account. These patterns suggest agricultural production at Angkor was organized in ways that are more similar to other forms of urban production than to a smallholder system.
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Report on file with the National Authority of Preah Vihear, 2019
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Report on file with the National Authority of Preah Vihear, 2019
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Report on file with the National Authority of Preah Vihear, 2019
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This paper examines the construction and design of a 7-km long embankment, probably built for Kin... more This paper examines the construction and design of a 7-km long embankment, probably built for King Jayavarman IV between 928 and 941 CE, as part of a new capital. We calculate that the capacities of the outlets were too small, and conclude that the embankment failed, probably within a decade of construction, so that the benefits of the reservoir stored by the embankment and the access road on top of it were lessened substantially. We explain how the design was sub-optimal for construction, and that while the layout had a high aesthetic impact, the processes for ensuring structural integrity were poor. Simple and inexpensive steps to secure the weir were not undertaken. We speculate that this early failure may have contributed to the decision to return the royal court and the capital of the Khmer Empire to the Angkor region, marking a critically important juncture in regional history.
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Report on file, the Authority for the Protection and Management of Angkor and the Region of Siem ... more Report on file, the Authority for the Protection and Management of Angkor and the Region of Siem Reap
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Geoarchaeology, 2019
Ground penetrating radar, probing, and excavation were used to create a contour map of the topogr... more Ground penetrating radar, probing, and excavation were used to create a contour map of the topography of a buried laterite pavement forming the spillway of a large abandoned reservoir at the Angkorian-period city of Koh Ker in Cambodia. Calculations of the flow velocity of water through the spillway, based on the topography of the laterite surface, demonstrate that this outlet was even less adequate for passing the flow of water from the Stung Rongea catchment than had been estimated previously by Lustig, Klassen, Evans, French, & Moffat (2018). We argue that this design flaw contributed substantially to the failure of the reservoir’s dike, possibly during the first rainy season after construction, which may have contributed to Koh Ker’s remarkably short‐lived tenure as the political center of the Khmer Empire.
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Greater Angkor by Sarah Klassen
Journal of Anthropological Archaeology, 2021
The vast agro-urban settlements that developed in the humid tropics of Mesoamerica and Asia conta... more The vast agro-urban settlements that developed in the humid tropics of Mesoamerica and Asia contained both elite civic-ceremonial spaces and sprawling metropolitan areas. Recent studies have suggested that both local autonomy and elite policies facilitated the development of these settlements; however, studies have been limited by a lack of detail in considering how, when, and why these factors contributed to the evolution of these sites. In this paper, we use a fine-grained diachronic analysis of Angkor’s landscape to identify both the state-level policies and infrastructure and bottom-up organization that spurred the growth of Angkor as the world’s most extensive pre-industrial settlement complex. This degree of diachronic detail is unique for the ancient world. We observe that Angkor’s low-density metropolitan area and higher-density civic-ceremonial center grew at different rates and independently of one another. While local historical factors contributed to these developments, we argue that future comparative studies might identify similar patterns.
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Remote Sensing, 2021
The Greater Angkor Region was the center of the Khmer Empire from the 9th until the 13th to the 1... more The Greater Angkor Region was the center of the Khmer Empire from the 9th until the 13th to the 14th centuries CE, when it entered a period of decline. Many studies have suggested that the decline of Angkor was precipitated by several factors, including severe monsoons, geopolitical
shifts, and invasions. In this paper, we use light detection and ranging and ground penetrating radar to investigate the possible intersection of two of these existential threats in one feature: the North Bank Wall. Our results indicate that this feature was designed with dual functionality of extending the urban area’s defenses to the east of Angkor Thom while maintaining the existing infrastructure for the distribution and disposal of water. These findings suggest that the North Bank Wall was
built before the severe droughts in the mid-13th century. The timing of the construction indicates that the perceived need for additional security—whether from internal factional disputes or external adversaries—predated the final adaptations to the hydraulic network during the unprecedented monsoon variability of the 14th century. These results indicate that perceived political unrest may have played a more important role in the decline of the site than previously known.
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Science Advances, 2021
Angkor is one of the world’s largest premodern settlement complexes (9th to 15th centuries CE), b... more Angkor is one of the world’s largest premodern settlement complexes (9th to 15th centuries CE), but to date, no comprehensive demographic study has been completed, and key aspects of its population and demographic history remain unknown. Here, we combine lidar, archaeological excavation data, radiocarbon dates, and machine learning
algorithms to create maps that model the development of the city and its population growth through time.
We conclude that the Greater Angkor Region was home to approximately 700,000 to 900,000 inhabitants at its
apogee in the 13th century CE. This granular, diachronic, paleodemographic model of the Angkor complex can be
applied to any ancient civilization.
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The Conversation, 2021
Over the last 30 years, archaeologists working in collaboration with Cambodia’s APSARA Authority ... more Over the last 30 years, archaeologists working in collaboration with Cambodia’s APSARA Authority have been exploring the jungles and rice fields of Cambodia, documenting thousands of medieval features that remain inscribed on the landscape. This work has included digging traditional excavation sites, surveying the landscape from the back of dirt bikes and scanning satellite imagery for traces of these ancient features.
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Ethics in Archaeological Lidar, 2020
Airborne laser scanning or lidar has now been used by archaeologists for twenty years, with many ... more Airborne laser scanning or lidar has now been used by archaeologists for twenty years, with many of the first applications relying on data acquired by public agencies seeking to establish baseline elevation maps, mainly in Europe and North America. More recently, several wide-area acquisitions have been designed and commissioned by archaeologists, the most extensive of which cover tropical
forest environments in the Americas and Southeast Asia. In these regions, the ability of lidar to map microtopographic relief and reveal anthropogenic traces on the Earth’s surface, even beneath dense vegetation, has been welcomed by many as a transformational breakthrough in our field of research. Nevertheless, applications of the method have attracted a measure of criticism and controversy, and the impact and significance of lidar are still debated. Now that wide-area, high-density laser scanning is becoming a standard part of many
archaeologists’ toolkits, it is an opportune moment to reflect on its position in contemporary archaeological practice and to move towards a code of ethics that is vital for scientific research. The papers in this Special Collection draw on experiences with using lidar in archaeological research programs, not only to highlight the new insights that derive from it but also to cast a critical eye on past practices and to assess what challenges and opportunities remain for developing codes of ethics. Using examples from a range of countries and environments, contributions revolve around three key themes: data management and access; the role of stakeholders; and public education. We draw on our collective experiences to propose a range of improvements in how we collect, use, and share lidar data, and we argue that as lidar acquisitions mature we are well-positioned to produce ethical, impactful, and reproducible research using the technique.
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Top-down and bottom-up water management: A diachronic model of changing water management strategies at Angkor, Cambodia, 2020
Keywords: Water management Angkor Cambodia Top-down and bottom-up management Agriculture Geograph... more Keywords: Water management Angkor Cambodia Top-down and bottom-up management Agriculture Geographic information systems Lidar A B S T R A C T The Greater Angkor region, in northwestern Cambodia, was home to several successive capitals of the Khmer Empire (9th to 15th centuries CE). During this time, the Khmer developed an extensive agricultural and water management system characterized by top-down state-sponsored hydraulic infrastructure. Archaeological evidence now shows that the well-documented state temples and water management features formed the core of an extended settlement complex consisting of many thousands of ponds, habitation mounds, and community temples. These community temples are difficult to date, and so far, the lack of chronological resolution in surface archaeological data has been the most significant challenge to understanding the trajectory of Angkor's growth and decline. In this paper, we combine heterogeneous archaeological datasets and create diachronic models of the landscape as it was developed for agricultural production. We trace the foundation of new temple communities as they emerge on the landscape in relation to the construction of extensive state-sponsored hydraulic infrastructure. Together, these two forms of water management transformed over 1000 km 2 of the Greater Angkor Region into an elaborate engineered landscape. Our results indicate that, over time, autonomous temple communities are replaced by large, state-sponsored agricultural units in an attempt by the state to centralize production.
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Poster presented at the Society for American Archaeology 82nd meeting, Vancouver, BC (April 2017)
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Archaeologists often need to date and group artifact types to discern typologies, chronologies , ... more Archaeologists often need to date and group artifact types to discern typologies, chronologies , and classifications. For over a century, statisticians have been using classification and clustering techniques to infer patterns in data that can be defined by algorithms. In the case of archaeology, linear regression algorithms are often used to chronologically date features and sites, and pattern recognition is used to develop typologies and classifications. However , archaeological data is often expensive to collect, and analyses are often limited by poor sample sizes and datasets. Here we show that recent advances in computation allow archaeologists to use machine learning based on much of the same statistical theory to address more complex problems using increased computing power and larger and incomplete datasets. This paper approaches the problem of predicting the chronology of archaeological sites through a case study of medieval temples in Angkor, Cambodia. For this study, we have a large dataset of temples with known architectural elements and artifacts; however , less than ten percent of the sample of temples have known dates, and much of the attribute data is incomplete. Our results suggest that the algorithms can predict dates for temples from 821–1150 CE with a 49-66-year average absolute error. We find that this method surpasses traditional supervised and unsupervised statistical approaches for under-specified portions of the dataset and is a promising new method for anthropological inquiry.
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US Southwest by Sarah Klassen
Poster presented at the Society for American Archaeology 78th Annual Meeting, Honolulu, HI (April... more Poster presented at the Society for American Archaeology 78th Annual Meeting, Honolulu, HI (April 2013).
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The vast region of northwestern Mexico and the American Southwest is a rich and dynamic zone of b... more The vast region of northwestern Mexico and the American Southwest is a rich and dynamic zone of both ancient and contemporary indigenous cultures. Its diversity in terms of both complexity and material culture have rendered it an especially fruitful region for addressing a range of pertinent anthropological issues, including social complexity, connectivity, and identity. For nearly four decades, Ben A. Nelson has dedicated his expertise to this region and its compelling issues, and has likewise encouraged generations of archaeologists in the careful study of ancient sites and landscapes both within the region and beyond. In this symposium, students and colleagues share their archaeological contributions in tribute to Dr. Ben Nelson’s broad influence and benevolent guidance as an archaeologist and mentor.
La vasta región que abarca el noroeste de México y el suroeste de los Estados Unidos es una zona rica y dinámica de culturas indígenas antiguas y actuales. Su diversidad en términos de la complejidad y la cultura material la hace una región fructífera para abordar una amplia gama de cuestiones antropológicos oportunos, incluyendo la complejidad, la conectividad, y la identidad social. A lo largo de casi cuatro décadas, Ben A. Nelson ha dedicado su conocimiento y especialización a esta región y a sus apasionantes temas, asimismo ha alentado a generaciones de arqueólogos en el estudio detallado de los sitios y paisajes antiguos tanto dentro de la región como fuera de ésta. En este simposio, los estudiantes y colegas comparten sus aportaciones arqueológicas en homenaje a Dr. Ben Nelson y a su gran influencia y orientación benevolente como arqueólogo y mentor.
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Report on file, School of Human Evolution and Social Change, Arizona State University
Co-authors... more Report on file, School of Human Evolution and Social Change, Arizona State University
Co-authors include Will Russell, John M. Bello, Erica J. Edwards, Zachary R. Knoll, Ryan M. Smigielski, and Rebeca B. Suarez
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Turquoise has played an important role in the Southwest, both today and in the distant past. Incr... more Turquoise has played an important role in the Southwest, both today and in the distant past. Increasingly, archaeologists are coming to appreciate that the mineral was likely valued for its symbolism, rather than its chemical properties or economic worth. Thus, the color blue-green and a variety of blue-green things may have been conceptually analogous, together referencing and petitioning moisture. J. J. Brody recognized that additional symbols, while not themselves blue-green, may have likewise belonged to this blue-green complex. Over a decade ago, and while testing Brody's hypothesis, Stephen Plog convincingly argued that black-on-white hachure in Gallup-Dogoszhi pottery served as a proxy for blue-green. Here, we ask whether Mimbres artists incorporated the same symbolism. Findings suggest that Mimbres hachure was likely representative of color but not necessarily blue-green. In fact, it may have referenced yellow. Yellow and blue are often paired among the Pueblos, and interregional differences in the meaning of hachure may relate to interregional complementarity. La turquesa juega un papel importante en el Suroeste, tanto en la actualidad como en el pasado remoto. Cada vez más, los arqueólogos reconocen que el mineral fue valorado no tanto por sus propiedades químicas o su valor económico sino probablemente por su simbolismo. Por lo tanto, es posible que el color verde-azul y una variedad de objetos de color verde-azul hayan sido conceptualmente análogos, conjuntamente haciendo referencia a la humedad y solicitando la misma. J. J. Brody reconoció que varios símbolos adicionales, aunque no de color verde-azul, también pudieron haber pertenecido a este complejo verde-azul. Hace más de una década, en un intento de comprobar la hipótesis de Brody, Stephen Plog argumentó de forma convincente que el hachurado en negro sobre blanco en la cerámica Gallup-Dogoszhi sirvió como sustituto del verde-azul. Aquí nos preguntamos si los artistas Mimbres incorporaron el mismo simbolismo. Los resultados sugieren que el hachurado Mimbres probablemente fuera representativo de un color, pero no necesariamente del verde-azul. De hecho, es posible que hiciera referencia al color amarillo. A menudo el amarillo y el azul forman un par entre la gente Pueblo, y es posible que las diferencias interregionales en el significado del hachurado se relacionen con la complementariedad interregional.
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Papers by Sarah Klassen
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Koh Ker Archaeological Project by Sarah Klassen
Greater Angkor by Sarah Klassen
shifts, and invasions. In this paper, we use light detection and ranging and ground penetrating radar to investigate the possible intersection of two of these existential threats in one feature: the North Bank Wall. Our results indicate that this feature was designed with dual functionality of extending the urban area’s defenses to the east of Angkor Thom while maintaining the existing infrastructure for the distribution and disposal of water. These findings suggest that the North Bank Wall was
built before the severe droughts in the mid-13th century. The timing of the construction indicates that the perceived need for additional security—whether from internal factional disputes or external adversaries—predated the final adaptations to the hydraulic network during the unprecedented monsoon variability of the 14th century. These results indicate that perceived political unrest may have played a more important role in the decline of the site than previously known.
algorithms to create maps that model the development of the city and its population growth through time.
We conclude that the Greater Angkor Region was home to approximately 700,000 to 900,000 inhabitants at its
apogee in the 13th century CE. This granular, diachronic, paleodemographic model of the Angkor complex can be
applied to any ancient civilization.
forest environments in the Americas and Southeast Asia. In these regions, the ability of lidar to map microtopographic relief and reveal anthropogenic traces on the Earth’s surface, even beneath dense vegetation, has been welcomed by many as a transformational breakthrough in our field of research. Nevertheless, applications of the method have attracted a measure of criticism and controversy, and the impact and significance of lidar are still debated. Now that wide-area, high-density laser scanning is becoming a standard part of many
archaeologists’ toolkits, it is an opportune moment to reflect on its position in contemporary archaeological practice and to move towards a code of ethics that is vital for scientific research. The papers in this Special Collection draw on experiences with using lidar in archaeological research programs, not only to highlight the new insights that derive from it but also to cast a critical eye on past practices and to assess what challenges and opportunities remain for developing codes of ethics. Using examples from a range of countries and environments, contributions revolve around three key themes: data management and access; the role of stakeholders; and public education. We draw on our collective experiences to propose a range of improvements in how we collect, use, and share lidar data, and we argue that as lidar acquisitions mature we are well-positioned to produce ethical, impactful, and reproducible research using the technique.
US Southwest by Sarah Klassen
La vasta región que abarca el noroeste de México y el suroeste de los Estados Unidos es una zona rica y dinámica de culturas indígenas antiguas y actuales. Su diversidad en términos de la complejidad y la cultura material la hace una región fructífera para abordar una amplia gama de cuestiones antropológicos oportunos, incluyendo la complejidad, la conectividad, y la identidad social. A lo largo de casi cuatro décadas, Ben A. Nelson ha dedicado su conocimiento y especialización a esta región y a sus apasionantes temas, asimismo ha alentado a generaciones de arqueólogos en el estudio detallado de los sitios y paisajes antiguos tanto dentro de la región como fuera de ésta. En este simposio, los estudiantes y colegas comparten sus aportaciones arqueológicas en homenaje a Dr. Ben Nelson y a su gran influencia y orientación benevolente como arqueólogo y mentor.
Co-authors include Will Russell, John M. Bello, Erica J. Edwards, Zachary R. Knoll, Ryan M. Smigielski, and Rebeca B. Suarez
Papers by Sarah Klassen
shifts, and invasions. In this paper, we use light detection and ranging and ground penetrating radar to investigate the possible intersection of two of these existential threats in one feature: the North Bank Wall. Our results indicate that this feature was designed with dual functionality of extending the urban area’s defenses to the east of Angkor Thom while maintaining the existing infrastructure for the distribution and disposal of water. These findings suggest that the North Bank Wall was
built before the severe droughts in the mid-13th century. The timing of the construction indicates that the perceived need for additional security—whether from internal factional disputes or external adversaries—predated the final adaptations to the hydraulic network during the unprecedented monsoon variability of the 14th century. These results indicate that perceived political unrest may have played a more important role in the decline of the site than previously known.
algorithms to create maps that model the development of the city and its population growth through time.
We conclude that the Greater Angkor Region was home to approximately 700,000 to 900,000 inhabitants at its
apogee in the 13th century CE. This granular, diachronic, paleodemographic model of the Angkor complex can be
applied to any ancient civilization.
forest environments in the Americas and Southeast Asia. In these regions, the ability of lidar to map microtopographic relief and reveal anthropogenic traces on the Earth’s surface, even beneath dense vegetation, has been welcomed by many as a transformational breakthrough in our field of research. Nevertheless, applications of the method have attracted a measure of criticism and controversy, and the impact and significance of lidar are still debated. Now that wide-area, high-density laser scanning is becoming a standard part of many
archaeologists’ toolkits, it is an opportune moment to reflect on its position in contemporary archaeological practice and to move towards a code of ethics that is vital for scientific research. The papers in this Special Collection draw on experiences with using lidar in archaeological research programs, not only to highlight the new insights that derive from it but also to cast a critical eye on past practices and to assess what challenges and opportunities remain for developing codes of ethics. Using examples from a range of countries and environments, contributions revolve around three key themes: data management and access; the role of stakeholders; and public education. We draw on our collective experiences to propose a range of improvements in how we collect, use, and share lidar data, and we argue that as lidar acquisitions mature we are well-positioned to produce ethical, impactful, and reproducible research using the technique.
La vasta región que abarca el noroeste de México y el suroeste de los Estados Unidos es una zona rica y dinámica de culturas indígenas antiguas y actuales. Su diversidad en términos de la complejidad y la cultura material la hace una región fructífera para abordar una amplia gama de cuestiones antropológicos oportunos, incluyendo la complejidad, la conectividad, y la identidad social. A lo largo de casi cuatro décadas, Ben A. Nelson ha dedicado su conocimiento y especialización a esta región y a sus apasionantes temas, asimismo ha alentado a generaciones de arqueólogos en el estudio detallado de los sitios y paisajes antiguos tanto dentro de la región como fuera de ésta. En este simposio, los estudiantes y colegas comparten sus aportaciones arqueológicas en homenaje a Dr. Ben Nelson y a su gran influencia y orientación benevolente como arqueólogo y mentor.
Co-authors include Will Russell, John M. Bello, Erica J. Edwards, Zachary R. Knoll, Ryan M. Smigielski, and Rebeca B. Suarez