Abstract
Automatic recovery is an important step in enabling fully autonomous missions using fixed-wing unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) operating from ships or other moving platforms. However, automatic recovery in moving arrest systems is only briefly studied in the research literature, and is not yet an option when using low-cost, commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) autopilots. Acknowledging the reliability and low cost of COTS avionics, this paper adds recovery functionality as a modular extension based on non-intrusive additions to an autopilot with very general assumptions on its interface. This is achieved by line-of-sight guidance, which sends an augmented desired position to the autopilot, to ensure line-following along a virtual runway that guides the UAV into the arrest system. The translation and rotation of this line is determined by the pose of the arrest system, determined using two Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) receivers, where one is configured as a Real-Time Kinematic (RTK) base station. The relative position of the UAV and arrest system is also precisely estimated using RTK GNSS. Through extensive field testing, on two different fixed-wing UAVs, the system has shown its performance and reliability; 43 recovery attempts in a stationary net hit 0.01 ± 0.25m to the right and 0.07 ± 0.20m below the target in calm conditions. Further, 15 recoveries in a barge-mounted, ship-towed net hit 0.06 ± 0.53m to the right and 0.98 ± 0.27m below the target in winds up to 4 m/s. The remaining error is largely systematic, caused by communication delays, and could be reduced with more integral effect or through direct compensation.
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Acknowledgements
This work has been carried out at the NTNU Center for Autonomous Marine Operations and Systems. The authors are grateful for the support from Maritime Robotics, in particular Lars Semb, Carl Erik Stephansen and Morten Einarsve, for piloting the UAVs, constructing the net rig and organizing the moving-net experiments. The authors also thank UAV pilot Pål Kvaløy from NTNU, as well as Einar Nielsen from Petroleum Geo-Services (PGS).
Funding
Open access funding provided by NTNU Norwegian University of Science and Technology (incl St. Olavs Hospital - Trondheim University Hospital). This work was supported by the Research Council of Norway through the Centers of Excellence funding scheme, project number 223254, and the Marlander project, project number 282427. The Marlander project is a collaboration between Maritime Robotics, Equinor, PGS, The Norwegian Clean Seas Association for Operating Companies (NOFO) and NTNU.
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Kristoffer Gryte and Martin L. Sollie have contributed equally to the ideas, theories, implementation and testing presented in this paper. Tor Arne Johansen has contributed with ideas and a theoretical foundation.
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Gryte, K., Sollie, M.L. & Johansen, T.A. Control System Architecture for Automatic Recovery of Fixed-Wing Unmanned Aerial Vehicles in a Moving Arrest System. J Intell Robot Syst 103, 73 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10846-021-01521-z
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10846-021-01521-z