Proceedings of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences
Effective medium theory aims to describe a complex inhomogeneous material in terms of a few impor... more Effective medium theory aims to describe a complex inhomogeneous material in terms of a few important macroscopic parameters. To characterize wave propagation through an inhomogeneous material, the most crucial parameter is the effective wavenumber . For this reason, there are many published studies on how to calculate a single effective wavenumber. Here, we present a proof that there does not exist a unique effective wavenumber; instead, there are an infinite number of such (complex) wavenumbers. We show that in most parameter regimes only a small number of these effective wavenumbers make a significant contribution to the wave field. However, to accurately calculate the reflection and transmission coefficients, a large number of the (highly attenuating) effective waves is required. For clarity, we present results for scalar (acoustic) waves for a two-dimensional material filled (over a half-space) with randomly distributed circular cylindrical inclusions. We calculate the effectiv...
Proceedings. Mathematical, physical, and engineering sciences, 2018
We formally deduce closed-form expressions for the transmitted effective wavenumber of a material... more We formally deduce closed-form expressions for the transmitted effective wavenumber of a material comprising multiple types of inclusions or particles (multi-species), dispersed in a uniform background medium. The expressions, derived here for the first time, are valid for moderate volume fractions and without restriction on the frequency. We show that the multi-species effective wavenumber is not a straightforward extension of expressions for a single species. Comparisons are drawn with state-of-the-art models in acoustics by presenting numerical results for a concrete and a water-oil emulsion in two dimensions. The limit of when one species is much smaller than the other is also discussed and we determine the background medium felt by the larger species in this limit. Surprisingly, we show that the answer is not the intuitive result predicted by self-consistent multiple scattering theories. The derivation presented here applies to the scalar wave equation with cylindrical or spher...
An initial stress within a solid can arise to support external loads or from processes such as th... more An initial stress within a solid can arise to support external loads or from processes such as thermal expansion in inert matter or growth and remodelling in living materials. For this reason it is useful to develop a mechanical framework of initially stressed solids irrespective of how this stress formed. An ideal way to do this is to write the free energy density $\Psi= \Psi(\boldsymbol F, \boldsymbol {\tau})$ in terms of initial stress $\boldsymbol \tau$ and the elastic deformation gradient $\boldsymbol F$. In this paper we present a new constitutive condition for initially stressed materials, which we call the initial stress symmetry (ISS). We focus on two consequences of this symmetry. First we examine how ISS restricts the free energy density $\Psi = \Psi (\boldsymbol F, \boldsymbol \tau) $ and present two examples of $\Psi (\boldsymbol F, \boldsymbol \tau)$ that satisfy ISS. Second we show that the initial stress can be derived from the Cauchy stress and the elastic deformati...
We present examples of body wave and surface wave propagation in deformed solids where the slowes... more We present examples of body wave and surface wave propagation in deformed solids where the slowest and the fastest waves do not travel along the directions of least and greatest stretch, respectively. These results run counter to commonly accepted theory, practice, and implementation of the principles of acousto-elasticity in initially isotropic solids. For instance, we find that in nickel and steel the fastest waves are along the direction of greatest compression, not greatest extension (and vice-versa for the slowest waves), as soon as those solids are deformed. Further, we find that when some materials are subject to a small-but-finite deformation, other extrema of wave speeds appear in non-principal directions. Examples include nickel, steel, polystyrene, and a certain hydrogel. The existence of these ''oblique'', non-principal extremal waves complicates the protocols for the non-destructive determination of the directions of extreme strains.
The Holzapfel–Gasser–Ogden (HGO) model for anisotropic hyperelastic behaviour of collagen fibre r... more The Holzapfel–Gasser–Ogden (HGO) model for anisotropic hyperelastic behaviour of collagen fibre reinforced materials was initially developed to describe the elastic properties of arterial tissue, but is now used extensively for modelling a variety of soft biological tissues. Such materials can be regarded as incompressible, and when the incompressibility condition is adopted the strain energy Ψ of the HGO model is a function of one isotropic and two anisotropic deformation invariants. A compressible form (HGO-C model) is widely used in finite element simulations whereby the isotropic part of Ψ is decoupled into volumetric and isochoric parts and the anisotropic part of Ψ is expressed in terms of isochoric invariants. Here, by using three simple deformations (pure dilatation, pure shear and uniaxial stretch), we demonstrate that the compressible HGO-C formulation does not correctly model compressible anisotropic material behaviour, because the anisotropic component of the model is insensitive to volumetric deformation due to the use of isochoric anisotropic invariants. In order to correctly model compressible anisotropic behaviour we present a modified anisotropic (MA) model, whereby the full anisotropic invariants are used, so that a volumetric anisotropic contribution is represented. The MA model correctly predicts an anisotropic response to hydrostatic tensile loading, whereby a sphere deforms into an ellipsoid. It also computes the correct anisotropic stress state for pure shear and uniaxial deformations. To look at more practical applications, we developed a finite element user-defined material subroutine for the simulation of stent deployment in a slightly compressible artery. Significantly higher stress triaxiality and arterial compliance are computed when the full anisotropic invariants are used (MA model) instead of the isochoric form (HGO-C model).
Proceedings of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences
Effective medium theory aims to describe a complex inhomogeneous material in terms of a few impor... more Effective medium theory aims to describe a complex inhomogeneous material in terms of a few important macroscopic parameters. To characterize wave propagation through an inhomogeneous material, the most crucial parameter is the effective wavenumber . For this reason, there are many published studies on how to calculate a single effective wavenumber. Here, we present a proof that there does not exist a unique effective wavenumber; instead, there are an infinite number of such (complex) wavenumbers. We show that in most parameter regimes only a small number of these effective wavenumbers make a significant contribution to the wave field. However, to accurately calculate the reflection and transmission coefficients, a large number of the (highly attenuating) effective waves is required. For clarity, we present results for scalar (acoustic) waves for a two-dimensional material filled (over a half-space) with randomly distributed circular cylindrical inclusions. We calculate the effectiv...
Proceedings. Mathematical, physical, and engineering sciences, 2018
We formally deduce closed-form expressions for the transmitted effective wavenumber of a material... more We formally deduce closed-form expressions for the transmitted effective wavenumber of a material comprising multiple types of inclusions or particles (multi-species), dispersed in a uniform background medium. The expressions, derived here for the first time, are valid for moderate volume fractions and without restriction on the frequency. We show that the multi-species effective wavenumber is not a straightforward extension of expressions for a single species. Comparisons are drawn with state-of-the-art models in acoustics by presenting numerical results for a concrete and a water-oil emulsion in two dimensions. The limit of when one species is much smaller than the other is also discussed and we determine the background medium felt by the larger species in this limit. Surprisingly, we show that the answer is not the intuitive result predicted by self-consistent multiple scattering theories. The derivation presented here applies to the scalar wave equation with cylindrical or spher...
An initial stress within a solid can arise to support external loads or from processes such as th... more An initial stress within a solid can arise to support external loads or from processes such as thermal expansion in inert matter or growth and remodelling in living materials. For this reason it is useful to develop a mechanical framework of initially stressed solids irrespective of how this stress formed. An ideal way to do this is to write the free energy density $\Psi= \Psi(\boldsymbol F, \boldsymbol {\tau})$ in terms of initial stress $\boldsymbol \tau$ and the elastic deformation gradient $\boldsymbol F$. In this paper we present a new constitutive condition for initially stressed materials, which we call the initial stress symmetry (ISS). We focus on two consequences of this symmetry. First we examine how ISS restricts the free energy density $\Psi = \Psi (\boldsymbol F, \boldsymbol \tau) $ and present two examples of $\Psi (\boldsymbol F, \boldsymbol \tau)$ that satisfy ISS. Second we show that the initial stress can be derived from the Cauchy stress and the elastic deformati...
We present examples of body wave and surface wave propagation in deformed solids where the slowes... more We present examples of body wave and surface wave propagation in deformed solids where the slowest and the fastest waves do not travel along the directions of least and greatest stretch, respectively. These results run counter to commonly accepted theory, practice, and implementation of the principles of acousto-elasticity in initially isotropic solids. For instance, we find that in nickel and steel the fastest waves are along the direction of greatest compression, not greatest extension (and vice-versa for the slowest waves), as soon as those solids are deformed. Further, we find that when some materials are subject to a small-but-finite deformation, other extrema of wave speeds appear in non-principal directions. Examples include nickel, steel, polystyrene, and a certain hydrogel. The existence of these ''oblique'', non-principal extremal waves complicates the protocols for the non-destructive determination of the directions of extreme strains.
The Holzapfel–Gasser–Ogden (HGO) model for anisotropic hyperelastic behaviour of collagen fibre r... more The Holzapfel–Gasser–Ogden (HGO) model for anisotropic hyperelastic behaviour of collagen fibre reinforced materials was initially developed to describe the elastic properties of arterial tissue, but is now used extensively for modelling a variety of soft biological tissues. Such materials can be regarded as incompressible, and when the incompressibility condition is adopted the strain energy Ψ of the HGO model is a function of one isotropic and two anisotropic deformation invariants. A compressible form (HGO-C model) is widely used in finite element simulations whereby the isotropic part of Ψ is decoupled into volumetric and isochoric parts and the anisotropic part of Ψ is expressed in terms of isochoric invariants. Here, by using three simple deformations (pure dilatation, pure shear and uniaxial stretch), we demonstrate that the compressible HGO-C formulation does not correctly model compressible anisotropic material behaviour, because the anisotropic component of the model is insensitive to volumetric deformation due to the use of isochoric anisotropic invariants. In order to correctly model compressible anisotropic behaviour we present a modified anisotropic (MA) model, whereby the full anisotropic invariants are used, so that a volumetric anisotropic contribution is represented. The MA model correctly predicts an anisotropic response to hydrostatic tensile loading, whereby a sphere deforms into an ellipsoid. It also computes the correct anisotropic stress state for pure shear and uniaxial deformations. To look at more practical applications, we developed a finite element user-defined material subroutine for the simulation of stent deployment in a slightly compressible artery. Significantly higher stress triaxiality and arterial compliance are computed when the full anisotropic invariants are used (MA model) instead of the isochoric form (HGO-C model).
An initial stress within a solid can arise to support external loads or from processes such as th... more An initial stress within a solid can arise to support external loads or from processes such as thermal expansion in inert matter or growth and remodelling in living materials. For this reason, it is useful to develop a mechanical framework of initially stressed solids irrespective of how this stress formed. An ideal way to do this is to write the free energy density Ψ in terms of initial stress τ and the elastic deformation gradient F, so we write Ψ = Ψ (F, τ). In this paper, we present a new constitutive condition for initially stressed materials, which we call the initial stress symmetry (ISS). We focus on two consequences of this condition. First, we examine how ISS restricts the possible choices of free energy densities Ψ = Ψ (F, τ) and present two examples of Ψ that satisfy the ISS. Second, we show that the initial stress can be derived from the Cauchy stress and the elastic deformation gradient. To illustrate, we take an example from biomechanics and calculate the optimal Cauchy stress within an artery subjected to internal pressure. We then use ISS to derive the optimal target residual stress for the material to achieve after remodelling, which links nicely with the notion of homeostasis.
Many interesting shapes appearing in the biological world are formed by the onset of mechanical i... more Many interesting shapes appearing in the biological world are formed by the onset of mechanical instability. In this work we consider how the build-up of residual stress can cause a solid to buckle. In all past studies a fictitious (virtual) stress-free state was required to calculate the residual stress. In contrast, we use a model which is simple and allows the prescription of any residual stress field.
We specialize the analysis to an elastic tube subject to a two-dimensional residual stress, and find that incremental wrinkles can appear on its inner or its outer face, depending on the location of the highest value of the residual hoop stress. We further validate the predictions of the incremental theory with finite element simulations, which allow us to go beyond this threshold and predict the shape, number and amplitude of the resulting creases.
Living matter can functionally adapt to external physical factors by developing internal tensions... more Living matter can functionally adapt to external physical factors by developing internal tensions, easily revealed by cutting experiments. Nonetheless, residual stresses intrinsically have a complex spatial distribution, and destructive techniques cannot be used to identify a natural stress-free configuration. This work proposes a novel elastic theory of pre-stressed materials. Imposing physical compatibility and symmetry arguments, we define a new class of free energies explicitly depending on the internal stresses. This theory is finally applied to the study of arterial remodelling, proving its potential for the non-destructive determination of the residual tensions within biological materials.
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Papers by Artur Gower
Journal Articles by Artur Gower
We specialize the analysis to an elastic tube subject to a two-dimensional residual stress, and find that incremental wrinkles can appear on its inner or its outer face, depending on the location of the highest value of the residual hoop stress. We further validate the predictions of the incremental theory with finite element simulations, which allow us to go beyond this threshold and predict the shape, number and amplitude of the resulting creases.