Anatolia has been a host to many religions, civilizations and states throughout history. After Se... more Anatolia has been a host to many religions, civilizations and states throughout history. After Seljuk conquests, Anatolia has Islamized and has been a home to and still is a home to Turkish states and seigniories. The main institution that comes to mind in the Islamization and the formation of the new Turkish homeland, Anatolia, is the Akhies. The Akhies, is not only the representation of the futuwwa tradition of the Islamic World, but also with its differences has become an Anatolian specific institution. The Akhies, with there traditional futuwwa understanding and there sufistic appearances have shown that they’re religious/Islamic. With their institution and institutions they have somehow shown presence everywhere in Anatolia and formed the base of today’s artisan organization and understandings. As much as they’re the arbiter in economics and soscial areas, they’re also the arbiter in religious and political areas and have had huge contributions to the islamificiation of Anatolia especially between the XIV. and XVI. centuries. The origin of the word Akhi is discussed here. Its meaning is usually given as a Turkish adjective (akı: generous) and the Arabic noun (akhi: my brother). However, in the example “Ahî Mesʻûd” the adjective mentions a possessive individual. Both of these meanings brings the Islamic values like fraternity and generosity to forefront. The role and importance of an institution with a great organization, in which human and especially religious fraternity is emphasized, in the formation of the religious and national identity of Anatolia should be well understood. Islamization is the transformation of the individual and society to Islam through political, social, economic and cultural aspects. It was possible for this to happen either in a form or in a way. It was also a step forward in recognizing the sovereignty of Muslim governance. With the first Islamic conquests, a management called Sugûr or Avâsim was established in the south and southeast of Anatolia. Thus, these areas began to Islamize since the early periods. However, from the middle of the X. century, the Byzantine Empire seized Avâsım region from the hands of Muslim Arabs and tried to destroy everything that was Islamic. In fact, they cut down palm trees down because they associated them with Arabs (Muslims). Thus, Islamization, which is limited to Avâsim region, had been interrupted. The Seljuk Turks’ conquest strategy in Anatolia was done differently. Anatolia was considered as a new homeland for them. There had to be many changes and moves for it to be permanent stay. It has been so; The existing institutions and organizations of Christian Byzantium have been replaced by the Muslim Seljuks from now on. For example, the artisan organization of the Byzantine period was replaced by the Akhies. This institution has served for the establishment of new religion, state and civilization. It has been seen that the existing social and economic life has Islamized by changing the way of working and practices and by adding new things. The Akhies, undertook the state mission as the state representatives, while the state authority was decreased or lost. They played important roles in the foundation and rise of the Ottomans and followed the unifying politics by influencing the people in the periods of occupation and conquest. The Akhies prepared the Turkish nomads for the permanent settlement and work life; they were instrumental in the economic standing and strengthening of the nomads. They made a significant contribution to the Islamization of the Turkmens and their preparation for the new life with the dervish lodges and monasteries they established. At that time, they provided social peace by defending unemployed, powerless and orphaned young people in Anatolia. As the borders of the state expanded, the effect and influence of the the Akhies increased. It has also been seen that the Akhi are influential and active in the Crimea and the Balkans. According to the findings of the great traveler Ibn Battutah, Akhies opened lodges and lodges from the most remote villages of Anatolia. Considering this finding, it can be deduced that the Akhies give religious, social and cultural education to semi-nomadic Turkmens. Thus, thanks to these trainings, they should have been taught about religion, so Islam. This situation is of great importance considering the religious knowledge and experience of the nomadic and semi-nomadic Turkmens. On this occasion, the relations of the Turkmens with their neighbors living in cities and towns should be strengthened. At that time, Friday prayer was made in cities and towns. Those Turkmen who knew their religion and wanted to fulfill their requirements had to come to the city at least on Fridays. Akhies, an organized community, took over their brothers in cities and watched them. Some of them were also working in the economic institutions organized by Akhies and having power. Thus, opportunities for the nomadic…
Çukurova Üniversitesi İlahiyat Fakültesi Dergisi (ÇÜİFD), Dec 27, 2019
Hz. Peygamber’e hayatta iken iman edip onunla gorusme imkânini yakalayan kimseye sahabi denilmekt... more Hz. Peygamber’e hayatta iken iman edip onunla gorusme imkânini yakalayan kimseye sahabi denilmektedir. Sahabilerin gorus ve degerlendirmeleri sonraki donem muslumanlari tarafindan bir olcut kabul edildiginden, onlarin bazi sahis, topluluk ve devletlerle ilgili gorusleri de buyuk onem kazanmaktadir. Bu baglamda sahabilerin, dunya tarihini etkileyen ve halen de etkilemekte olan Turklerle ilgili gorus ve degerlendirmelerinin de incelenmesi gerekmektedir. Zira Islam tarihi kaynaklarimizda Turklerin kokeni, fiziki gorunumleri ve bazi karakteristik ozelliklerinden bahseden rivayetler bulunmaktadir. Islam’in zuhuru esnasinda Araplarin ve ozelde ilk muslumanlarin Turkleri tanimasi meselesi tartisilsa da, ashâbin bu millet hakkinda bilgi sahibi olmasi pek cok acidan mumkun gorunmektedir. Zira Mekkelilerin uluslararasi imtiyazlar elde edip buyuk capli ticaret yapmalari, tarihi Ipek Yolu uzerinde Turklerin yasadigi pek cok sehrin bulunmasi, Cahiliye sairlerinin siirlerinde Turklerden soz edilmesi, yabancilarin Mekke’de ikamet etmeleri, komsu devletler Bizanslilar ve Sasanilerin Turklerle olan iliskileri, savaslari gibi hadiseler bu karsilasmayi ve tanimayi mumkun kilmaktadir. Sahabilere gore Turkler, musluman olma potansiyeli yuksek, nufusu kalabalik ve guclu insani karakterlere sahip bir millettir. Ancak baslangicta Turkler, ilisilmemesi gereken tehlikeli dusmanlar olarak nitelendirilmistir. Muslumanlar, Turklerin sinir komsulari olan Bizans Imparatorlugu ve Sasani Imparatorlugu’yla fiilen savas halindeydiler. Turkler disarda Cin istilasina karsi mucadele verirlerken, icerde taht kavgalari gibi sorunlarla mesgulduler. Bu yuzden taraflar savasmak yerine birbirlerini anlamaya ve temkinle yaklasmaya calismislardir. Savas kacinilmaz oldugunda da birbirlerinin uzerine cesaretle yonelmislerdir. Sahabe devrinin sonlarina dogru Kafkasya, Horasan ve Mâverâunnehir bolgelerinde Turklerle savasilmistir. Bu noktada Turklerin sahâbeye nasil baktigi meselesi de onem kazanmaktadir. Oyle ki Turkler ashâbi, ulvi gayelerle hareket eden insanlar olarak gormusler ve savasma konusunda pek istekli davranmamislardir. Bu yuzden olsa gerek Turklerin Kafkaslarda Bâbu’l-Ebvâb’in (Demirkapu), Orta Asya’da Ceyhun Nehri’nin ardina kadar cekildikleri gorulmustur. Turkler (kitlesel olarak) musluman olmadan once de sahabilere ve mezarlarina saygi ve hurmet gostermislerdir. Bu tur yaklasimlarin Turklerin Islamlasmasini olumlu etkiledigi soylenebilir. Ilk devirlerde Turkler arasinda kitlesel olmasa da bireysel muslumanlasanlar olmustur. Emevilerin mevâli politikalari ve suregelen savaslar Islamlasmayi yavaslatmissa da Abbasi ihtilaline en buyuk destegin Turklerin yogun yasadigi Horasan ve Mâverâunnehir halkindan geldigi bilinmektedir. Bu calismada, temel Islâm tarihi kaynaklari ve hadis kulliyâti esas alinarak, Hz. Peygamber’in ve sahabilerin Turklerin kokeni, fiziki gorunumleri ve bazi insani ozelliklerini anlatan rivayetler uzerinde durulmaktadir. Amacimiz ilk Islam fetihleri suresince sahabilerin Turklerle olan iliskilerini, onlarin Turklere dair olumlu ve olumsuz kanaatlerini tum yonleriyle ortaya koymaktir.
Shu‘ûbiyya is a literary, political and social movement that rejects the idea that the Arabs are ... more Shu‘ûbiyya is a literary, political and social movement that rejects the idea that the Arabs are superior and praises their own nation. Those (Ehlü’t-Tesviye) who advocate the principle of equality of Islam inspiring from the word shu’ub (the people) in the surah Hucûrat of the Qur’an are accepted as the first pioneers of this move-ment. Later on, Shu‘ûbiyya turned into a literary movement edited on insulting the Arabs and praising their own tribes. In society, the demand for this movement is per-ceived as social segregation and separatism. In fact, those who stood up for this mo-vement were accused of moving away from religion and returning to pre-Islamic beli-efs. It is known that the biggest support for the Shu‘ûbiyya was given by the Persi-ans and they led other Muslim nations as well. Shu‘ûbiyya in Andalusia has a so-mewhat softer tongue and style, although greatly influenced by the Persians. However, Shu‘ûbiyya, the tract of Ibn Garcia of the Andalusia criticizes the Arabs in a stern not to search the East. Abu Amir Ibn Garcia who lived in the last years of the Andalusian Umayyad State (756-1031) is an important poet of Saklab (Sakâlibe) origin. The Andalusian Umayyads formed a strong civilization and a common cultural climate on the Iberian peninsula. They sustained different religions, languages and cultures together and integrated all the citizens under the aegis of ummah. The poem written by Ibn Garcia has the feature of being the first literary product written in Anda-lusia. The tract is based on the view that the Ajams, in particular the Whites (Indo-European people), are superior in every respect to the Arabs. The history of Rome and Iran was presented as the common medal of the whites. Using words and literary arts, the Arabs are told in every possible way that they have been back from all walks of life and miserable lives. The Arabs have been despised and humiliated in their pre-sent and past lives. Expressions to praise the Prophet Mohammad (pbuh) were given, but it was stressed that his ancestors were not Arab. The Shuʽûbiyya Tract, since it was written, has caused wide repercussions in the minds and literary circles. A large number of rejections about it have been received. This work is almost identical with the name of Ibn Garcia. It was one of the first names that came to mind when they talked about Shu‘ûbiyya. It is thought that the Shu‘ûbiyya movement influenced many of today’s social, cultural, philosophical, political currents and thoughts, and even inspired them. It is hoped that our article will contribute to the studies on this current. The translation of this tract into our language, which is considered to be one of the most important studies of the Shu‘ûbiyya, will compensate for an important gap. The tract we have translated is in the studies of Abdussalam M. Harun’s Nevâdir al-Mahtûtât. In this study, important information is given about Ibn Garcia and the current movement. In our writings, the shu‘ûbiyya movement (in particular Andalusian Shu‘ûbiyya), Ibn Garcia and the tract of Shu‘ûbiyya are introduced with the main lines by exploiting from the studies of other authors as well. In the last part, the full text and translation of the treatise is given. Keywords- The Shu‘ûbiyya al-Andalucia, Ibn Garcia, tractate, Arabs, Ajams
Political dissidence began with the caliphate electoral process of Muaviye (661-680) in the Islam... more Political dissidence began with the caliphate electoral process of Muaviye (661-680) in the Islamic society. With the appointment and caliph of Yezîd (680-683), these divisions became deeper and the Disaster of Karbala, Hârre Event and Mecca Siege are referred to as having triggered religious-political divisions. The caliphates’ bias in the rivalry between the Yamani and the Mudar caused a deficiency in the administration. The attitude and treatment taken against the Mevlâya (Mawali), on the other hand, forced the majority of Muslims to become potential opposition. However, it is possible to talk about an extraordinary caliphate in the Umayyad caliphate. Umar b. Abdülaziz (717-720) gained the love and sympathy of the Muslims with his religiosity and was admitted as a unifying figure in the society. Considering his humble experience in his brief calm, his commitment to Islamic rule, his fair administration and his meticulousness to the state’s property, he was resembled to Rasheed caliphs. The fact that he served the public day and night and settled the problems through negotiations without fighting facilitated the solution of the chronic social problems. Keywords: Umar b. Abdulaziz, Umayyad caliphs, Social dissedence, reconstruction
Yüzüncü Yıl Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi = The Journal of Social Sciences Institute, 2016
Sis (Kozan) is the name of an ancientcity located in Çukurova’s northern borders at the foothills... more Sis (Kozan) is the name of an ancientcity located in Çukurova’s northern borders at the foothills of the Taurus Mountains and alsoused in general as the name of theregion of Cilicia. Cilicia is one of the most important citadels and it was ruled by many states and civilisations such as Hittites, Phoenicians, Macedonians, Persians, Romans Byzantines and muslims. During the first Islamic conquests, Sis and its neighbourhood were annexxed to the Thugur/Avasim territories. The region was often exposed to destruction and devastation and changed hands when the Abbasid lost power. It was first controlled by the Byzantine and then the Armenians. As from the XI century the Armenian barony, founded based on Sis,evolved into prince domand kingdom over time. This kingdom, centrally located in Çukurova and its neighbouring mountains, existedover a large region from the central Anatolia to Syria. However it is seen that it could not be fully independent and remained (vassals) under therule of the Byzantines, Crusadersor muslims over the change of power. Key Words: Kozan/Sis, The Land of Sis/Cilicia, Byzantine, Umayyad, Abbasid, Armenians, Turksand Conquest
Uluslararası İbn Haldûn Sempozyumu International Ibn Khaldun Symposium, 2016
Anatolia was experiencing religious, economic, social, political and cultural upheavals on the ev... more Anatolia was experiencing religious, economic, social, political and cultural upheavals on the eve of the Seljuk conquests. Due to the ongoing conflicts and even civil wars, the cities and the towns were abandoned and they turned into ruins. However, after the Seljuk conquests, Anatolia would begin to be reshaped and have a new religion and identity. Akhies would appear in this period, they would have important roles in the moral and physical construction of Anatolia,
and especially they would contribute to the culture of living together.
Akhies displays a mistical character with their praying , eating, drinking together and gathering at a certain place (Dervish lodge) and with their hierarchical order They have a different look from the community they live in with respect to their clothes. With their simple daily life styles, putting together their incomes, setting the table together and tendency to invite foreign quests to the table, they have the potential of making friends easily in their environment.
It is observed that respecting professional education and hierarchy they established a sense of understanding and morality concerning the tradesmen in the community. On the other hand they mix with the poor and orphans, which strengthens the social rehabilition. The dervish lodges also offer accommodation for the quests.
Akhies, who foresee the necessity to be vigilent and prepared also against the outside attacks to Anatolia, played a vital role in the total defence of the country. By adopting the motto “live for the moment (in the other words Ibnu’l-Vakit)”, they became a hope for the community they live in.
Keywords: Anatolia, living together, Akhism.
Yüzüncü Yıl Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, 2012
Slavery was still in effect mercilessly when Islam was born. Slaves were people living miserable ... more Slavery was still in effect mercilessly when Islam was born. Slaves were people living miserable lives who hoped to find salvation from the boundaries of others, and society treated them as commercial property for sale. Islam made significant reforms in slavery. This articles delves into the issues of the slave trade/markets, slaves' economic buitability and qualifications, jobs that focused primarily on slavery, as well as slave prices and the number of slaves in society in the early Islamic period.
Key Words: The Prophet Mohammad, The Rashidun Caliphs, Umayyads, economics, slaves, concubines.
Çukurova Üniversitesi İlahiyat Fakültesi Dergisi = Çukurova University Journal of Faculty of Divinity, 2013
Slaves were those that people in society had demoted as property, and they were treated different... more Slaves were those that people in society had demoted as property, and they were treated differently from other individuals in terms of the laws, economy and social life. Slavery, which dates back long ago, was widespread all around the world at the time of Islam's birth. Islam made significant reforms in it, rather than abolishing at first. Islam restricted the conditions to decrease slavery and considered the slaves as ones to be saved. It also set forth humanitarian and legal regulations pertaining to guidelines which promoted better treatment by their owners, as well providing for a sooner release date from the bonds of slavery. Mawla, which refers to the freed , was also used to refer to all the muslims other than Arab ones at the Umayyad Period .The administrators were supposed to be freemen Mawla/mawali, which the author assumed to be in a status between that of slaves and freemen. This articles delves into the top positions and especially employement of the slaves and mawali in the early Islamic period.
Key words- The Prophet Mohammad, Rashidun Caliphate, Umayyads, administrative life, slaves, mawali.
The Umayyads made various mistakes in the rebuilding of civilization and culture of living togeth... more The Umayyads made various mistakes in the rebuilding of civilization and culture of living together. The great conquests carried out in a short period of time must have hindered inward personal and social accounts. The Umayyads have been criticized for their understanding of the administration and the politics they applied. From the beginning of their establishment, their departure from the path of the Rashidun Caliphs and showing some deviations disturb the muslims. The voices of opposition rose against the way and manner of power of the first caliph Muawiya I. These objections turned into active or passive opposition over time. Yazid’s personal attitudes and actions shook the Islamic society deeply and fueled the power division difficult to repair. These events, which are called The Battle of Karbala, The Battle of al-Harrah and Siege of Mecca in history, laid the foundation for the birth of the first religious-political sides. These were seen as the first specimens of Shiism in Islamic history, and Haricism was born in this setting. Marwan bin al-Hakam succeeded in re-establishing the Umayyad State but this time there was a Yamani-Mudari controversy among the Arabs. Racism and tribalism which was seen non-Islamic rose again. Due to this problem sometimes the administration and the military mechanism could not work, border provinces were uncontrollable. By seeing this problem, the caliphs who pursued balanced politics, were found as successful, the ones who took a stand, were found weak and unskilful. It is also said that this problem facilitated the collapse of the Umayyad State. While this balance was established in the periods of Muawiya I, Abdulmalik and Walid I, it was distorted again in the period of Sulayman. The problem of new Muslims (The Mawali) emerged with conquests. The gaze of the Umayyad administrators and the policy that they put into practice alienated the other. The managers were worried about the population and influence of the mawali slaves. The mawali slaves’ desires to be treated equal as their religionist Arabians, was always ignored. The practice of poll tax (jizya) received from non-muslims continued. In addition, they were not treated equally in benefiting from state facilities. This situation troubled new prospects. Non-muslims constituted the majority in the country’s population. Our paper covers the period of Umar bin Abdulaziz and pre-Umayyad caliphs. It has been explained that the pre-Umar caliphs were openly violating the Islamic orders and prohibitions, spoiling their excesses and state possibilities. With the residence of the caliphs in the pavilions and palaces, the life in luxury and arts and their gluttony brought to the agenda, the opposition was given support. When Umar was governor of Medina, it was mentioned that those who escaped the persecution of some other governors would take shelter in Hijaz. It has been explained how caliph Umar opposed injustices with words and deeds. Thus, from the governor's times, Umar was well received by the wider community thanks to his state, attitudes and practices, he also gained love and sympathy of the mawali slaves. Religious personality showed positive effects on Muslims and further strengthened the unity of Islamic society. In the short caliphate period, the state and the people got closer and a peace and tranquility environment was established between the state and the problematic sections (including Shia and Haricîs). Umar bin Abdulaziz was regarded as the fifth “The Rashidun Caliphs” by his modesty, piousness and actions, being different from his successor and his predecessor The Umayyad caliphs. In his time (717-720), social peace and stability came a long way. Umar reconciled with all opposition parties, including mawali slaves, and united them around society. Even in the case of a relative, peace was achieved both internally and externally. Also during his period, there were intense prospects in various provinces, especially in North Africa, Mawarau-n-nahr (Transoxiana) and Egypt. The army, which was thought to have been worn out by conquering politics, turned into troops. For example, the siege of Istanbul was abolished and military services interrupted in the border areas (Sugûr). There was a limit to state spending and efforts were made to improve the situation of the general population. The members of the dynasty opposed the reduction of public spending. The early death of Umar strengthened the allegations that he was poisoned by the elders of the dynasty. The appreciation of all sections of the society, the resolution of chronic social problems and the start of life in this area were appreciated. With the introduction of a unifying historical personality such as Umar bin Abdulaziz in our paper, it has been realised though maybe at a minimum level to contribute to “civilization rebuilding and culture of living together” Key Words: The Umayyads, Umar bin Abdulaziz, rebuilding and living together
Mawlana is a true Islamic missionary, as demonstrated by how he led his life and the kind work he... more Mawlana is a true Islamic missionary, as demonstrated by how he led his life and the kind work he performed. The era he lived in was full of unrest and was painful. The Muslim world was surrounded by the shamanistic Mongolians in the East and by the crusaders in the West. Mawlana and his family had to leave the lands where he was born, due to the Mongolian invasion. Mawlana claimed to be hope for the Muslims and all the humanity. His universal attitude was outlined as uplifting, strong and progressive, in the Anatolian land where he sought refuge and which he assumed to be the last harbour. His call was to Islam the path of hope and true guidance. Mawlana might be said to have displayed a moderate attitude against the Mongolians, which were the superpower of the time. He had hope that the Mongolians would convert to Islam in due time so he established good relations with the Mongolian rulers which were aimed at encouraging them into Islam. This was especially true of Gazan Han. It is a historical fact that these invaders’ children soon entered Islam. In this paper the author addresses Mawlana’s attitude towards the Mongolian invasion, his expectation that they would enter Islam and his invitation thereto. Keywords: Mawlana, Mongolians, Islamic mission, Shamanism, convertion to Islam, Islamization
Anatolia has been a host to many religions, civilizations and states throughout history. After Se... more Anatolia has been a host to many religions, civilizations and states throughout history. After Seljuk conquests, Anatolia has Islamized and has been a home to and still is a home to Turkish states and seigniories. The main institution that comes to mind in the Islamization and the formation of the new Turkish homeland, Anatolia, is the Akhies. The Akhies, is not only the representation of the futuwwa tradition of the Islamic World, but also with its differences has become an Anatolian specific institution. The Akhies, with there traditional futuwwa understanding and there sufistic appearances have shown that they’re religious/Islamic. With their institution and institutions they have somehow shown presence everywhere in Anatolia and formed the base of today’s artisan organization and understandings. As much as they’re the arbiter in economics and soscial areas, they’re also the arbiter in religious and political areas and have had huge contributions to the islamificiation of Anatolia especially between the XIV. and XVI. centuries. The origin of the word Akhi is discussed here. Its meaning is usually given as a Turkish adjective (akı: generous) and the Arabic noun (akhi: my brother). However, in the example “Ahî Mesʻûd” the adjective mentions a possessive individual. Both of these meanings brings the Islamic values like fraternity and generosity to forefront. The role and importance of an institution with a great organization, in which human and especially religious fraternity is emphasized, in the formation of the religious and national identity of Anatolia should be well understood. Islamization is the transformation of the individual and society to Islam through political, social, economic and cultural aspects. It was possible for this to happen either in a form or in a way. It was also a step forward in recognizing the sovereignty of Muslim governance. With the first Islamic conquests, a management called Sugûr or Avâsim was established in the south and southeast of Anatolia. Thus, these areas began to Islamize since the early periods. However, from the middle of the X. century, the Byzantine Empire seized Avâsım region from the hands of Muslim Arabs and tried to destroy everything that was Islamic. In fact, they cut down palm trees down because they associated them with Arabs (Muslims). Thus, Islamization, which is limited to Avâsim region, had been interrupted. The Seljuk Turks’ conquest strategy in Anatolia was done differently. Anatolia was considered as a new homeland for them. There had to be many changes and moves for it to be permanent stay. It has been so; The existing institutions and organizations of Christian Byzantium have been replaced by the Muslim Seljuks from now on. For example, the artisan organization of the Byzantine period was replaced by the Akhies. This institution has served for the establishment of new religion, state and civilization. It has been seen that the existing social and economic life has Islamized by changing the way of working and practices and by adding new things. The Akhies, undertook the state mission as the state representatives, while the state authority was decreased or lost. They played important roles in the foundation and rise of the Ottomans and followed the unifying politics by influencing the people in the periods of occupation and conquest. The Akhies prepared the Turkish nomads for the permanent settlement and work life; they were instrumental in the economic standing and strengthening of the nomads. They made a significant contribution to the Islamization of the Turkmens and their preparation for the new life with the dervish lodges and monasteries they established. At that time, they provided social peace by defending unemployed, powerless and orphaned young people in Anatolia. As the borders of the state expanded, the effect and influence of the the Akhies increased. It has also been seen that the Akhi are influential and active in the Crimea and the Balkans. According to the findings of the great traveler Ibn Battutah, Akhies opened lodges and lodges from the most remote villages of Anatolia. Considering this finding, it can be deduced that the Akhies give religious, social and cultural education to semi-nomadic Turkmens. Thus, thanks to these trainings, they should have been taught about religion, so Islam. This situation is of great importance considering the religious knowledge and experience of the nomadic and semi-nomadic Turkmens. On this occasion, the relations of the Turkmens with their neighbors living in cities and towns should be strengthened. At that time, Friday prayer was made in cities and towns. Those Turkmen who knew their religion and wanted to fulfill their requirements had to come to the city at least on Fridays. Akhies, an organized community, took over their brothers in cities and watched them. Some of them were also working in the economic institutions organized by Akhies and having power. Thus, opportunities for the nomadic…
Çukurova Üniversitesi İlahiyat Fakültesi Dergisi (ÇÜİFD), Dec 27, 2019
Hz. Peygamber’e hayatta iken iman edip onunla gorusme imkânini yakalayan kimseye sahabi denilmekt... more Hz. Peygamber’e hayatta iken iman edip onunla gorusme imkânini yakalayan kimseye sahabi denilmektedir. Sahabilerin gorus ve degerlendirmeleri sonraki donem muslumanlari tarafindan bir olcut kabul edildiginden, onlarin bazi sahis, topluluk ve devletlerle ilgili gorusleri de buyuk onem kazanmaktadir. Bu baglamda sahabilerin, dunya tarihini etkileyen ve halen de etkilemekte olan Turklerle ilgili gorus ve degerlendirmelerinin de incelenmesi gerekmektedir. Zira Islam tarihi kaynaklarimizda Turklerin kokeni, fiziki gorunumleri ve bazi karakteristik ozelliklerinden bahseden rivayetler bulunmaktadir. Islam’in zuhuru esnasinda Araplarin ve ozelde ilk muslumanlarin Turkleri tanimasi meselesi tartisilsa da, ashâbin bu millet hakkinda bilgi sahibi olmasi pek cok acidan mumkun gorunmektedir. Zira Mekkelilerin uluslararasi imtiyazlar elde edip buyuk capli ticaret yapmalari, tarihi Ipek Yolu uzerinde Turklerin yasadigi pek cok sehrin bulunmasi, Cahiliye sairlerinin siirlerinde Turklerden soz edilmesi, yabancilarin Mekke’de ikamet etmeleri, komsu devletler Bizanslilar ve Sasanilerin Turklerle olan iliskileri, savaslari gibi hadiseler bu karsilasmayi ve tanimayi mumkun kilmaktadir. Sahabilere gore Turkler, musluman olma potansiyeli yuksek, nufusu kalabalik ve guclu insani karakterlere sahip bir millettir. Ancak baslangicta Turkler, ilisilmemesi gereken tehlikeli dusmanlar olarak nitelendirilmistir. Muslumanlar, Turklerin sinir komsulari olan Bizans Imparatorlugu ve Sasani Imparatorlugu’yla fiilen savas halindeydiler. Turkler disarda Cin istilasina karsi mucadele verirlerken, icerde taht kavgalari gibi sorunlarla mesgulduler. Bu yuzden taraflar savasmak yerine birbirlerini anlamaya ve temkinle yaklasmaya calismislardir. Savas kacinilmaz oldugunda da birbirlerinin uzerine cesaretle yonelmislerdir. Sahabe devrinin sonlarina dogru Kafkasya, Horasan ve Mâverâunnehir bolgelerinde Turklerle savasilmistir. Bu noktada Turklerin sahâbeye nasil baktigi meselesi de onem kazanmaktadir. Oyle ki Turkler ashâbi, ulvi gayelerle hareket eden insanlar olarak gormusler ve savasma konusunda pek istekli davranmamislardir. Bu yuzden olsa gerek Turklerin Kafkaslarda Bâbu’l-Ebvâb’in (Demirkapu), Orta Asya’da Ceyhun Nehri’nin ardina kadar cekildikleri gorulmustur. Turkler (kitlesel olarak) musluman olmadan once de sahabilere ve mezarlarina saygi ve hurmet gostermislerdir. Bu tur yaklasimlarin Turklerin Islamlasmasini olumlu etkiledigi soylenebilir. Ilk devirlerde Turkler arasinda kitlesel olmasa da bireysel muslumanlasanlar olmustur. Emevilerin mevâli politikalari ve suregelen savaslar Islamlasmayi yavaslatmissa da Abbasi ihtilaline en buyuk destegin Turklerin yogun yasadigi Horasan ve Mâverâunnehir halkindan geldigi bilinmektedir. Bu calismada, temel Islâm tarihi kaynaklari ve hadis kulliyâti esas alinarak, Hz. Peygamber’in ve sahabilerin Turklerin kokeni, fiziki gorunumleri ve bazi insani ozelliklerini anlatan rivayetler uzerinde durulmaktadir. Amacimiz ilk Islam fetihleri suresince sahabilerin Turklerle olan iliskilerini, onlarin Turklere dair olumlu ve olumsuz kanaatlerini tum yonleriyle ortaya koymaktir.
Shu‘ûbiyya is a literary, political and social movement that rejects the idea that the Arabs are ... more Shu‘ûbiyya is a literary, political and social movement that rejects the idea that the Arabs are superior and praises their own nation. Those (Ehlü’t-Tesviye) who advocate the principle of equality of Islam inspiring from the word shu’ub (the people) in the surah Hucûrat of the Qur’an are accepted as the first pioneers of this move-ment. Later on, Shu‘ûbiyya turned into a literary movement edited on insulting the Arabs and praising their own tribes. In society, the demand for this movement is per-ceived as social segregation and separatism. In fact, those who stood up for this mo-vement were accused of moving away from religion and returning to pre-Islamic beli-efs. It is known that the biggest support for the Shu‘ûbiyya was given by the Persi-ans and they led other Muslim nations as well. Shu‘ûbiyya in Andalusia has a so-mewhat softer tongue and style, although greatly influenced by the Persians. However, Shu‘ûbiyya, the tract of Ibn Garcia of the Andalusia criticizes the Arabs in a stern not to search the East. Abu Amir Ibn Garcia who lived in the last years of the Andalusian Umayyad State (756-1031) is an important poet of Saklab (Sakâlibe) origin. The Andalusian Umayyads formed a strong civilization and a common cultural climate on the Iberian peninsula. They sustained different religions, languages and cultures together and integrated all the citizens under the aegis of ummah. The poem written by Ibn Garcia has the feature of being the first literary product written in Anda-lusia. The tract is based on the view that the Ajams, in particular the Whites (Indo-European people), are superior in every respect to the Arabs. The history of Rome and Iran was presented as the common medal of the whites. Using words and literary arts, the Arabs are told in every possible way that they have been back from all walks of life and miserable lives. The Arabs have been despised and humiliated in their pre-sent and past lives. Expressions to praise the Prophet Mohammad (pbuh) were given, but it was stressed that his ancestors were not Arab. The Shuʽûbiyya Tract, since it was written, has caused wide repercussions in the minds and literary circles. A large number of rejections about it have been received. This work is almost identical with the name of Ibn Garcia. It was one of the first names that came to mind when they talked about Shu‘ûbiyya. It is thought that the Shu‘ûbiyya movement influenced many of today’s social, cultural, philosophical, political currents and thoughts, and even inspired them. It is hoped that our article will contribute to the studies on this current. The translation of this tract into our language, which is considered to be one of the most important studies of the Shu‘ûbiyya, will compensate for an important gap. The tract we have translated is in the studies of Abdussalam M. Harun’s Nevâdir al-Mahtûtât. In this study, important information is given about Ibn Garcia and the current movement. In our writings, the shu‘ûbiyya movement (in particular Andalusian Shu‘ûbiyya), Ibn Garcia and the tract of Shu‘ûbiyya are introduced with the main lines by exploiting from the studies of other authors as well. In the last part, the full text and translation of the treatise is given. Keywords- The Shu‘ûbiyya al-Andalucia, Ibn Garcia, tractate, Arabs, Ajams
Political dissidence began with the caliphate electoral process of Muaviye (661-680) in the Islam... more Political dissidence began with the caliphate electoral process of Muaviye (661-680) in the Islamic society. With the appointment and caliph of Yezîd (680-683), these divisions became deeper and the Disaster of Karbala, Hârre Event and Mecca Siege are referred to as having triggered religious-political divisions. The caliphates’ bias in the rivalry between the Yamani and the Mudar caused a deficiency in the administration. The attitude and treatment taken against the Mevlâya (Mawali), on the other hand, forced the majority of Muslims to become potential opposition. However, it is possible to talk about an extraordinary caliphate in the Umayyad caliphate. Umar b. Abdülaziz (717-720) gained the love and sympathy of the Muslims with his religiosity and was admitted as a unifying figure in the society. Considering his humble experience in his brief calm, his commitment to Islamic rule, his fair administration and his meticulousness to the state’s property, he was resembled to Rasheed caliphs. The fact that he served the public day and night and settled the problems through negotiations without fighting facilitated the solution of the chronic social problems. Keywords: Umar b. Abdulaziz, Umayyad caliphs, Social dissedence, reconstruction
Yüzüncü Yıl Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi = The Journal of Social Sciences Institute, 2016
Sis (Kozan) is the name of an ancientcity located in Çukurova’s northern borders at the foothills... more Sis (Kozan) is the name of an ancientcity located in Çukurova’s northern borders at the foothills of the Taurus Mountains and alsoused in general as the name of theregion of Cilicia. Cilicia is one of the most important citadels and it was ruled by many states and civilisations such as Hittites, Phoenicians, Macedonians, Persians, Romans Byzantines and muslims. During the first Islamic conquests, Sis and its neighbourhood were annexxed to the Thugur/Avasim territories. The region was often exposed to destruction and devastation and changed hands when the Abbasid lost power. It was first controlled by the Byzantine and then the Armenians. As from the XI century the Armenian barony, founded based on Sis,evolved into prince domand kingdom over time. This kingdom, centrally located in Çukurova and its neighbouring mountains, existedover a large region from the central Anatolia to Syria. However it is seen that it could not be fully independent and remained (vassals) under therule of the Byzantines, Crusadersor muslims over the change of power. Key Words: Kozan/Sis, The Land of Sis/Cilicia, Byzantine, Umayyad, Abbasid, Armenians, Turksand Conquest
Uluslararası İbn Haldûn Sempozyumu International Ibn Khaldun Symposium, 2016
Anatolia was experiencing religious, economic, social, political and cultural upheavals on the ev... more Anatolia was experiencing religious, economic, social, political and cultural upheavals on the eve of the Seljuk conquests. Due to the ongoing conflicts and even civil wars, the cities and the towns were abandoned and they turned into ruins. However, after the Seljuk conquests, Anatolia would begin to be reshaped and have a new religion and identity. Akhies would appear in this period, they would have important roles in the moral and physical construction of Anatolia,
and especially they would contribute to the culture of living together.
Akhies displays a mistical character with their praying , eating, drinking together and gathering at a certain place (Dervish lodge) and with their hierarchical order They have a different look from the community they live in with respect to their clothes. With their simple daily life styles, putting together their incomes, setting the table together and tendency to invite foreign quests to the table, they have the potential of making friends easily in their environment.
It is observed that respecting professional education and hierarchy they established a sense of understanding and morality concerning the tradesmen in the community. On the other hand they mix with the poor and orphans, which strengthens the social rehabilition. The dervish lodges also offer accommodation for the quests.
Akhies, who foresee the necessity to be vigilent and prepared also against the outside attacks to Anatolia, played a vital role in the total defence of the country. By adopting the motto “live for the moment (in the other words Ibnu’l-Vakit)”, they became a hope for the community they live in.
Keywords: Anatolia, living together, Akhism.
Yüzüncü Yıl Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, 2012
Slavery was still in effect mercilessly when Islam was born. Slaves were people living miserable ... more Slavery was still in effect mercilessly when Islam was born. Slaves were people living miserable lives who hoped to find salvation from the boundaries of others, and society treated them as commercial property for sale. Islam made significant reforms in slavery. This articles delves into the issues of the slave trade/markets, slaves' economic buitability and qualifications, jobs that focused primarily on slavery, as well as slave prices and the number of slaves in society in the early Islamic period.
Key Words: The Prophet Mohammad, The Rashidun Caliphs, Umayyads, economics, slaves, concubines.
Çukurova Üniversitesi İlahiyat Fakültesi Dergisi = Çukurova University Journal of Faculty of Divinity, 2013
Slaves were those that people in society had demoted as property, and they were treated different... more Slaves were those that people in society had demoted as property, and they were treated differently from other individuals in terms of the laws, economy and social life. Slavery, which dates back long ago, was widespread all around the world at the time of Islam's birth. Islam made significant reforms in it, rather than abolishing at first. Islam restricted the conditions to decrease slavery and considered the slaves as ones to be saved. It also set forth humanitarian and legal regulations pertaining to guidelines which promoted better treatment by their owners, as well providing for a sooner release date from the bonds of slavery. Mawla, which refers to the freed , was also used to refer to all the muslims other than Arab ones at the Umayyad Period .The administrators were supposed to be freemen Mawla/mawali, which the author assumed to be in a status between that of slaves and freemen. This articles delves into the top positions and especially employement of the slaves and mawali in the early Islamic period.
Key words- The Prophet Mohammad, Rashidun Caliphate, Umayyads, administrative life, slaves, mawali.
The Umayyads made various mistakes in the rebuilding of civilization and culture of living togeth... more The Umayyads made various mistakes in the rebuilding of civilization and culture of living together. The great conquests carried out in a short period of time must have hindered inward personal and social accounts. The Umayyads have been criticized for their understanding of the administration and the politics they applied. From the beginning of their establishment, their departure from the path of the Rashidun Caliphs and showing some deviations disturb the muslims. The voices of opposition rose against the way and manner of power of the first caliph Muawiya I. These objections turned into active or passive opposition over time. Yazid’s personal attitudes and actions shook the Islamic society deeply and fueled the power division difficult to repair. These events, which are called The Battle of Karbala, The Battle of al-Harrah and Siege of Mecca in history, laid the foundation for the birth of the first religious-political sides. These were seen as the first specimens of Shiism in Islamic history, and Haricism was born in this setting. Marwan bin al-Hakam succeeded in re-establishing the Umayyad State but this time there was a Yamani-Mudari controversy among the Arabs. Racism and tribalism which was seen non-Islamic rose again. Due to this problem sometimes the administration and the military mechanism could not work, border provinces were uncontrollable. By seeing this problem, the caliphs who pursued balanced politics, were found as successful, the ones who took a stand, were found weak and unskilful. It is also said that this problem facilitated the collapse of the Umayyad State. While this balance was established in the periods of Muawiya I, Abdulmalik and Walid I, it was distorted again in the period of Sulayman. The problem of new Muslims (The Mawali) emerged with conquests. The gaze of the Umayyad administrators and the policy that they put into practice alienated the other. The managers were worried about the population and influence of the mawali slaves. The mawali slaves’ desires to be treated equal as their religionist Arabians, was always ignored. The practice of poll tax (jizya) received from non-muslims continued. In addition, they were not treated equally in benefiting from state facilities. This situation troubled new prospects. Non-muslims constituted the majority in the country’s population. Our paper covers the period of Umar bin Abdulaziz and pre-Umayyad caliphs. It has been explained that the pre-Umar caliphs were openly violating the Islamic orders and prohibitions, spoiling their excesses and state possibilities. With the residence of the caliphs in the pavilions and palaces, the life in luxury and arts and their gluttony brought to the agenda, the opposition was given support. When Umar was governor of Medina, it was mentioned that those who escaped the persecution of some other governors would take shelter in Hijaz. It has been explained how caliph Umar opposed injustices with words and deeds. Thus, from the governor's times, Umar was well received by the wider community thanks to his state, attitudes and practices, he also gained love and sympathy of the mawali slaves. Religious personality showed positive effects on Muslims and further strengthened the unity of Islamic society. In the short caliphate period, the state and the people got closer and a peace and tranquility environment was established between the state and the problematic sections (including Shia and Haricîs). Umar bin Abdulaziz was regarded as the fifth “The Rashidun Caliphs” by his modesty, piousness and actions, being different from his successor and his predecessor The Umayyad caliphs. In his time (717-720), social peace and stability came a long way. Umar reconciled with all opposition parties, including mawali slaves, and united them around society. Even in the case of a relative, peace was achieved both internally and externally. Also during his period, there were intense prospects in various provinces, especially in North Africa, Mawarau-n-nahr (Transoxiana) and Egypt. The army, which was thought to have been worn out by conquering politics, turned into troops. For example, the siege of Istanbul was abolished and military services interrupted in the border areas (Sugûr). There was a limit to state spending and efforts were made to improve the situation of the general population. The members of the dynasty opposed the reduction of public spending. The early death of Umar strengthened the allegations that he was poisoned by the elders of the dynasty. The appreciation of all sections of the society, the resolution of chronic social problems and the start of life in this area were appreciated. With the introduction of a unifying historical personality such as Umar bin Abdulaziz in our paper, it has been realised though maybe at a minimum level to contribute to “civilization rebuilding and culture of living together” Key Words: The Umayyads, Umar bin Abdulaziz, rebuilding and living together
Mawlana is a true Islamic missionary, as demonstrated by how he led his life and the kind work he... more Mawlana is a true Islamic missionary, as demonstrated by how he led his life and the kind work he performed. The era he lived in was full of unrest and was painful. The Muslim world was surrounded by the shamanistic Mongolians in the East and by the crusaders in the West. Mawlana and his family had to leave the lands where he was born, due to the Mongolian invasion. Mawlana claimed to be hope for the Muslims and all the humanity. His universal attitude was outlined as uplifting, strong and progressive, in the Anatolian land where he sought refuge and which he assumed to be the last harbour. His call was to Islam the path of hope and true guidance. Mawlana might be said to have displayed a moderate attitude against the Mongolians, which were the superpower of the time. He had hope that the Mongolians would convert to Islam in due time so he established good relations with the Mongolian rulers which were aimed at encouraging them into Islam. This was especially true of Gazan Han. It is a historical fact that these invaders’ children soon entered Islam. In this paper the author addresses Mawlana’s attitude towards the Mongolian invasion, his expectation that they would enter Islam and his invitation thereto. Keywords: Mawlana, Mongolians, Islamic mission, Shamanism, convertion to Islam, Islamization
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Papers by Ali Hatalmış
Keywords- The Shu‘ûbiyya al-Andalucia, Ibn Garcia, tractate, Arabs, Ajams
However, it is possible to talk about an extraordinary caliphate in the
Umayyad caliphate. Umar b. Abdülaziz (717-720) gained the love and sympathy of the Muslims with his religiosity and was admitted as a unifying figure in the society.
Considering his humble experience in his brief calm, his commitment to
Islamic rule, his fair administration and his meticulousness to the state’s
property, he was resembled to Rasheed caliphs. The fact that he served
the public day and night and settled the problems through negotiations
without fighting facilitated the solution of the chronic social problems.
Keywords: Umar b. Abdulaziz, Umayyad caliphs, Social dissedence,
reconstruction
During the first Islamic conquests, Sis and its neighbourhood were annexxed to the Thugur/Avasim territories.
The region was often exposed to destruction and devastation and changed hands when the Abbasid lost power.
It was first controlled by the Byzantine and then the Armenians. As from the XI century the Armenian barony, founded based on Sis,evolved into prince domand kingdom over time. This kingdom, centrally located
in Çukurova and its neighbouring mountains, existedover a
large region from the central Anatolia to Syria. However it is seen that it could not be fully independent and remained (vassals) under therule of the Byzantines, Crusadersor muslims over the change of power.
Key Words: Kozan/Sis, The Land of Sis/Cilicia, Byzantine, Umayyad, Abbasid, Armenians, Turksand Conquest
and especially they would contribute to the culture of living together.
Akhies displays a mistical character with their praying , eating, drinking together and gathering at a certain place (Dervish lodge) and with their hierarchical order They have a different look from the community they live in with respect to their clothes. With their simple daily life styles, putting together their incomes, setting the table together and tendency to invite foreign quests to the table, they have the potential of making friends easily in their environment.
It is observed that respecting professional education and hierarchy they established a sense of understanding and morality concerning the tradesmen in the community. On the other hand they mix with the poor and orphans, which strengthens the social rehabilition. The dervish lodges also offer accommodation for the quests.
Akhies, who foresee the necessity to be vigilent and prepared also against the outside attacks to Anatolia, played a vital role in the total defence of the country. By adopting the motto “live for the moment (in the other words Ibnu’l-Vakit)”, they became a hope for the community they live in.
Keywords: Anatolia, living together, Akhism.
Key Words: The Prophet Mohammad, The Rashidun Caliphs, Umayyads, economics, slaves, concubines.
Key words- The Prophet Mohammad, Rashidun Caliphate, Umayyads, administrative life, slaves, mawali.
Symposium Paper by Ali Hatalmış
Marwan bin al-Hakam succeeded in re-establishing the Umayyad State but this time there was a Yamani-Mudari controversy among the Arabs. Racism and tribalism which was seen non-Islamic rose again. Due to this problem sometimes the administration and the military mechanism could not work, border provinces were uncontrollable. By seeing this problem, the caliphs who pursued balanced politics, were found as successful, the ones who took a stand, were found weak and unskilful. It is also said that this problem facilitated the collapse of the Umayyad State. While this balance was established in the periods of Muawiya I, Abdulmalik and Walid I, it was distorted again in the period of Sulayman.
The problem of new Muslims (The Mawali) emerged with conquests. The gaze of the Umayyad administrators and the policy that they put into practice alienated the other. The managers were worried about the population and influence of the mawali slaves. The mawali slaves’ desires to be treated equal as their religionist Arabians, was always ignored. The practice of poll tax (jizya) received from non-muslims continued. In addition, they were not treated equally in benefiting from state facilities. This situation troubled new prospects. Non-muslims constituted the majority in the country’s population.
Our paper covers the period of Umar bin Abdulaziz and pre-Umayyad caliphs. It has been explained that the pre-Umar caliphs were openly violating the Islamic orders and prohibitions, spoiling their excesses and state possibilities. With the residence of the caliphs in the pavilions and palaces, the life in luxury and arts and their gluttony brought to the agenda, the opposition was given support. When Umar was governor of Medina, it was mentioned that those who escaped the persecution of some other governors would take shelter in Hijaz. It has been explained how caliph Umar opposed injustices with words and deeds. Thus, from the governor's times, Umar was well received by the wider community thanks to his state, attitudes and practices, he also gained love and sympathy of the mawali slaves. Religious personality showed positive effects on Muslims and further strengthened the unity of Islamic society. In the short caliphate period, the state and the people got closer and a peace and tranquility environment was established between the state and the problematic sections (including Shia and Haricîs).
Umar bin Abdulaziz was regarded as the fifth “The Rashidun Caliphs” by his modesty, piousness and actions, being different from his successor and his predecessor The Umayyad caliphs. In his time (717-720), social peace and stability came a long way. Umar reconciled with all opposition parties, including mawali slaves, and united them around society. Even in the case of a relative, peace was achieved both internally and externally. Also during his period, there were intense prospects in various provinces, especially in North Africa, Mawarau-n-nahr (Transoxiana) and Egypt.
The army, which was thought to have been worn out by conquering politics, turned into troops. For example, the siege of Istanbul was abolished and military services interrupted in the border areas (Sugûr). There was a limit to state spending and efforts were made to improve the situation of the general population. The members of the dynasty opposed the reduction of public spending. The early death of Umar strengthened the allegations that he was poisoned by the elders of the dynasty. The appreciation of all sections of the society, the resolution of chronic social problems and the start of life in this area were appreciated. With the introduction of a unifying historical personality such as Umar bin Abdulaziz in our paper, it has been realised though maybe at a minimum level to contribute to “civilization rebuilding and culture of living together”
Key Words: The Umayyads, Umar bin Abdulaziz, rebuilding and living together
Mawlana might be said to have displayed a moderate attitude against the Mongolians, which were the superpower of the time. He had hope that the Mongolians would convert to Islam in due time so he established good relations with the Mongolian rulers which were aimed at encouraging them into Islam. This was especially true of Gazan Han. It is a historical fact that these invaders’ children soon entered Islam.
In this paper the author addresses Mawlana’s attitude towards the Mongolian invasion, his expectation that they would enter Islam and his invitation thereto.
Keywords: Mawlana, Mongolians, Islamic mission, Shamanism, convertion to Islam, Islamization
Keywords- The Shu‘ûbiyya al-Andalucia, Ibn Garcia, tractate, Arabs, Ajams
However, it is possible to talk about an extraordinary caliphate in the
Umayyad caliphate. Umar b. Abdülaziz (717-720) gained the love and sympathy of the Muslims with his religiosity and was admitted as a unifying figure in the society.
Considering his humble experience in his brief calm, his commitment to
Islamic rule, his fair administration and his meticulousness to the state’s
property, he was resembled to Rasheed caliphs. The fact that he served
the public day and night and settled the problems through negotiations
without fighting facilitated the solution of the chronic social problems.
Keywords: Umar b. Abdulaziz, Umayyad caliphs, Social dissedence,
reconstruction
During the first Islamic conquests, Sis and its neighbourhood were annexxed to the Thugur/Avasim territories.
The region was often exposed to destruction and devastation and changed hands when the Abbasid lost power.
It was first controlled by the Byzantine and then the Armenians. As from the XI century the Armenian barony, founded based on Sis,evolved into prince domand kingdom over time. This kingdom, centrally located
in Çukurova and its neighbouring mountains, existedover a
large region from the central Anatolia to Syria. However it is seen that it could not be fully independent and remained (vassals) under therule of the Byzantines, Crusadersor muslims over the change of power.
Key Words: Kozan/Sis, The Land of Sis/Cilicia, Byzantine, Umayyad, Abbasid, Armenians, Turksand Conquest
and especially they would contribute to the culture of living together.
Akhies displays a mistical character with their praying , eating, drinking together and gathering at a certain place (Dervish lodge) and with their hierarchical order They have a different look from the community they live in with respect to their clothes. With their simple daily life styles, putting together their incomes, setting the table together and tendency to invite foreign quests to the table, they have the potential of making friends easily in their environment.
It is observed that respecting professional education and hierarchy they established a sense of understanding and morality concerning the tradesmen in the community. On the other hand they mix with the poor and orphans, which strengthens the social rehabilition. The dervish lodges also offer accommodation for the quests.
Akhies, who foresee the necessity to be vigilent and prepared also against the outside attacks to Anatolia, played a vital role in the total defence of the country. By adopting the motto “live for the moment (in the other words Ibnu’l-Vakit)”, they became a hope for the community they live in.
Keywords: Anatolia, living together, Akhism.
Key Words: The Prophet Mohammad, The Rashidun Caliphs, Umayyads, economics, slaves, concubines.
Key words- The Prophet Mohammad, Rashidun Caliphate, Umayyads, administrative life, slaves, mawali.
Marwan bin al-Hakam succeeded in re-establishing the Umayyad State but this time there was a Yamani-Mudari controversy among the Arabs. Racism and tribalism which was seen non-Islamic rose again. Due to this problem sometimes the administration and the military mechanism could not work, border provinces were uncontrollable. By seeing this problem, the caliphs who pursued balanced politics, were found as successful, the ones who took a stand, were found weak and unskilful. It is also said that this problem facilitated the collapse of the Umayyad State. While this balance was established in the periods of Muawiya I, Abdulmalik and Walid I, it was distorted again in the period of Sulayman.
The problem of new Muslims (The Mawali) emerged with conquests. The gaze of the Umayyad administrators and the policy that they put into practice alienated the other. The managers were worried about the population and influence of the mawali slaves. The mawali slaves’ desires to be treated equal as their religionist Arabians, was always ignored. The practice of poll tax (jizya) received from non-muslims continued. In addition, they were not treated equally in benefiting from state facilities. This situation troubled new prospects. Non-muslims constituted the majority in the country’s population.
Our paper covers the period of Umar bin Abdulaziz and pre-Umayyad caliphs. It has been explained that the pre-Umar caliphs were openly violating the Islamic orders and prohibitions, spoiling their excesses and state possibilities. With the residence of the caliphs in the pavilions and palaces, the life in luxury and arts and their gluttony brought to the agenda, the opposition was given support. When Umar was governor of Medina, it was mentioned that those who escaped the persecution of some other governors would take shelter in Hijaz. It has been explained how caliph Umar opposed injustices with words and deeds. Thus, from the governor's times, Umar was well received by the wider community thanks to his state, attitudes and practices, he also gained love and sympathy of the mawali slaves. Religious personality showed positive effects on Muslims and further strengthened the unity of Islamic society. In the short caliphate period, the state and the people got closer and a peace and tranquility environment was established between the state and the problematic sections (including Shia and Haricîs).
Umar bin Abdulaziz was regarded as the fifth “The Rashidun Caliphs” by his modesty, piousness and actions, being different from his successor and his predecessor The Umayyad caliphs. In his time (717-720), social peace and stability came a long way. Umar reconciled with all opposition parties, including mawali slaves, and united them around society. Even in the case of a relative, peace was achieved both internally and externally. Also during his period, there were intense prospects in various provinces, especially in North Africa, Mawarau-n-nahr (Transoxiana) and Egypt.
The army, which was thought to have been worn out by conquering politics, turned into troops. For example, the siege of Istanbul was abolished and military services interrupted in the border areas (Sugûr). There was a limit to state spending and efforts were made to improve the situation of the general population. The members of the dynasty opposed the reduction of public spending. The early death of Umar strengthened the allegations that he was poisoned by the elders of the dynasty. The appreciation of all sections of the society, the resolution of chronic social problems and the start of life in this area were appreciated. With the introduction of a unifying historical personality such as Umar bin Abdulaziz in our paper, it has been realised though maybe at a minimum level to contribute to “civilization rebuilding and culture of living together”
Key Words: The Umayyads, Umar bin Abdulaziz, rebuilding and living together
Mawlana might be said to have displayed a moderate attitude against the Mongolians, which were the superpower of the time. He had hope that the Mongolians would convert to Islam in due time so he established good relations with the Mongolian rulers which were aimed at encouraging them into Islam. This was especially true of Gazan Han. It is a historical fact that these invaders’ children soon entered Islam.
In this paper the author addresses Mawlana’s attitude towards the Mongolian invasion, his expectation that they would enter Islam and his invitation thereto.
Keywords: Mawlana, Mongolians, Islamic mission, Shamanism, convertion to Islam, Islamization