Joanna Sudyka

Inferring the chronological and biological age of individuals is fundamental to population ecology and our understanding of ageing itself, its evolution, and the biological processes that affect or even cause ageing. Epigenetic clocks based on DNA methylation (DNAm) at specific CpG sites show a strong correlation with chronological age in humans, and discrepancies between inferred and actual chronological age predict morbidity and mortality. Recently, a growing number of epigenetic clocks have been developed in non‐model animals and we here review these studies. We also conduct a meta‐analysis to assess the effects of different aspects of experimental protocol on the performance of epigenetic clocks for non‐model animals. Two measures of performance are usually reported, the R2 of the association between the predicted and chronological age, and the mean/median absolute deviation (MAD) of estimated age from chronological age, and we argue that only the MAD reflects accuracy. R2 for e...

Most of what is known about extra-pair paternity in hole-nesting birds derives from studies using artificial nesting sites, such as nestboxes. However, it has rarely been investigated whether inference drawn from breeding events taking place in nestboxes matches what would be observed under natural conditions, i.e. in natural cavities. We here report on a variation in promiscuity in blue tits and great tits nesting in natural cavities and nestboxes in an urban forest in Warsaw, Poland. Specifically, we tested whether breeding density, breeding synchrony and extra-pair paternity (inferred from SNP data generated with a high-throughput genotyping by sequencing method) differed between birds nesting in natural cavities and nestboxes. In both blue and great tits, the frequency of extra-pair paternity was similar between the two cavity types. Breeding density and synchrony was higher in nestboxes than in natural cavities in blue tits, but not in great tits. Moreover, the occurrence of ex...

An accurate inference of the chronological and biological age of individuals is fundamental to population ecology and our understanding of ageing itself, its evolution and the biological processes that affect or even cause ageing. In humans, epigenetic clocks based on the DNA methylation (DNAm) at selected CpG sites correlate highly with chronological age. Discrepancies between the inferred epigenetic and known chronological age predict morbidity and mortality, and therefore epigenetic clocks are thought to reflect biological age. Recently, a growing number epigenetic clocks in non-model organisms have been developed towards a diverse array of purposes in commercial, conservation and ageing research. Here we review those studies and conduct the first meta-analysis to assess the effects of different aspects of experimental protocol on the accuracy of epigenetic clocks for non-model species. Our analysis reveals higher coefficients of determination (R) of chronological age for epigene...

Most of our knowledge on hole-nesting birds, including plumage colouration (an important component of visual signalling), comes from studies on populations breeding in human-provided nestboxes. However, as demonstrated in comparative studies, multiple parameters, such as cavity dimensions and microclimatic conditions, differ between natural and artificial cavities. Despite this, no study so far examined the impact of cavity type on plumage colouration to verify whether extrapolation of results from birds growing in nestboxes is justified. Here, we examined the impact of cavity type – natural cavities vs. nestboxes - on the carotenoid-based colouration of blue tit (Cyanistes caeruleus) and great tit (Parus major) nestlings. We found clear differences in plumage colouration depending on the type of cavity in which the birds developed. Our study adds to the growing body of evidence confirming that varying properties of natural cavities and nestboxes might influence nestling physiology,...

Collecting and storing biological material from wild animals in a way that does not deteriorate data quality for analyses using DNA is instrumental for research in ecology and evolution. Our aims were to collect methods commonly used by researchers for the field collection and long-term storage of blood samples and DNA extracts from wild birds and gather reports on their effectiveness. Personal experiences were collected with an online survey targeted specifically at researchers sampling wild birds. Many researchers experienced problems with blood sample storage but not with DNA extract storage. Storage issues generated problems with obtaining adequate DNA quality and sufficient DNA quantity for the targeted molecular analyses, but were not related to season of blood sampling, access to equipment, transporting samples, temperature and method of blood storage. Final DNA quality and quantity were also not affected by storage time before DNA extraction or the methods used to extract DN...

Animals breeding in anthropogenic shelters such as nest-boxes experience nesting environment in which they did not originally evolve. Over the past decades, they are additionally challenged by climate change – a major environmental force influencing their reproductive ecology. Despite the central importance of nesting microclimate for offspring development and fitness, very little is known about the thermal properties of human-provided nests compared to natural ones. While it has been demonstrated that artificial nests provide poorer thermal insulation in comparison to natural breeding sites, there is no evidence on how these shifts are shaped along the reproductive stages. In particular, comparisons focusing on the time when offspring are in the nest are lacking. Here, we compare the microclimatic conditions (temperature and absolute humidity) along the nesting cycle (from nest-site choice in early spring until post-fledging) in natural cavities and nest-boxes used by several speci...

Background Relatively few studies have examined the interactive effects of ecological factors on physiological responses in wild animals. Nearly all of them have been short-term investigations that did not include experimental manipulations, limiting our ability to understand how climate change will affect natural populations. Using a 10-year brood size manipulation experiment in wild blue tits (Cyanistes caeruleus), we quantified the impact of weather conditions and brood competition on the body mass and structural size (tarsus length) of nestlings just prior to leaving the nest. Results We found that variation in nestling body mass on day 14 after hatching was explained by an interactive effect between average ambient temperature experienced during nestling period and brood size treatment. Specifically, in control broods nestling body mass was correlated with temperature in a non-linear manner (concave) with the vertex point (maximum body mass) at ca. 13 °C. In contrast, in enlarg...

Telomeres have recently been suggested to play important role in ageing and are considered to be a reliable ageing biomarkers. The life history theory predicts that costs of reproduction should be expressed in terms of accelerated senescence, and some empirical studies do confirm such presumption. Thus, a link between reproductive effort and telomere dynamics should be anticipated. Recent studies have indeed demonstrated that reproduction may trigger telomere loss, but actual impact of reproductive effort has not received adequate attention in experimental studies. Here, we experimentally manipulated reproductive effort by increasing the brood size in the wild blue tit (Cyanistes caeruleus). We show that parents attending enlarged broods experienced larger yearly telomere decay in comparison to control birds attending unaltered broods. In addition, we demonstrate that the change in telomere length differs between sexes, but this effect was independent from our treatment. To our knowledge, this is the first experimental study in the wild revealing that telomere dynamics may be linked to reproductive effort. Thus, telomere shortening may constitute one of the potential proximate mechanisms mediating the costs of reproduction

Carotenoid-based coloration occurs predominantly in adult birds, yet in some species<br>from the family Paridae, this trait is also present at the nestling stage. One of the factors<br>proposed to affect the expression of this trait in immature birds is hatching date. Here,<br>using the avian tetrahedral colour space model, we examined the influence of hatching<br>date on the breast carotenoid-based plumage coloration of the Blue Tit <i>Cyanistes caeruleus</i><br>nestlings. Because Blue Tits are sexually dichromatic, we also investigated the potential<br>interaction between hatching date and sex that could arise from differences in<br>condition dependence of this trait between males and females. We found a positive relationship<br>between UV chroma of breast feathers and hatching date. The amount of UV<br>reflectance is thought to be negatively related to carotenoid content in feathers. The<br>observed increase ...

Telomeres are the non-coding protein-nucleotide ‘caps’ at chromosome ends that contribute to chromosomal stability by protecting the coding parts of the linear DNA from shortening at cell division, and from erosion by reactive molecules. Recently, there has been some controversy between molecular and cell biologists, on the one hand, and evolutionary ecologists on the other, regarding whether reactive molecules erode telomeres during oxidative stress. Many studies of biochemistry and medicine have verified these relationships in cell culture, but other researchers have failed to find such effects in free-living vertebrates. Here we use a novel approach to measure free radicals (superoxide), mitochondrial ‘content’ (a combined measure of mitochondrial number and size in cells), telomere length and DNA damage at two primary time points during the mating season of an annual lizard species (Ctenophorus pictus). Superoxide levels early in the mating season vary widely and elevated levels predict shorter telomeres both at that time as well as several months later. These effects are likely driven by mitochondrial content, which significantly impacts late season superoxide (cells with more mitochondria have more superoxide), but superoxide effects on telomeres are counteracted by DNA repair as revealed by 8-hydroxy-2’-deoxyguanosine assays. We conclude that reactive oxygen species and DNA repair are fundamental for both short- and long-term regulation of lizard telomere length with pronounced effects of early-season cellular stress detectable on telomere length near lizard death

Niniejsza praca stanowi próbę oceny stanu biologicznego populacji z Lubska (XIV – XVII w.) na podstawie analizy anatomo-antropologicznej oraz demograficznej. Charakteryzowano materiał szkieletowy z 211 grobów, z czego 88 stanowiły szczątki mężczyzn, 92 kobiet, a w 31 przypadkach płci nie udało się ustalić. Ocenie poddano: stan zachowania szkieletów, wymiary i wskaźniki czaszki, mierzono kości długie, następnie wyznaczano na ich podstawie masywność kości, wskaźniki proporcji oraz przyżyciową wysokość ciała i wagę. Istotne było wyliczenie wskaźników dymorfizmu płciowego wybranych cech. Studia paleodemograficzne pozwoliły opisać dynamikę, wielkość i strukturę grupy ludzkiej zamieszkującej Lubsko. Podjęto też próbę porównania podstawowych cech analizowanej populacji z innymi o zbliżonym tle historycznym i geograficznym. Szczegółową charakterystykę szczątków ludzkich umieszczono na kartach poszczególnych grobów (Aneks). Populację z Lubska uznano za wykazującą podobne dla okresu i obszaru cechy biologiczne i demograficzne. Mieszkańcy miasta osiągali dobre wyniki dymorfizmu płciowego, a śmiertelność dzieci nie była wysoka, co świadczy o ograniczonym działaniu czynników stresowych czy też niedoborów żywieniowych. Stosunkowo niska częstość występowania śmiertelnych urazów i schorzeń w materiale wskazuje na brak poważniejszych epidemii oraz konfliktów o rozmaitym charakterze. Słowa kluczowe: analiza antropologiczna, analiza demograficzna, średniowiecze, cmentarzysko przykościelne, Lubsko The scope of the present thesis is to reconstruct the biological condition of population inhabiting Lubsko (14th – 17th century AD). It is done by means of comprehensive anthropological and demographical analysis. The total number of examined graves is 211, out of which 88 belong to males, 92 to females and 31 remain indeterminate. The particular objective is to trace morphometric differences of long bones and cranium including calculation of living stature and weight along with various indices such as sexual dimorphism, massiveness and long bones proportion index. Paleodemographic studies aim at revealing trends in biological responses of population to environmental changes recorded in skeletal and dental remains. The other part of the work is an attempt to compare analysed population with other human groups of similar geographical and historical background. The detailed description of every single grave is placed in Appendix (Aneks). The biological condition of population from Lubsko appears to be similar with other skeletal series. It is generally well, considering low mortality of children and good values of indices, which suggest low activity of stress factors (nutritional or epidemiological). Amount of deadly traumas and diseases denotes that the period was peaceful and free of serious epidemics. Keywords: physical anthropology, demographic studies, Middle Ages, medieval cemetery, Lubsko

To mitigate the shortage of natural breeding sites in cities, nest-boxes are provided for cavity-nesters. However, these are not the breeding sites these animals originally evolved in and optimised their breeding performance to. It thus remains inconclusive if nest-boxes can provide adequate substitutes, ensuring equivalent fitness returns for breeding animals. Additionally, the majority of knowledge on the ecology of urban birds comes from nest-box populations, but no study to date directly compared fitness consequences of breeding inside nest-boxes in relation to natural-cavities in an urban context. This limits our understanding of the urban ecology of cavity-nesters and addressing its functional meaning. We investigate fitness consequences and life-history trait variation according to the nesting site type to provide a comprehensive understanding of conservation potential of nest-boxes in cities and to support/question generalisations stemming from nest-box studies on urbanizati...

Reproduction, a basic property of biological life, entails costs for an organism, ultimately detectable as reduction in survival prospects. Telomeres are an excellent candidate biomarker for explaining these reproductive costs, because their shortening correlates with increased mortality risk. For similar reasons, telomeres are perceived as biomarkers of individual "quality." The relationship between reproduction and telomere dynamics is reviewed, emphasizing that cost and quality perspectives, commonly presented in isolation, should be integrated. While a majority of correlative studies have confirmed the relationship between telomere dynamics and various reproductive outputs, only limited experimental support exists showing that reproduction causes telomeres to shorten. A shift of focus to experimental manipulations of reproductive effort/telomere dynamics is crucial. However, the observation of survival reduction in response to these manipulations is essential for establishing telomeres as genuine biomarkers, allowing to unravel trade-offs related to reproduction.

Lifetime reproductive success (LRS) is what counts in terms of evolution, but investments in reproduction entail costs for an organism. The idea that telomere dynamics may be shaped in response to such costs is already established; however, we still lack information on whether this relation translates to overall fitness. Here, we quantified LRS (number of fledged young) and longitudinal telomere dynamics of small passerine birds—the blue tits ( Cyanistes caeruleus ). We found that individual telomere erosion rate was positively associated with lifetime fledgling number. Birds with more fledged young experienced increased telomere attrition. We show that telomere attrition rate, but not telomere length, is related to individual fitness and suggest that telomere dynamics may underlie reproductive costs experienced by animals as a consequence of prioritizing their lifetime fitness. This is the first study, to our knowledge, to provide evidence that more pronounced telomere erosion is a...

There is now good evidence in several taxa that animal coloration positively reflects an individual's antioxidant capacity. However, even though telomeres, a marker of ageing, are known to be vulnerable to reactive oxygen species (ROS) attacks, no studies have ever assessed whether colour fading reflects the rate of biological ageing in any taxa. Here, we measured colour fading, telomere erosion (a measure of biological ageing) and ROS levels in painted dragons. We show that individuals that were better at maintaining their coloration during the three months of the study suffered a higher cost in terms of telomere erosion, but overall ROS levels measured at the start of the study were not significantly related to colour maintenance and telomere shortening. We therefore suggest that colour maintenance is a costly phenomenon in terms of telomere erosion, and that overall ROS levels do not seem to be a crucial component linking ornamental coloration and telomere erosion in our stud...

Lifetime reproductive success (LRS) is what counts in terms of evolution, but investments in reproduction entail costs for an organism. The idea that telomere dynamics may be shaped in response to such costs is already established; however, we still lack information on whether this relation translates to overall fitness. Here, we quantified LRS (number of fledged young) and longitudinal telomere dynamics of small passerine birds—the blue tits (Cyanistes caeruleus). We found that individual telomere erosion rate was positively associated with lifetime fledgling number. Birds with more fledged young experienced increased telomere attrition. We show that telomere attrition rate, but not telomere length, is related to individual fitness and suggest that telomere dynamics may underlie reproductive costs experienced by animals as a consequence of prioritizing their lifetime fitness. This is the first study, to our knowledge, to provide evidence that more pronounced telomere erosion is ass...

J. Sudyka 2010(2011). The “Megalithic” Iron Age Culture in South India – Some General Remarks. Analecta Archaeologica Ressoviensia 5, 359–401 The scope of the paper is to give an up-to-date account of general features of a unique cultural phenomenon which is the South Indian Iron Age. The distribution, chronology, material culture, funerary customs, including the typology of megaliths, and socio-economical issues are outlined. The studies on the material culture of South Indian Iron Age communities revealed its huge complexity. This cultural phenomenon, which had originated around 1000 BC, probably in the northern regions of Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh, and spread across the vast space of Indian subcontinent, amazes by its simultaneous diversity and uniformity.

Urbanisation is a major anthropogenic perturbation that progressively alters multiple environmental parameters, thereby presenting novel evolutionary challenges to wild populations. Symbiotic microorganisms residing in the gastrointestinal tracts (gut) of vertebrates have well-established mutual connections with the physiology of their hosts and respond quickly to environmental alterations. However, the impacts of anthropogenic changes and urbanisation on gut microbiota remain poorly understood, especially in early development. To address this knowledge gap, we investigated the gut microbiota in juvenile great tits (Parus major) in an urban mosaic. First, we compared the microbiota of nestlings reared in artificial nest boxes or natural cavities. Next, we analysed microbiota variations employing two distinct urbanisation frameworks, (i) the classical urban/rural dichotomy and (ii) gradual changes in the amount of impervious surface area (ISA) in the urban space and identified the en...

Genetic variation is one of the key concepts in evolutionary biology and an important prerequisite of evolutionary change. Still, we know very little about processes that modulate its levels in wild populations. In particular – we still are to understand why genetic variances often depend on environmental conditions. One of possible environment-sensitive modulators of observed levels of genetic variance are maternal effects. In this study we attempt to experimentally test the hypothesis that maternally-transmitted agents (e.g. hormones) may influence the expression of genetic variance in quantitative traits in the offspring. We manipulated the levels of steroid hormones (testosterone and corticosterone) in eggs laid by blue tits in a wild population. Our experimental setup allowed for full crossing of genetic and rearing effects with the experimental manipulation. We observed, that birds treated with corticosterone exhibited a significant decrease in genetic variance of tarsus lengt...

Alternative reproductive tactics (ARTs) are correlated suites of sexually selected traits that are likely to impose differential physiological costs on different individuals. While moderate activity might be beneficial, animals living in the wild often work at the margins of their resources and performance limits. Individuals using ARTs may have divergent capacities for activity. When pushed beyond their respective capacities, they may experience condition loss, oxidative stress, and molecular damage that must be repaired with limited resources. We used the Australian painted dragon lizard that exhibits color polymorphism as a model to experimentally test the effect of exercise on body condition, growth, reactive oxygen species (ROS) and telomere dynamics – a potential marker of stress and aging and a correlate of longevity. For most males, ROS levels tended to be lower with greater exercise; however, males with yellow throat patches – or bibs – had higher ROS levels than non-bibbed...

Alternative reproductive tactics (ARTs) are correlated suites of sexually selected traits that are likely to impose differential physiological costs on different individuals. While some level of activity might be beneficial, animals living in the wild are often working at the margins of their resources and performance limits. Individuals using ARTs may have divergent capacities for activity, and when pushed beyond their capacity, they may experience condition loss, oxidative stress, and molecular damage that must be repaired with limited resources. We used the Australian painted dragon lizard that exhibits color-polymorphims with corresponding alternative reproductive tactics (ARTs) as a model to experimentally test the effect of exercise on body condition, growth, reactive oxygen species (ROS), and telomere dynamics—a potential marker of stress and aging and a correlate of longevity. For most males, ROS tended to be lower with greater exercise; however, males with yellow throat pat...

Genetic variation is one of the key concepts in evolutionary biology and an important prerequisite of evolutionary change. Still, we know very little about processes that modulate its levels in wild populations. In particular – we still are to understand why genetic variances often depend on environmental conditions. One of possible environment-sensitive modulators of observed levels of genetic variance are maternal effects. In this study we attempt to experimentally test the hypothesis that maternally-transmitted agents (e.g. hormones) may influence the expression of genetic variance in quantitative traits in the offspring. We manipulated the levels of steroid hormones (testosterone and corticosterone) in eggs laid by blue tits in a wild population. Our experimental setup allowed for full crossing of genetic and rearing effects with the experimental manipulation. We observed, that birds treated with corticosterone exhibited a significant decrease in genetic variance of tarsus lengt...

Telomeres are the non-coding protein-nucleotide 'caps' at chromosome ends that contribute to chromosomal stability by protecting the coding parts of the linear DNA from shortening at cell division, and from erosion by reactive molecules. Recently, there has been some controversy between molecular and cell biologists, on the one hand, and evolutionary ecologists on the other, regarding whether reactive molecules erode telomeres during oxidative stress. Many studies of biochemistry and medicine have verified these relationships in cell culture, but other researchers have failed to find such effects in free-living vertebrates. Here we use a novel approach to measure free radicals (superoxide), mitochondrial 'content' (a combined measure of mitochondrial number and size in cells), telomere length and DNA damage at two primary time points during the mating season of an annual lizard species (Ctenophorus pictus). Superoxide levels early in the mating season vary widely and...

Telomeres in human fibroblasts shorten progressively during in vitro culturing and trigger replicative senescence. Furthermore, shortened telomeres can be used as biomarkers of disease. These observations have led to the suggestion that telomere dynamics may also be associated with viability and selection for life history variation in non-human taxa. Model systems to examine this suggestion would particularly benefit from the coexistence of multiple phenotypes within the same species with different life history trade-offs, since those could be compared in terms of telomere characteristics. This scenario also provokes the classic question of why one morph does not have marginally higher fitness and replaces the others. One explanation is that different morphs have different reproductive tactics with equal relative fitness. In Australian painted dragons (Ctenophorus pictus), males differ in head color, the presence or absence of a gular bib, and reproductive expenditure. Red males out...

Parasites are ubiquitous in the wild and by imposing fitness costs on their hosts they constitute an important selection factor. One of the most common parasites of wild birds are Plasmodium and Haemoproteus, protozoans inhabiting the blood, which cause avian malaria and malaria-like disease, respectively. Although they are expected to cause negative effects in infected individuals, in many cases studies in natural populations failed to detect such effect. Using data from seven breeding seasons (2008 - 2014), we applied a multistate capture – mark – recapture approach to study the effect of infection with malaria and malaria-like parasites, individual age and sex on the probability of survival and recapture rate in a small passerine, the blue tit (Cyanistes caeruleus), inhabiting the island of Gotland, Sweden. We found no effect of infection on survival prospects. However, the recapture rate of infected individuals was higher than that of uninfected ones. Thus, while our data do not support the presence of infection costs in terms of host survival, it suggests that parasites from the genera Plasmodium and Haemoproteus may affect some aspects of host behaviour, which translates into biased estimation of infection frequency at the population level. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

Telomeres in human fibroblasts shorten progressively during in vitro culturing and trigger replicative senescence. Furthermore, shortened telomeres can be used as biomarkers of disease. These observations have led to the suggestion that telomere dynamics may also be associated with viability and selection for life history variation in non-human taxa. Model systems to examine this suggestion would particularly benefit from the coexistence of multiple phenotypes within the same species with different life history trade-offs, since those could be compared in terms of telomere characteristics. This scenario also provokes the classic question of why one morph does not have marginally higher fitness and replaces the others. One explanation is that different morphs have different reproductive tactics with equal relative fitness. In Australian painted dragons (Ctenophorus pictus), males differ in head color, the presence or absence of a gular bib, and reproductive expenditure. Red males out...

Niniejsza praca stanowi próbę oceny stanu biologicznego populacji z Lubska (XIV – XVII w.) na podstawie analizy anatomo-antropologicznej oraz demograficznej. Charakteryzowano materiał szkieletowy z 211 grobów, z czego 88 stanowiły szczątki mężczyzn, 92 kobiet, a w 31 przypadkach płci nie udało się ustalić.
Ocenie poddano: stan zachowania szkieletów, wymiary i wskaźniki czaszki, mierzono kości długie, następnie wyznaczano na ich podstawie masywność kości, wskaźniki proporcji oraz przyżyciową wysokość ciała i wagę. Istotne było wyliczenie wskaźników dymorfizmu płciowego wybranych cech. Studia paleodemograficzne pozwoliły opisać dynamikę, wielkość i strukturę grupy ludzkiej zamieszkującej Lubsko. Podjęto też próbę porównania podstawowych cech analizowanej populacji z innymi o zbliżonym tle historycznym i geograficznym. Szczegółową charakterystykę szczątków ludzkich umieszczono na kartach poszczególnych grobów (Aneks).
Populację z Lubska uznano za wykazującą podobne dla okresu i obszaru cechy biologiczne i demograficzne. Mieszkańcy miasta osiągali dobre wyniki dymorfizmu płciowego, a śmiertelność dzieci nie była wysoka, co świadczy o ograniczonym działaniu czynników stresowych czy też niedoborów żywieniowych. Stosunkowo niska częstość występowania śmiertelnych urazów i schorzeń w materiale wskazuje na brak poważniejszych epidemii oraz konfliktów o rozmaitym charakterze.

Słowa kluczowe: analiza antropologiczna, analiza demograficzna, średniowiecze, cmentarzysko przykościelne, Lubsko


The scope of the present thesis is to reconstruct the biological condition of population inhabiting Lubsko (14th – 17th century AD). It is done by means of comprehensive anthropological and demographical analysis. The total number of examined graves is 211, out of which 88 belong to males, 92 to females and 31 remain indeterminate.
The particular objective is to trace morphometric differences of long bones and cranium including calculation of living stature and weight along with various indices such as sexual dimorphism, massiveness and long bones proportion index. Paleodemographic studies aim at revealing trends in biological responses of population to environmental changes recorded in skeletal and dental remains. The other part of the work is an attempt to compare analysed population with other human groups of similar geographical and historical background. The detailed description of every single grave is placed in Appendix (Aneks).
The biological condition of population from Lubsko appears to be similar with other skeletal series. It is generally well, considering low mortality of children and good values of indices, which suggest low activity of stress factors (nutritional or epidemiological). Amount of deadly traumas and diseases denotes that the period was peaceful and free of serious epidemics.

Keywords: physical anthropology, demographic studies, Middle Ages, medieval cemetery, Lubsko

The Iron Age culture in South India was for a long time known only through so called megalithic monuments. From the earliest times people believed that monuments contained gold or some enigmatic ash which could convert any metal into gold. As a result, the monuments repeatedly fell victim to vandalism or served as a source of building material. Now it is acknowledged that the megaliths form an integral part of the Iron Age culture and the study of the period is no longer focused exclusively on them. The distribution, chronology, material culture, funerary customs, including the typology of megaliths, and socio-economic issues can be found in the present book. The settlements of Iron Age people was given much attention here, with special reference to the Dharmapuri region (Tamil Nadu). Several burial-cum-habitation sites were described in detail in order to seek out for some mutual relations: topographical, chronological and functional, between the burial and the settlement within a broad ecological context of the region.

To mitigate the shortage of natural breeding sites in cities, nest-boxes are provided for cavity-nesters. However, these are not the breeding sites these animals originally evolved in and optimised their breeding performance to. It thus remains inconclusive if nest-boxes can provide adequate substitutes, ensuring equivalent fitness returns for breeding animals. Additionally, the majority of knowledge on the ecology of urban birds comes from nest-box populations, but no study to date directly compared fitness consequences of breeding inside nest-boxes in relation to natural-cavities in an urban context. This limits our understanding of the urban ecology of cavity-nesters and addressing its functional meaning. We investigate fitness consequences and life-history trait variation according to the nesting site type to provide a comprehensive understanding of conservation potential of nest-boxes in cities and to support/question generalisations stemming from nest-box studies on urbanization. We directly compare the reproductive performance of two small passerines, blue tits and great tits, breeding in nest-boxes as opposed to natural-cavities in a seminatural forest of a capital city using a quasi-experimental setting. We show that the effects of nest type vary between species: in blue tits, fitness proxies were negatively affected by nest-boxes (lower fledging success and fledgling numbers, longer time spent in nest and later fledging date in comparison to natural-cavities), while great tit performance appeared to be unaffected by nest type. We detected that both species breeding in nest-boxes accelerated incubation onset, but since there were no major differences in pre-hatching traits (lay date, clutch size, hatching rates) between the nest types, we attribute the fitness deterioration to post-hatching effects. Interestingly, overall breeding density of tits in urban natural-cavities was higher than observed in a primeval habitat. Nest-boxes may become an ecological trap for some species and the unaffected species can consequently outcompete them, decreasing overall biodiversity in cities. We highlight the ecological importance of old-growth tree stands, providing natural tree cavities for city-breeding animals. Due to the detected nest type-dependent variation in reproductive performance, we support the criticism regarding the unconditional extrapolation of evolutionary and ecological interpretations of nest-box studies to general populations.