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Cenk Demir
Cenk Demir is Dr. at Erciyes University. He has graduated from Karadeniz Technical University. Faculty of Arts and Sciences, Department of History, Giresun. Between February 2009 and August 2015 I worked at Sinop University in Turkey as a history lecturer.
Since August 2015, I am a visiting post-doctoral fellow of history of University of Massachusetts Boston. My Research interests include social, cultural and urban history of the late Ottoman and early Republican of Turkey, with a particular focus on the relations between Ottoman/Turkey and the United Stated, activites of the American missionaries and relief workers in the Ottoman Empire, nationalism and social movement.
Currently I am working on a monograph entitled “Activetes of the American Red Cross in Ottoman Empire and Relations between Ottoman/Turkey and the United Stated”, which is supports by the Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey (TUBITAK).
Adrress:
University of Massachusetts (UMass)-Boston
Department of History, College of Liberal Arts
Office Location: McCormack Hall 4-636
100 Morrissey Boulevard, Boston, MA 02125
Since August 2015, I am a visiting post-doctoral fellow of history of University of Massachusetts Boston. My Research interests include social, cultural and urban history of the late Ottoman and early Republican of Turkey, with a particular focus on the relations between Ottoman/Turkey and the United Stated, activites of the American missionaries and relief workers in the Ottoman Empire, nationalism and social movement.
Currently I am working on a monograph entitled “Activetes of the American Red Cross in Ottoman Empire and Relations between Ottoman/Turkey and the United Stated”, which is supports by the Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey (TUBITAK).
Adrress:
University of Massachusetts (UMass)-Boston
Department of History, College of Liberal Arts
Office Location: McCormack Hall 4-636
100 Morrissey Boulevard, Boston, MA 02125
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1854 yılında yapımına karar verilen çeşme inşaatı ancak 21 Ağustos 1858 tarihinde tamamlanabilmiştir. Çalışmada öncelikle Sinop Şehitler Çeşmesi’nin, yapım aşamasından tamamlanmasına kadar geçen süre içerisinde yaşanan aksaklıklar ele alınmıştır. Daha sonra çeşmenin suyolları, yapı malzemeleri, mimari özellikleri ve yapım maliyeti Osmanlı arşivlerinde yer alan keşif defterleri ve diğer vesikalardan istifade edilerek tablolar halinde aydınlatılmaya çalışılmıştır. Yine çalışmayla ilişkili olarak belgelerden tespit edilen ancak ismi unutulan Sultan Süleyman Çeşmesi’nin yapımı ve daha sonraki akıbetine dair bulgular da yer verilen konular arasındadır.
Bu çalışmayla birlikte Şehitler Çeşmesi’nin yapımına dair menkıbeleşen birtakım yanlış anlatıların önüne geçilmesi, Sinop’un simgesel yapılarından birisi olan söz konusu çeşmenin tanıtımına ve kent tarihine katı sağlanması amaçlanmıştır.
The Sinop disaster of 30 November 1853 is one of the important breaking moments of the 1853-1856 Ottoman-Russian War. As a result of the naval operation carried out by the Russians, the Ottoman fleet in Sinop Port was completely destroyed, except for one ferry, while nearly two thousand Ottoman sailors lost their lives. In order to commemorate the cherished memories of the martyrs, it was decided to build a monumental fountain at a suitable point in the city by the command of Sultan Abdülmecid.
The construction of the fountain, which was decided to be built in 1854, could only be completed on 21 August 1858. In the study, first of all, the problems experienced during the period from the construction phase to the completion of the Sinop Martyrs’ Fountain were discussed. Later, the waterways, building materials, architectural features and construction cost of the fountain were tried to be illuminated in tables by making use of the discovery books and other documents in the Ottoman archives. Again, findings related to the construction and subsequent fate of the Sultan Süleyman Fountain, which was identified from the documents in relation to the study but whose name was forgotten, are also among the topics covered.
With this study, it is aimed to prevent some false narratives about the construction of the Martyrs’ Fountain, to promote the fountain, which is one of the symbolic structures of Sinop, and to provide solidity to the city’s history.
Bu çalışmada ise Sinop sancağında tütün ziraatının, yaygınlaşmasından başlayarak Cumhuriyetin ilk yıllarına kadar uzanan süreci ele alındı. Bu kapsamda Sinop Reji İdaresi’nin uygulamaları, tütün kaçakçıları ile Reji kolcularının mücadelesi sosyoekonomik boyutlarıyla irdelendi. Elde edilen bulgular neticesinde Osmanlı döneminde Karadeniz’deki tütün üretimine dair Sinop örnekleminden hareketle mikro ölçekli bir fikir oluşturulmaya çalışıldı.
The tobacco plant, which entered the Ottoman lands at the end of the 16th century, was among the important sources of income for the Ottoman society and the state despite various prohibitions. Tobacco, which was one of the tax items needed to maintain the economic balance of the Ottoman Empire in the 19th century, had an important place in this sense. However, tobacco agriculture, which was under the control of the tobacco Regie with foreign partners, became a commercial commodity that marked the last years of the Ottoman Empire in the context of the state, company and people. This plant, which found a living space for itself in Sinop, was also an income channel as well as brought troubles with it.
In this study, the process from the spread of tobacco agriculture in Sinop to the first years of the Republic of Turkey was discussed. In this context, the practices of the Sinop Regie Administration, the struggle of tobacco smugglers and the Regie guard were examined in terms of their socioeconomic dimensions. As a result of the findings obtained, a micro-scale idea was tried to be created based on the Sinop sample regarding tobacco production in the Black Sea during the Ottoman period.
Bu çalışma, Sinop yarımadasının güneydoğu cihetine kurulmuş olan ve nüfusunun geneli Rumlardan oluşan Varoş Mahallesi’nde yaşanan 1889, 1895 ve 1917 yangınları üzerine temellendirilmiştir. Bu kapsamda söz konusu yangınların çıkış nedenleri, yangın tahribatlarının boyutu ve sonrasında yaşanan gelişmeler ele alınmıştır. Çalışmada, Osmanlı arşiv vesikaları, TBMM zabıt cerideleri ve Kastamonu Vilayet Gazetesi’nin ilgili nüshaları ile çeşitli araştırma ve inceleme eserlerinden istifade edilmiştir. Varoş Mahallesi yangınları çerçevesinde ve ortaya konulan bulgulardan hareketle, bir kentin sosyal yapısına ve mimari dokusuna ışık tutulmaya çalışılmıştır.
ABSTRACT: Fire disasters were frequently experienced in the capital city Istanbul and the provinces during the Ottoman period. Cases of fire where its growth could not be prevented have caused extensive damages. Such incidents have been painfully experienced in Sinop. Particularly since the second half of the 19th century, the fire events that took place in various periods damaged the architectural texture of Sinop and gave a heavy blow to the commercial and social life.
This study is based on the 1889, 1895 and 1917 fires in the Varos distirict, which is composed of Greeks whose population was established in the southeastern region of Sinop peninsula. In this context, the reasons for the emergence of these fires, the extent of the fire destruction and subsequent developments are discussed. In this study, the Ottoman archive documents, the proceedings of the Grand National Assembly of Turkey and the relevant copies of the Kastamonu Vilayet Newspaper and various research and examination works were utilized.
ABSTRACT: Sinop, a small port city of the Black Sea, hosted many civilizations as of its historical origin. The multicultural structure of the city, which continued for many years, continued in the form of mutual relations between different faiths and ethnic groups until the first quarter of the 20th century. In the last centuries the Turks were the dominant elements of the region, while the Greeks represented another important ethnic structure of the city. However, the wars, which accelerated the collapse of the Ottoman Empire, ended the unity between these two communities. The deportation applied to the Armenians as a result of the relocation and resettlement law dated 27 May 1915, which was applied to the Greeks in a different way. In this context, the Greek from
Sinop, as well as various city of the Black Sea, were referred from the shore to the interior due to security concerns. This migration period, which lasted more than two years, ended with the period of armistice of Montrose and the Greeks returned to Sinop. However, the Pontus/Pontic structure in the period of the National Struggle caused some Greeks in Sinop to be subjected to a second deportation. As a result of the exchange of Turkish-Greek population, Greeks left Sinop. In this
study, the Turkish-Greek relations from the association to the path of departure from the Sinop sample were evaluated on a micro scale. It was to be structured with the works based on Ottoman archival documents, various periodicals, copyright and examination works. Thus, the social structure of Sinop one hundred years ago, social conflicts or sharing of two different groups were asked to illuminate.
SUMMARY: Located on the southern coast of the Black Sea, Sinop has been home to many civilizations during history. At the same time, it has allowed people of different ethnicities and beliefs to live together. Sinop, which was reigned by the Ottoman Empire in 1461, also showed diversity in terms of population during the Ottoman period. Thus, Muslims, Greeks and Armenians lived together in Sinop until the first quarter of the 20th century. Sinop was attached to the Kastamonu province with administrative status as a sanjak during this period. In 1914, the total population of the Sanjak of Sinop was 160,401 and there were 8,814 Greeks. The Greeks of Sinop were engaged in craftsmanship, shipping, fishing, tobacco farming and jewellery making, within the context of their economic activities. The Greeks lived in the southeastern part of the Sinop peninsula and in the district outside of the walls of Sinop Castle was called Varoş.
After the outbreak of the World War I in 1914, the Ottoman Empire went to the war. Subsequent to this, the Ottoman Government deported Armenians in 1915 and Greeks in 1916 due to security concerns. After the Russian army occupied Trabzon in 1916, there was an increase in the Pontus movements in the Black Sea. The Greeks, who was located on the coastline region extending from the western part of Trabzon to Sinop wanted the Russian occupation. The Ottoman Empire, who had discovered the Greeks idea of collaborating with the Russians, referred the Greeks to the inner sections of Anatolia. Therefore, the Greeks of Sinop and its surrounding towns to be deported to Kastamonu province in the south from the mid-summer of 1916. A small number of Greeks tried to escape to Russia. The Greeks in Sinop, Ayancık, Gerze and Boyabat had to leave their places within the context of the deportation. The 6,076 Greeks resident who lived on the coastline of Sinop and Kastamonu were exiled to the interior sections of the country as of August 9th, 1916. These people were settled in Kastamonu province center with sanjak and towns of Kastamonu such as Çankırı, Tosya, Çerkeş, Araç, Daday and Taşköprü. The task of controlling and executing all kinds of transactions of the goods left behind by the Greek community was transferred to the liquidation commissions of the Ottoman Empire.
A year after the deportation of the Greeks, the Governor of Kastamonu Atıf Bey reported that as of July 7th, 1917, there were almost no Greeks on the coastline of Sinop and Kastamonu. After the Greek community in Sinop left the city, the refugees who fled from Eastern Black Sea cities such as Trabzon and Rize, occupied by the Russians, were placed in their houses in the Varoş district. However, as a result of the fire that broke out in the house where a refugee was staying on September 13th, 1917, 400 houses, various public buildings, two churches and many shops were burnt down in the Varoş district. As a result of the second fire that broke out shortly after, on December 17th, 1917, 213 houses were destroyed.
In the meantime, according to an encrypted telegram dated August 13th, 1918, it was stated that it was appropriate to place 4,303 Greek residents in 998 houses deported from Sinop and Kastamonu coasts, and the Greek residents of Sinop-Kastamonu road to the Çankırı sanjak. As of September 1918, 1,888 people were deported from the coastal area and placed in the city center of Kastamonu and its surroundings. Meanwhile, 82 Greek people lived in Sinop during this period. 70 Greeks fled or immigrated to the foreign countries.
Following the Armistice of Mudros, which was signed on October 30th, 1918, after the World War I, the Greeks began to return to their homes. 1,214 Greeks were deported from 320 homes in the Ayancık town and villages of Sinop before the deportation. 1,050 Greeks returned to Ayancık after the Armistice of Mudros. The number of Greeks deported from Sinop was 2,423. The Greeks returned to Sinop and settled in their homes after the war was 827 people.
However, some of the remaining 1.596 of Greeks that returned to Sinop, due to the fire in 1917, or Muslim refugees who had settled into some of there houses. It was decided that free timber would be given to the Greeks whose houses were burnt down by the Ottoman Government to rebuild their homes. Also, seed grain was distributed to plant their fields. Between 1916 and 1917, while there was no Greek residence in Sinop, the proceeds from their fields were distributed to them by government officials after returning from the deportations.
On the other hand, during the years of the Turkish National Struggle, the idea of forming a Pontus government among the Greeks in the Black Sea and the gang activities had resumed. In addition, the Black Sea coast was blockaded by Greek warships and bombed from time to time. Thereupon, June 12th, 1921, according to the decision taken in the Greek community on the shores of the Black Sea, people between the ages of 15 to 50 years who were in possession of hands guns were deported to the inner parts of Anatolia. The 63,844 Greeks were sent elsewhere during this second deportation. In this context, 550 Greeks were sent from Sinop.
The Independent Turkish Orthodox Patriarchate in Anatolia, which protested the Greek oriented policy of the Fener Greek Patriarchate, supported the Grand National Assembly of Turkey during this period. By 1922, there were 4,265 Greeks in Sinop, 2,024 Greeks in Gerze, 1,540 Greeks in Ayancık and 129 Greeks in Boyabat. Among the Greek families, the Greeks who came from the Karaman and Kayseri sides were dominant in the last fifty years. On the other hand, the Turkish-Greek population exchange was decided in accordance with the decision taken at the Lausanne Peace Conference. In this context, the Greek-flagged passenger ferry named Efkinos arrived at Sinop Harbor and 1,415 Greeks left Sinop on July 5th, 1924. The 186 Greeks in Gerze left by a boarded passenger ferry named Arshi Pelagos on August 21st, 1924. Thus, in total 1,598 Greeks left Sinop as a requirement of the population exchange. Due to population exchange, the Muslim arrivals were settled to the remaining houses and lands of the Greeks in Sinop.
Abstract: Even though they found themselves at the threshold of diverging roads after a critical moment in history, Turks and Greeks lived together for a long and considerable time. During such shared experience, the interaction between the two communities was sometimes limited, sometimes extensive due to location, city or region. The experiences of the Turkish and Greek communities in Sinop, for example, will provide data for the shared history of these communities in Anatolia/Asia Minor. The Muslim people who lived in Sinop would live within the castle walls, while non-Muslim families were living outside. Therefore, this study particularly examines the external life of the people who lived outside the city walls, rather than internal life of those who lived within. Contributing to Sinop’s city monograph, the study aims to investigate the demographic, social, economic, religious and various historical developments that the communities witnessed in the 19th century, using archive documents and copyrighted material preserved at the Department of the Presidency State Archives of the Republic of Turkey.
Kentte bulunan yabancı okullardan, İzmir Amerikan Kız Koleji Enstitüsü (Izmir Colligiate Institute for Girls, ACI) ve İzmir Uluslararası Kolej (International College for Smyrna, IC) ise dikkat çeken iki Amerikan eğitim kurumuydu. Bu okullardaki eğitim-öğretim sistemi sayesinde, öğrencilerin bilgi ve becerileri artırılırken sosyal ve kültürel açıdan da gelişimlerine katkı sağlandı. Müfredat kapsamındaki beden eğitimi dersleri ile Uluslararası Kolej yerleşkesinde tanzim edilen modern spor tesisleri ve spor aletleri, ilgi çekici unsurlar olarak karşımıza çıkmaktadır. Ayrıca okullardaki atletizm, futbol, voleybol, basketbol ve tenis gibi çeşitli dallardaki spor faaliyetleri ise İzmir’deki eğitim kurumları arasında Amerikan kolejlerini farklı bir noktaya taşırken aynı zamanda bu kolejler kent sporuna da katkı sağladı.
Bu çalışmada, 1890’lardan 1930’lu yıllara kadar İzmir’deki Amerikan eğitim kurumlarında yürütülen spor faaliyetlerinin türleri, özellikleri ve şehrin spor tarihine etkilerinin neler olduğu sorularına cevap verilmeye çalışıldı. Kaynak olarak ise Amerikan menşeili misyoner arşiv belgeleri, basılı kaynaklar ve döneme ait fotoğra ardan yararlanıldı. Böylece kentin önemli eğitim kurumları arasında yer alan Amerikan kolejlerinden hareketle İzmir spor tarihine ışık tutulması amaçlandı.
Izmir is an important face of Anatolia to the West with its location and historical background. The various sports activities carried out within the city towards the end of the 19th century brought a different perspective to the Ottman modernity, that took place in an individual or societal context. Modern lectures, especially given to foreign schools in the city, have made a signi cant contribution to the change of perception to traditional sports and/or sports understanding in physical education classes in classical educational institutions.
Izmir Colligiate Institute for Girls (ACI) and International College for Smyrna (IC) were the two most prominent American educational institutions in the city. Thanks to the education system in these schools, students’ knowledge and skills were being improved. In addition, social and cultural aspects contributed to their development. The curriculum of physical education courses and the modern sports facilities and sporting equipments in the International College settlement are confort as interesting elements. Furthermore, a variety of sporting activities such as athletics, football, volleyball, baketball and tennis in schools have brought American colleges to a different point among educational institutions in Izmir. Thus, these colleges also contributed to the urban sport.
This study aimed to answer the question of what kinds of sports activities were carried out in American educational institutions in Izmir from 1890s to 1930s, as well as the types of sports, the charracteristics of these sports and the effects of these sports on the history of city. The US origin missionary archive documents, printed resources and photographs of the revolution were used as sources. Thus, it aimed to shed light on the sports history of Izmir through the American colleges, that are among the important educational institutions within the city.
ile birlikte farklı isimler altında çalışmalarını sürdürdü. 6 Ağustos 1919’da Yakındoğu Yardım Heyeti (Near East Relief, NER) adını alan heyet, Osmanlı kaynaklarında ise Amerikan Şark-ı Karib Muavenet Cemiyeti adı ile anılacaktır. Diğer taraftan yardım faaliyetlerinin sistemli bir şekilde yürütülmesi amacıyla NER tarafından Osmanlı coğrafyası ise çeşitli ana yardım merkezlerine ayrıldı. Söz konusu merkezî bölgelerden birisi Halep olup, dönem dönem değişmekle birlikte Urfa, Antep, Maraş, Mardin,
Diyarbakır, Kilis ve Bilecik gibi yerleşim yerlerindeki yardım faaliyetleri de Halep’teki ana yardım merkezine bağlı olarak yürütüldü. Bu çalışmada öncelikli olarak NER’in Urfa’daki yardım faaliyetleri incelendi. Urfa’nın yanı sıra Halep, Antep, Kilis, Maraş, Mardin, Diyarbakır ve Bilecik çevrelerinde icra edilen yardım faaliyetleri de irdelenen bölgeler arasındadır. Bu bağlamda, başta Uluslararası Araştırma için Dijital Kütüphane (Digital
Library for International Research / DLIR) adresinde yer alan American Board - Near East Relief’e ait arşiv belgeleri olmak üzere, çeşitli tetkik eserler incelemeye tabi tutuldu.
A charity organization was established with the name Armenian Relief
Committee (ARC) of the USA in order to help the Armenians who were subjected to the immigration under the Relocation and Resettlement Law issued by the Ottoman Government. The committee, headed by James Barton, continued to work under different names with the expansion of the field of activity over time. On August 6, 1919, the
delgation, which was named as the Near East Relief (NER), in the Ottoman sources, it is also known as Amerikan Şark-ı Karib Muavenet Cemiyeti. On the other hand, the Ottoman geography is divided into various main aid stations by the NER for the purpose of the
systematic execution of the aid activities. One of the central regions is the Aleppo, with the periodical changes, relief activities in settlements such as Urfa, Antep, Maraş, Mardin, Diyarbakır, Kilis, and Bilecik were carried out in connection with the main aid station in Aleppo. In the study, primarily the NER's aid activities in Urfa will be examined. In addition to Urfa, Aleppo, Antep, Kilis, Maraş, Mardin, Diyarbakir and Bilecik are among the regions to be examined. In this study, primarly be on the point of the archive documents of the American Board – the Near East Relief, which is internet address at the Digital Library for International Research (DLIR), the Ottoman Empire archives and examination works will be subject to examination.
J. K. Birge, yaptığı saha çalışmaları ile İslam dinini, Türk dili, edebiyatı ve kültürünü yakından tanıma ve öğrenme fırsatı yakalamış bir Amerikalıdır. Yaptığı çalışmalar neticesinde ise Türkolog, oryantalist, misyoner, eğitimci ve belki de istihbaratçı kimliklerini bünyesinde toplamayı başarmış nevi şahsına münhasır bir kişilik olarak tarihteki yerini almıştır.
This study analyzes a total of 21 Kastamonu provincial yearbooks issued from 1869 to 1903. The parts about Sinop central town (today’s Sinop city center) of Sinop sanjak were analyzed from the yearbooks. In the light of findings, administrative and demographic structure of Sinop central town between the years 1869-1903 was assessed with the main lines and the names of some of the officers in administration along with statistical data were presented in tables.
ÖZET
Türkiye’nin en kuzeyinde yer alan Sinop, Karadeniz’e kıyısı olan ve birçok medeniyete ev sahipliği yapmış tarihi öneme sahip bir kenttir. Osmanlı Devleti’nin taşra teşkilat yapılanmasında Sinop, Tanzimat sonrası Kastamonu vilâyetine bağlı bir sancak merkezi haline gelmiştir.
Bu çalışmada, 1869’dan 1903 yılına kadar yayınlanan toplam 21 adet Kastamonu vilâyeti salnâmesi değerlendirmeye alınmıştır. Bu salnâmelerde yer alan Sinop sancağının Sinop merkez kazası (bugünkü Sinop il merkezi) ile ilgili bölümler incelenmiştir. Elde edilen bulgular ışığında Sinop merkez kazasının, 1869-1903 tarihleri arasındaki idari ve demografik yapısı ana hatlarıyla değerlendirilmiş, çeşitli idari görevlilerin isimleri ile istatistiki veriler tablolar halinde ortaya koyulmaya çalışılmıştır.
This study addresses the relief activities conducted by Near East Relief, NER in Samsun between the years 1919-1922. Within this context, the types, contents and impacts of Armenian, Greek and Muslim orphanages, hospitals, soup kitchen, vocational educations and other relief activities supported by the committee in Samsun are discuss. Our study which was grounded by making use of the archives of N.E.R. was framed also by making use of other studies. The purpose was thus to reflect the social structure of Samsun during the years of War of Independence as seen by the Americans and to contribute to the memory of the city.
Özet
Savaşlar, insanlarda onulmaz yaralar açarken en ağır travmalara maruz kalanlar ise genelde çocuklar olmuştur. Aynı şekilde 20. yüzyılın ilk çeyreğinde Anadolu’da yaşanan savaş histerisi ve etkileri de Türk, Ermeni, Rum vs. binlerce çocuğu kimsesiz bırakmış, göç, salgın hastalık ve açlık gibi olaylar yüzbinlerce insana mağduriyet yaşatmıştır.
Bu çalışmada, Yakın Doğu Yardım Heyeti’nin (Near East Relief, NER) 1919-1922 yılları arasında Samsun’da yürüttüğü yardım faaliyetleri ele alınmıştır. Bu kapsamda, örgütün Samsun’da desteklediği Ermeni, Rum ve Müslüman yetimhaneler ile hastaneler, aşevleri, mesleki eğitimler ve diğer yardım faaliyetlerinin türleri, içerikleri ve etkileri irdelenmiştir. NER’in arşiv kaynaklarından istifade edilerek temellendirilen çalışmamız, diğer tetkik eserlerden de yararlanılarak çerçevelendirilmiştir. Böylelikle Amerikalıların gözünden Millî Mücadele yıllarında Samsun’un sosyal yapısı yansıtılıp, kent belleğine katkı sağlanması amaçlanmıştır.
This paper is a compilation of the news that was published in The Orient about the naval and land battles of the Dardanelles Campaign. The primary sources of this daily news about the Dardanelles Campaign consist of briefing messages, reports and various posts sent by the military authorities of the Ottoman Empire. The primary objective of the paper is to approach the Dardanelles Campaign from a different perspective through The Orient. Another objective was to shed a light on how the Dardanelles Campaign was reflected to readers, mainly American missionaries and American people and to find out what kind of a perception was formed in the eyes of the public. Within this context, the most important references of our study were 52 copies of The Orient, which was a weekly published newspaper.
ÖZET
Hristiyan bir misyoner teşkilatı olan Amerikan Board’un imtiyaz sahipliğinde, İstanbul merkezli yayın yapan The Orient gazetesi, 20. yüzyılın başlarında Anadolu’da İngilizce olarak yayınlanan yerel birkaç süreli yayından birisi idi. 1910 ilkbaharında yayın hayatına başlayan The Orient, 1910’dan 29 Aralık 1915 tarihine kadar haftada bir kez kesintisiz olarak yayınlanmıştır. Dolayısıyla gazete, Osmanlı Devleti’nin son dönemlerine ve Birinci Dünya Savaşı’nın ilk yıllarına tanıklık etmiş, 20. yüzyılın ilk çeyreğinde Türkiye ve Ortadoğu’nun siyasi, ekonomik ve sosyal yapısını kendine özgü Amerikan bakış açısıyla sunmaya çalışmıştır.
Bu bildiri, Çanakkale savaşlarının deniz ve kara muharebeleri hakkında The Orient gazetesinde yer alan haberlerin derlemesi niteliğindedir. Çanakkale savaşları ile ilgili gün gün cephenden yansıtılan bu haberlerin temel kaynağını ise Osmanlı Devleti’nin askeri makamlarınca servis edilen bilgilendirme tezkireleri, raporlar ve çeşitli gönderiler oluşturmaktadır. Bildirinin temel amacı, The Orient gazetesi aracılığıyla Çanakkale savaşlarına farklı bir bakış açısı ile yaklaşmaktır. Öte yandan The Orient sayesinde Çanakkale savaşlarının, başta Amerikalı misyonerler ve Amerikan vatandaşları olmak üzere, okuyucularına nasıl yansıtıldığı ve kamuoyunda nasıl bir algı oluşturduğu aydınlatılmak üzere amaç edinilmiştir. Bu bağlamda çalışmamızın en önemli referanslarını da haftalık olarak yayınlanan The Orient gazetesinin, 1915 yılındaki toplam 52 nüshası oluşturmuştur.
1854 yılında yapımına karar verilen çeşme inşaatı ancak 21 Ağustos 1858 tarihinde tamamlanabilmiştir. Çalışmada öncelikle Sinop Şehitler Çeşmesi’nin, yapım aşamasından tamamlanmasına kadar geçen süre içerisinde yaşanan aksaklıklar ele alınmıştır. Daha sonra çeşmenin suyolları, yapı malzemeleri, mimari özellikleri ve yapım maliyeti Osmanlı arşivlerinde yer alan keşif defterleri ve diğer vesikalardan istifade edilerek tablolar halinde aydınlatılmaya çalışılmıştır. Yine çalışmayla ilişkili olarak belgelerden tespit edilen ancak ismi unutulan Sultan Süleyman Çeşmesi’nin yapımı ve daha sonraki akıbetine dair bulgular da yer verilen konular arasındadır.
Bu çalışmayla birlikte Şehitler Çeşmesi’nin yapımına dair menkıbeleşen birtakım yanlış anlatıların önüne geçilmesi, Sinop’un simgesel yapılarından birisi olan söz konusu çeşmenin tanıtımına ve kent tarihine katı sağlanması amaçlanmıştır.
The Sinop disaster of 30 November 1853 is one of the important breaking moments of the 1853-1856 Ottoman-Russian War. As a result of the naval operation carried out by the Russians, the Ottoman fleet in Sinop Port was completely destroyed, except for one ferry, while nearly two thousand Ottoman sailors lost their lives. In order to commemorate the cherished memories of the martyrs, it was decided to build a monumental fountain at a suitable point in the city by the command of Sultan Abdülmecid.
The construction of the fountain, which was decided to be built in 1854, could only be completed on 21 August 1858. In the study, first of all, the problems experienced during the period from the construction phase to the completion of the Sinop Martyrs’ Fountain were discussed. Later, the waterways, building materials, architectural features and construction cost of the fountain were tried to be illuminated in tables by making use of the discovery books and other documents in the Ottoman archives. Again, findings related to the construction and subsequent fate of the Sultan Süleyman Fountain, which was identified from the documents in relation to the study but whose name was forgotten, are also among the topics covered.
With this study, it is aimed to prevent some false narratives about the construction of the Martyrs’ Fountain, to promote the fountain, which is one of the symbolic structures of Sinop, and to provide solidity to the city’s history.
Bu çalışmada ise Sinop sancağında tütün ziraatının, yaygınlaşmasından başlayarak Cumhuriyetin ilk yıllarına kadar uzanan süreci ele alındı. Bu kapsamda Sinop Reji İdaresi’nin uygulamaları, tütün kaçakçıları ile Reji kolcularının mücadelesi sosyoekonomik boyutlarıyla irdelendi. Elde edilen bulgular neticesinde Osmanlı döneminde Karadeniz’deki tütün üretimine dair Sinop örnekleminden hareketle mikro ölçekli bir fikir oluşturulmaya çalışıldı.
The tobacco plant, which entered the Ottoman lands at the end of the 16th century, was among the important sources of income for the Ottoman society and the state despite various prohibitions. Tobacco, which was one of the tax items needed to maintain the economic balance of the Ottoman Empire in the 19th century, had an important place in this sense. However, tobacco agriculture, which was under the control of the tobacco Regie with foreign partners, became a commercial commodity that marked the last years of the Ottoman Empire in the context of the state, company and people. This plant, which found a living space for itself in Sinop, was also an income channel as well as brought troubles with it.
In this study, the process from the spread of tobacco agriculture in Sinop to the first years of the Republic of Turkey was discussed. In this context, the practices of the Sinop Regie Administration, the struggle of tobacco smugglers and the Regie guard were examined in terms of their socioeconomic dimensions. As a result of the findings obtained, a micro-scale idea was tried to be created based on the Sinop sample regarding tobacco production in the Black Sea during the Ottoman period.
Bu çalışma, Sinop yarımadasının güneydoğu cihetine kurulmuş olan ve nüfusunun geneli Rumlardan oluşan Varoş Mahallesi’nde yaşanan 1889, 1895 ve 1917 yangınları üzerine temellendirilmiştir. Bu kapsamda söz konusu yangınların çıkış nedenleri, yangın tahribatlarının boyutu ve sonrasında yaşanan gelişmeler ele alınmıştır. Çalışmada, Osmanlı arşiv vesikaları, TBMM zabıt cerideleri ve Kastamonu Vilayet Gazetesi’nin ilgili nüshaları ile çeşitli araştırma ve inceleme eserlerinden istifade edilmiştir. Varoş Mahallesi yangınları çerçevesinde ve ortaya konulan bulgulardan hareketle, bir kentin sosyal yapısına ve mimari dokusuna ışık tutulmaya çalışılmıştır.
ABSTRACT: Fire disasters were frequently experienced in the capital city Istanbul and the provinces during the Ottoman period. Cases of fire where its growth could not be prevented have caused extensive damages. Such incidents have been painfully experienced in Sinop. Particularly since the second half of the 19th century, the fire events that took place in various periods damaged the architectural texture of Sinop and gave a heavy blow to the commercial and social life.
This study is based on the 1889, 1895 and 1917 fires in the Varos distirict, which is composed of Greeks whose population was established in the southeastern region of Sinop peninsula. In this context, the reasons for the emergence of these fires, the extent of the fire destruction and subsequent developments are discussed. In this study, the Ottoman archive documents, the proceedings of the Grand National Assembly of Turkey and the relevant copies of the Kastamonu Vilayet Newspaper and various research and examination works were utilized.
ABSTRACT: Sinop, a small port city of the Black Sea, hosted many civilizations as of its historical origin. The multicultural structure of the city, which continued for many years, continued in the form of mutual relations between different faiths and ethnic groups until the first quarter of the 20th century. In the last centuries the Turks were the dominant elements of the region, while the Greeks represented another important ethnic structure of the city. However, the wars, which accelerated the collapse of the Ottoman Empire, ended the unity between these two communities. The deportation applied to the Armenians as a result of the relocation and resettlement law dated 27 May 1915, which was applied to the Greeks in a different way. In this context, the Greek from
Sinop, as well as various city of the Black Sea, were referred from the shore to the interior due to security concerns. This migration period, which lasted more than two years, ended with the period of armistice of Montrose and the Greeks returned to Sinop. However, the Pontus/Pontic structure in the period of the National Struggle caused some Greeks in Sinop to be subjected to a second deportation. As a result of the exchange of Turkish-Greek population, Greeks left Sinop. In this
study, the Turkish-Greek relations from the association to the path of departure from the Sinop sample were evaluated on a micro scale. It was to be structured with the works based on Ottoman archival documents, various periodicals, copyright and examination works. Thus, the social structure of Sinop one hundred years ago, social conflicts or sharing of two different groups were asked to illuminate.
SUMMARY: Located on the southern coast of the Black Sea, Sinop has been home to many civilizations during history. At the same time, it has allowed people of different ethnicities and beliefs to live together. Sinop, which was reigned by the Ottoman Empire in 1461, also showed diversity in terms of population during the Ottoman period. Thus, Muslims, Greeks and Armenians lived together in Sinop until the first quarter of the 20th century. Sinop was attached to the Kastamonu province with administrative status as a sanjak during this period. In 1914, the total population of the Sanjak of Sinop was 160,401 and there were 8,814 Greeks. The Greeks of Sinop were engaged in craftsmanship, shipping, fishing, tobacco farming and jewellery making, within the context of their economic activities. The Greeks lived in the southeastern part of the Sinop peninsula and in the district outside of the walls of Sinop Castle was called Varoş.
After the outbreak of the World War I in 1914, the Ottoman Empire went to the war. Subsequent to this, the Ottoman Government deported Armenians in 1915 and Greeks in 1916 due to security concerns. After the Russian army occupied Trabzon in 1916, there was an increase in the Pontus movements in the Black Sea. The Greeks, who was located on the coastline region extending from the western part of Trabzon to Sinop wanted the Russian occupation. The Ottoman Empire, who had discovered the Greeks idea of collaborating with the Russians, referred the Greeks to the inner sections of Anatolia. Therefore, the Greeks of Sinop and its surrounding towns to be deported to Kastamonu province in the south from the mid-summer of 1916. A small number of Greeks tried to escape to Russia. The Greeks in Sinop, Ayancık, Gerze and Boyabat had to leave their places within the context of the deportation. The 6,076 Greeks resident who lived on the coastline of Sinop and Kastamonu were exiled to the interior sections of the country as of August 9th, 1916. These people were settled in Kastamonu province center with sanjak and towns of Kastamonu such as Çankırı, Tosya, Çerkeş, Araç, Daday and Taşköprü. The task of controlling and executing all kinds of transactions of the goods left behind by the Greek community was transferred to the liquidation commissions of the Ottoman Empire.
A year after the deportation of the Greeks, the Governor of Kastamonu Atıf Bey reported that as of July 7th, 1917, there were almost no Greeks on the coastline of Sinop and Kastamonu. After the Greek community in Sinop left the city, the refugees who fled from Eastern Black Sea cities such as Trabzon and Rize, occupied by the Russians, were placed in their houses in the Varoş district. However, as a result of the fire that broke out in the house where a refugee was staying on September 13th, 1917, 400 houses, various public buildings, two churches and many shops were burnt down in the Varoş district. As a result of the second fire that broke out shortly after, on December 17th, 1917, 213 houses were destroyed.
In the meantime, according to an encrypted telegram dated August 13th, 1918, it was stated that it was appropriate to place 4,303 Greek residents in 998 houses deported from Sinop and Kastamonu coasts, and the Greek residents of Sinop-Kastamonu road to the Çankırı sanjak. As of September 1918, 1,888 people were deported from the coastal area and placed in the city center of Kastamonu and its surroundings. Meanwhile, 82 Greek people lived in Sinop during this period. 70 Greeks fled or immigrated to the foreign countries.
Following the Armistice of Mudros, which was signed on October 30th, 1918, after the World War I, the Greeks began to return to their homes. 1,214 Greeks were deported from 320 homes in the Ayancık town and villages of Sinop before the deportation. 1,050 Greeks returned to Ayancık after the Armistice of Mudros. The number of Greeks deported from Sinop was 2,423. The Greeks returned to Sinop and settled in their homes after the war was 827 people.
However, some of the remaining 1.596 of Greeks that returned to Sinop, due to the fire in 1917, or Muslim refugees who had settled into some of there houses. It was decided that free timber would be given to the Greeks whose houses were burnt down by the Ottoman Government to rebuild their homes. Also, seed grain was distributed to plant their fields. Between 1916 and 1917, while there was no Greek residence in Sinop, the proceeds from their fields were distributed to them by government officials after returning from the deportations.
On the other hand, during the years of the Turkish National Struggle, the idea of forming a Pontus government among the Greeks in the Black Sea and the gang activities had resumed. In addition, the Black Sea coast was blockaded by Greek warships and bombed from time to time. Thereupon, June 12th, 1921, according to the decision taken in the Greek community on the shores of the Black Sea, people between the ages of 15 to 50 years who were in possession of hands guns were deported to the inner parts of Anatolia. The 63,844 Greeks were sent elsewhere during this second deportation. In this context, 550 Greeks were sent from Sinop.
The Independent Turkish Orthodox Patriarchate in Anatolia, which protested the Greek oriented policy of the Fener Greek Patriarchate, supported the Grand National Assembly of Turkey during this period. By 1922, there were 4,265 Greeks in Sinop, 2,024 Greeks in Gerze, 1,540 Greeks in Ayancık and 129 Greeks in Boyabat. Among the Greek families, the Greeks who came from the Karaman and Kayseri sides were dominant in the last fifty years. On the other hand, the Turkish-Greek population exchange was decided in accordance with the decision taken at the Lausanne Peace Conference. In this context, the Greek-flagged passenger ferry named Efkinos arrived at Sinop Harbor and 1,415 Greeks left Sinop on July 5th, 1924. The 186 Greeks in Gerze left by a boarded passenger ferry named Arshi Pelagos on August 21st, 1924. Thus, in total 1,598 Greeks left Sinop as a requirement of the population exchange. Due to population exchange, the Muslim arrivals were settled to the remaining houses and lands of the Greeks in Sinop.
Abstract: Even though they found themselves at the threshold of diverging roads after a critical moment in history, Turks and Greeks lived together for a long and considerable time. During such shared experience, the interaction between the two communities was sometimes limited, sometimes extensive due to location, city or region. The experiences of the Turkish and Greek communities in Sinop, for example, will provide data for the shared history of these communities in Anatolia/Asia Minor. The Muslim people who lived in Sinop would live within the castle walls, while non-Muslim families were living outside. Therefore, this study particularly examines the external life of the people who lived outside the city walls, rather than internal life of those who lived within. Contributing to Sinop’s city monograph, the study aims to investigate the demographic, social, economic, religious and various historical developments that the communities witnessed in the 19th century, using archive documents and copyrighted material preserved at the Department of the Presidency State Archives of the Republic of Turkey.
Kentte bulunan yabancı okullardan, İzmir Amerikan Kız Koleji Enstitüsü (Izmir Colligiate Institute for Girls, ACI) ve İzmir Uluslararası Kolej (International College for Smyrna, IC) ise dikkat çeken iki Amerikan eğitim kurumuydu. Bu okullardaki eğitim-öğretim sistemi sayesinde, öğrencilerin bilgi ve becerileri artırılırken sosyal ve kültürel açıdan da gelişimlerine katkı sağlandı. Müfredat kapsamındaki beden eğitimi dersleri ile Uluslararası Kolej yerleşkesinde tanzim edilen modern spor tesisleri ve spor aletleri, ilgi çekici unsurlar olarak karşımıza çıkmaktadır. Ayrıca okullardaki atletizm, futbol, voleybol, basketbol ve tenis gibi çeşitli dallardaki spor faaliyetleri ise İzmir’deki eğitim kurumları arasında Amerikan kolejlerini farklı bir noktaya taşırken aynı zamanda bu kolejler kent sporuna da katkı sağladı.
Bu çalışmada, 1890’lardan 1930’lu yıllara kadar İzmir’deki Amerikan eğitim kurumlarında yürütülen spor faaliyetlerinin türleri, özellikleri ve şehrin spor tarihine etkilerinin neler olduğu sorularına cevap verilmeye çalışıldı. Kaynak olarak ise Amerikan menşeili misyoner arşiv belgeleri, basılı kaynaklar ve döneme ait fotoğra ardan yararlanıldı. Böylece kentin önemli eğitim kurumları arasında yer alan Amerikan kolejlerinden hareketle İzmir spor tarihine ışık tutulması amaçlandı.
Izmir is an important face of Anatolia to the West with its location and historical background. The various sports activities carried out within the city towards the end of the 19th century brought a different perspective to the Ottman modernity, that took place in an individual or societal context. Modern lectures, especially given to foreign schools in the city, have made a signi cant contribution to the change of perception to traditional sports and/or sports understanding in physical education classes in classical educational institutions.
Izmir Colligiate Institute for Girls (ACI) and International College for Smyrna (IC) were the two most prominent American educational institutions in the city. Thanks to the education system in these schools, students’ knowledge and skills were being improved. In addition, social and cultural aspects contributed to their development. The curriculum of physical education courses and the modern sports facilities and sporting equipments in the International College settlement are confort as interesting elements. Furthermore, a variety of sporting activities such as athletics, football, volleyball, baketball and tennis in schools have brought American colleges to a different point among educational institutions in Izmir. Thus, these colleges also contributed to the urban sport.
This study aimed to answer the question of what kinds of sports activities were carried out in American educational institutions in Izmir from 1890s to 1930s, as well as the types of sports, the charracteristics of these sports and the effects of these sports on the history of city. The US origin missionary archive documents, printed resources and photographs of the revolution were used as sources. Thus, it aimed to shed light on the sports history of Izmir through the American colleges, that are among the important educational institutions within the city.
ile birlikte farklı isimler altında çalışmalarını sürdürdü. 6 Ağustos 1919’da Yakındoğu Yardım Heyeti (Near East Relief, NER) adını alan heyet, Osmanlı kaynaklarında ise Amerikan Şark-ı Karib Muavenet Cemiyeti adı ile anılacaktır. Diğer taraftan yardım faaliyetlerinin sistemli bir şekilde yürütülmesi amacıyla NER tarafından Osmanlı coğrafyası ise çeşitli ana yardım merkezlerine ayrıldı. Söz konusu merkezî bölgelerden birisi Halep olup, dönem dönem değişmekle birlikte Urfa, Antep, Maraş, Mardin,
Diyarbakır, Kilis ve Bilecik gibi yerleşim yerlerindeki yardım faaliyetleri de Halep’teki ana yardım merkezine bağlı olarak yürütüldü. Bu çalışmada öncelikli olarak NER’in Urfa’daki yardım faaliyetleri incelendi. Urfa’nın yanı sıra Halep, Antep, Kilis, Maraş, Mardin, Diyarbakır ve Bilecik çevrelerinde icra edilen yardım faaliyetleri de irdelenen bölgeler arasındadır. Bu bağlamda, başta Uluslararası Araştırma için Dijital Kütüphane (Digital
Library for International Research / DLIR) adresinde yer alan American Board - Near East Relief’e ait arşiv belgeleri olmak üzere, çeşitli tetkik eserler incelemeye tabi tutuldu.
A charity organization was established with the name Armenian Relief
Committee (ARC) of the USA in order to help the Armenians who were subjected to the immigration under the Relocation and Resettlement Law issued by the Ottoman Government. The committee, headed by James Barton, continued to work under different names with the expansion of the field of activity over time. On August 6, 1919, the
delgation, which was named as the Near East Relief (NER), in the Ottoman sources, it is also known as Amerikan Şark-ı Karib Muavenet Cemiyeti. On the other hand, the Ottoman geography is divided into various main aid stations by the NER for the purpose of the
systematic execution of the aid activities. One of the central regions is the Aleppo, with the periodical changes, relief activities in settlements such as Urfa, Antep, Maraş, Mardin, Diyarbakır, Kilis, and Bilecik were carried out in connection with the main aid station in Aleppo. In the study, primarily the NER's aid activities in Urfa will be examined. In addition to Urfa, Aleppo, Antep, Kilis, Maraş, Mardin, Diyarbakir and Bilecik are among the regions to be examined. In this study, primarly be on the point of the archive documents of the American Board – the Near East Relief, which is internet address at the Digital Library for International Research (DLIR), the Ottoman Empire archives and examination works will be subject to examination.
J. K. Birge, yaptığı saha çalışmaları ile İslam dinini, Türk dili, edebiyatı ve kültürünü yakından tanıma ve öğrenme fırsatı yakalamış bir Amerikalıdır. Yaptığı çalışmalar neticesinde ise Türkolog, oryantalist, misyoner, eğitimci ve belki de istihbaratçı kimliklerini bünyesinde toplamayı başarmış nevi şahsına münhasır bir kişilik olarak tarihteki yerini almıştır.
This study analyzes a total of 21 Kastamonu provincial yearbooks issued from 1869 to 1903. The parts about Sinop central town (today’s Sinop city center) of Sinop sanjak were analyzed from the yearbooks. In the light of findings, administrative and demographic structure of Sinop central town between the years 1869-1903 was assessed with the main lines and the names of some of the officers in administration along with statistical data were presented in tables.
ÖZET
Türkiye’nin en kuzeyinde yer alan Sinop, Karadeniz’e kıyısı olan ve birçok medeniyete ev sahipliği yapmış tarihi öneme sahip bir kenttir. Osmanlı Devleti’nin taşra teşkilat yapılanmasında Sinop, Tanzimat sonrası Kastamonu vilâyetine bağlı bir sancak merkezi haline gelmiştir.
Bu çalışmada, 1869’dan 1903 yılına kadar yayınlanan toplam 21 adet Kastamonu vilâyeti salnâmesi değerlendirmeye alınmıştır. Bu salnâmelerde yer alan Sinop sancağının Sinop merkez kazası (bugünkü Sinop il merkezi) ile ilgili bölümler incelenmiştir. Elde edilen bulgular ışığında Sinop merkez kazasının, 1869-1903 tarihleri arasındaki idari ve demografik yapısı ana hatlarıyla değerlendirilmiş, çeşitli idari görevlilerin isimleri ile istatistiki veriler tablolar halinde ortaya koyulmaya çalışılmıştır.
This study addresses the relief activities conducted by Near East Relief, NER in Samsun between the years 1919-1922. Within this context, the types, contents and impacts of Armenian, Greek and Muslim orphanages, hospitals, soup kitchen, vocational educations and other relief activities supported by the committee in Samsun are discuss. Our study which was grounded by making use of the archives of N.E.R. was framed also by making use of other studies. The purpose was thus to reflect the social structure of Samsun during the years of War of Independence as seen by the Americans and to contribute to the memory of the city.
Özet
Savaşlar, insanlarda onulmaz yaralar açarken en ağır travmalara maruz kalanlar ise genelde çocuklar olmuştur. Aynı şekilde 20. yüzyılın ilk çeyreğinde Anadolu’da yaşanan savaş histerisi ve etkileri de Türk, Ermeni, Rum vs. binlerce çocuğu kimsesiz bırakmış, göç, salgın hastalık ve açlık gibi olaylar yüzbinlerce insana mağduriyet yaşatmıştır.
Bu çalışmada, Yakın Doğu Yardım Heyeti’nin (Near East Relief, NER) 1919-1922 yılları arasında Samsun’da yürüttüğü yardım faaliyetleri ele alınmıştır. Bu kapsamda, örgütün Samsun’da desteklediği Ermeni, Rum ve Müslüman yetimhaneler ile hastaneler, aşevleri, mesleki eğitimler ve diğer yardım faaliyetlerinin türleri, içerikleri ve etkileri irdelenmiştir. NER’in arşiv kaynaklarından istifade edilerek temellendirilen çalışmamız, diğer tetkik eserlerden de yararlanılarak çerçevelendirilmiştir. Böylelikle Amerikalıların gözünden Millî Mücadele yıllarında Samsun’un sosyal yapısı yansıtılıp, kent belleğine katkı sağlanması amaçlanmıştır.
This paper is a compilation of the news that was published in The Orient about the naval and land battles of the Dardanelles Campaign. The primary sources of this daily news about the Dardanelles Campaign consist of briefing messages, reports and various posts sent by the military authorities of the Ottoman Empire. The primary objective of the paper is to approach the Dardanelles Campaign from a different perspective through The Orient. Another objective was to shed a light on how the Dardanelles Campaign was reflected to readers, mainly American missionaries and American people and to find out what kind of a perception was formed in the eyes of the public. Within this context, the most important references of our study were 52 copies of The Orient, which was a weekly published newspaper.
ÖZET
Hristiyan bir misyoner teşkilatı olan Amerikan Board’un imtiyaz sahipliğinde, İstanbul merkezli yayın yapan The Orient gazetesi, 20. yüzyılın başlarında Anadolu’da İngilizce olarak yayınlanan yerel birkaç süreli yayından birisi idi. 1910 ilkbaharında yayın hayatına başlayan The Orient, 1910’dan 29 Aralık 1915 tarihine kadar haftada bir kez kesintisiz olarak yayınlanmıştır. Dolayısıyla gazete, Osmanlı Devleti’nin son dönemlerine ve Birinci Dünya Savaşı’nın ilk yıllarına tanıklık etmiş, 20. yüzyılın ilk çeyreğinde Türkiye ve Ortadoğu’nun siyasi, ekonomik ve sosyal yapısını kendine özgü Amerikan bakış açısıyla sunmaya çalışmıştır.
Bu bildiri, Çanakkale savaşlarının deniz ve kara muharebeleri hakkında The Orient gazetesinde yer alan haberlerin derlemesi niteliğindedir. Çanakkale savaşları ile ilgili gün gün cephenden yansıtılan bu haberlerin temel kaynağını ise Osmanlı Devleti’nin askeri makamlarınca servis edilen bilgilendirme tezkireleri, raporlar ve çeşitli gönderiler oluşturmaktadır. Bildirinin temel amacı, The Orient gazetesi aracılığıyla Çanakkale savaşlarına farklı bir bakış açısı ile yaklaşmaktır. Öte yandan The Orient sayesinde Çanakkale savaşlarının, başta Amerikalı misyonerler ve Amerikan vatandaşları olmak üzere, okuyucularına nasıl yansıtıldığı ve kamuoyunda nasıl bir algı oluşturduğu aydınlatılmak üzere amaç edinilmiştir. Bu bağlamda çalışmamızın en önemli referanslarını da haftalık olarak yayınlanan The Orient gazetesinin, 1915 yılındaki toplam 52 nüshası oluşturmuştur.
Eser, hayırseverlik kavramından hareketle Amerikan devlet ve toplum aklının, Amerikan Kızılhaçı üzerinden bu nosyonu algılayış şekline açıklık getirilmeye çalışmaktadır. Amerikalıların gözünden Türk, Ermeni ve Rum toplumları ile Mütareke yıllarında İstanbul’a sığınan mülteci Ruslara dair kesitler sunan bu kitap, kozmopolit bir yapı sergilemektedir. Söz konusu çeşitlilik çerçevesinde sıklıkla diplomasi, isyan, katliam, savaş, göç, mülteci, hastalık, açlık, yoksulluk gibi kavramlara değinilirken tüm bunların etrafından şekillenen Amerikan Kızılhaçı’nın Osmanlı Devleti’ndeki faaliyetleri ve Amerikan yardımları çalışmanın tematik çerçevesini oluşturmaktadır.
yürüttüğü akıllı siyaset ve askeri mücadeleler neticesinde sınırları üç
kıtaya uzanan ve altı yüz yılı aşkın bir süre dünya siyaset tarihinde kalmayı başaran bir imparatorluğa dönüştü. Varlığını uzun süre sürdürebilmesinde devlet teşkilatlanması, adalet anlayışı, askeri düzeni, toprak sistemi, mali yapılanmasının yanı sıra çok farklı ulus ve inanıştaki insanları bir arada tutmayı başarabilen zengin kültür dinamiklerinin etkisi yadsınamaz. Ne var ki Osmanlı’nın bu muazzam devlet yapılanması XVI. yüzyılın sonlarında bozulmaya başladı. XVII. ve XVIII. yüzyıllarda ise ezeli bir rekabet içerisinde olunan Avrupa devletleri karşısında duraklama ve ardından gerileme gerçekleşti. Başta askeri ve siyasi olmak üzere pek çok alanda Osmanlı Devleti’nin Batı ile giriştiği mücadelede etken konumdan edilgen bir konuma geçmesi beraberinde birtakım reformları getirdi. XVIII. yüzyılda başlayan ancak XIX. yüzyılda yaygın bir şekilde uygulanan modernleşme süreci, Osmanlı’nın reform çağı olarak nitelendirilebilir. Reformist padişahlar III. Selim ve II. Mahmut döneminde öncelikli olarak merkezi yapının ve askeri sistemin güçlenmesine yönelik başlatılan yenilikler, Tanzimat dönemi ile birlikte devlet kademelerinin geneli ile Osmanlı toplum ve kültür hayatının birçok sahasında varlığını hissettirdi. Ancak Amerika ve Fransa’da yaşanan devrimlerin beraberinde getirdiği milliyetçilik ve liberalizm gibi düşünce akımlarının çok uluslu Osmanlı tebaası üzerindeki etkileri, büyük toprak kayıpları, mali çöküntüler gibi doğrudan ve dolaylı pek çok neden hızla gelişen Batı karşısındaki bu modernleşme çabalarını yetersiz bıraktı.
Yine reform hareketleri kapsamında, devlet yönetiminde değişikliğe gidilmesi hususunda denemeler oldu. Bu kapsamda 1876’da gerçekleşen anayasalı ve parlamentolu bir saltanat rejimi olan meşruti sisteme geçiş denemesi kısa bir süre sonra askıya alındı. 1908’deki ikinci deneme ile birlikte Osmanlı Devleti, saltanatın kaldırılışına kadar meşrutiyet rejimi ile yönetildi. Diğer taraftan I. Meşrutiyetin ilanından, II. Meşrutiyetin ilanına kadar geçen süre içerisinde hükümdarlık yapan Padişah II. Abdülhamit döneminde de önemli reform hareketleri oldu. Batı tarzı askeri ve sivil eğitim kurumları, endüstriyel yatırımlar, ulaşım ve haberleşme sahalarındaki önemli atılımlar gibi modernleşme girişimleri, dış ve iç politikada yaşanan sorunlar nedeniyle Osmanlı Devleti’ni ayakta tutmaya yetmedi.
Öte yandan XIX. yüzyılda Avrupa’dan başlayıp, daha sonra bütünsel
olarak dünyada yaygınlık kazanan düşünce akımları Osmanlı Devleti’nde
de etkili oldu. Bu fikir hareketlerinin yaygınlaşmasında en önemli araç ise
Osmanlı basınıydı. Dönemin düşünürlerinin basında çıkan yazıları ile yaygınlık kazanan fikir akımları bazı muhalif toplulukların oluşmasına neden oldu. Genç Osmanlılar ya da Avrupa’daki isimlendirilmesiyle Jön Türkler ile İttihat ve Terakki Cemiyeti devlet rejimine karşı adından çokça söz ettiren en önemli muhalif gruplardı.
Her ne kadar Avrupa tarafından hasta adam olarak nitelendirilse de
Osmanlı Devleti’nin XIX. yüzyıldan yıkılışına kadar Batı tesirli çağdaşlaşma mücadelesi, beklenilenden daha yaygın ve etkili gerçekleşti. Ancak sömürgecilik çağına denk gelen tüm bu girişimler, süreklilik arz eden dış ve iç sorunların bertaraf edilememesi nedeniyle sonuçsuz kaldı. XX. yüzyılın ilk çeyreğinde yaşanan savaşlar silsilesi ise Osmanlı Devleti için sonun başlangıcı oldu.