Gregory Boyle

The authors of a recent meta-analysis of studies into male circumcision and HIV describe their findings as “compelling.” We disagree. They reported a remarkably high degree of inconsistency with 97% of variation across studies due to heterogeneity rather than chance (an astounding, rarely seen level of heterogeneity). Using recently described methods, 28.57% of the studies would need to have been excluded to bring I2 below the 50% threshold (considered high) and 32.65% excluded to bring I2 below the 25% threshold considered acceptable (well above the expected 99th percentiles of 22% and 32%, respectively). Similarly, 65.51% and 65.93% of the total number of participants needed to be excluded to reach the 50% and 25% thresholds (above the 99th percentiles of 25% and 48%, respectively). Given this excessive between-study heterogeneity, Sharma et al. should have refrained from reporting summary estimates.

Ullmann et al. recently published a pilot study in Translational Psychiatry in which they report failing to find a statistically significant reduction in either hair cortisol or hair cortisone levels in circumcised men as compared with genitally intact (noncircumcised) men. Based on such null findings, the authors purport to have "refuted the psycho-pathological long-term effects of circumcision" and that the lack of significant results, "add to the growing body of evidence in the literature that male circumcision is not likely psychologically traumatizing across the life-span." In addition, they claim that they have proven a "healthy functionality of the LHPA axis" in men subjected to circumcision during infancy or childhood. However, it is not possible to draw any such conclusions on the basis of a null finding, especially one derived from an underpowered study in which the trend in the data suggest, if anything, that an adequately powered study may have shown the opposite of what the authors claim. When combined with other weaknesses in study design, measurement, and interpretation, it becomes apparent that the authors' conclusions are not supported by their data.

Engvik (1998) has challenged our critique of (1) the ungrounded and
excessive reliance on item-transparent, self-report personality measures (Q-data), and of (2) the naive appeal of five-factor models (FFM), in which personality is conceived as a set of static traits not influenced by social experience. In addition, Engvik has attempted to disparage our call for greater emphasis on objective (non-fakeable) performance/test measures of personality (T-data). Despite Engvik's assertion that our arguments are indefensible, there is a great body of empirical evidence and published literature that verifies our view that self-report methodology is seriously flawed, and that conclusions drawn from such measures may be dubious.

Psychometric measurement of personality as it is applied today is very
problematic and often results in unreliable, invalid prediction. The main
problems have been, on one hand, the number of personality traits and on the other hand, the almost exclusive use of subjective self-report inventories (Q-data) that more or less automatically lead to biased or distorted judgments. The former problem no doubt is the reason for the popularity of the so-called "Big Five" personality dimensions. There are, however, strong reasons for questioning their validity. In order to remedy the latter problem, more research is needed to develop objective test (T-data) instruments similar, for example, to Cattell's Objective-Analytic Battery.

While the role of non-ability intrapersonal variables including personality traits and motivationaldynamic factors has been well documented in numerous studies, the relationship of transient states to cognitive performance has been relatively neglected. Boyle (1983b, 1986) demonstrated that emotional states powerfully influence cognitive learning outcomes under conditions of stressful activation. However, under neutral, non-emotive conditions, it remained unclear what role if any was played by mood states i n cognitive learning. The failure to employ change measures in these studies may have obscured the likely influence of emotions on cognitive performance in the neutral situation. This study reexamines the relationship of moods with cognitive learning performance using state-change scores rather than single-occasion mood-state scores as the basis for predicting cognitive learning outcomes.

A separation of state and trait factors, and an allocation of modulation values to situations, was attempted by giving the Eight State Battery (8SQ) and the Motivation Analysis Test (MAT) to two groups, each under two situations, one aversive. The difference scores between a pre- and post-exposure to the mild and the severe aversive situations were
significant on all 8SQ factors but mainly on ergs, not sentiments, in the MAT. The state changes, notably on Anxiety, Regression, Depression and Guilt, were greater on the more shocking stimulus, while Fear rose and Narcism fell significantly on the MAT. Changes were greater on the unintegrated than integrated motivational components, confirming hypotheses by others.

The discriminant validity of measures of abnormal illness behaviours and psychopathology was examined in three samples differing in illness prone- ness: a sample of young healthy university students. (N = 38), a general community sample (n = 36), and a sample of clinical psychiatric outpatients (N = 36). Adjustment to illness was measured using the Illness Behaviour Questionnaire (lBQ: Pilowsky & Spence. 1994), while the Millon Clinical Multiaxial Inventory-Ill (MCMI-III, Millon. 1994) was used to measure clinical syndromes and personality. MANCOVAs were performed across the three groups on the lBQ and the MCMI-III categories separately. As expected clinical outpatients obtained significantly higher scores than did nonclinical groups on most of the lBQ scales, suggesting discernible discriminant validity. However, the lack of discrimination between groups on several of the MCMI-III scales raises questions about the test validity of this multidimensional instrument.

This theoretical note describes an expansion of the behavioral prediction equation, in line with the greater complexity encountered in models of structured learning theory (R. B. Cattell, 1996a). This presents learning theory with a vector substitute for the simpler scalar quantities by which traditional Pavlovian– Skinnerian models have hitherto been represented. Structured learning can be demonstrated by vector changes across a range of intrapersonal psychological variables (ability, personality, motivation, and state constructs). Its use with motivational dynamic trait measures (R. B. Cattell, 1985) should reveal new theoretical possibilities for scientifically monitoring change processes (dynamic calculus model; R. B. Cattell, 1996b), such as encountered within psychotherapeutic settings (R. B. Cattell, 1987). The enhanced behavioral prediction equation suggests that static conceptualizations of personality structure such as the Big Five model are less than optimal.

La structure psychologique est composee d'un large evantail de traits de personnalite et d'apti- tudes. Dans son reuvre, Raymond Cattell s'est efforce de rendre compte de la complexite de cette structure dans son ensemble (Cattell, 1979, 1980, 1982). Il a tenté de construire une taxonomie de concepts psychologiques comparable a la table des elements en chimie. Des dimensions psychologiques mises en evidence par l'analyse factorielle ont ete, par la suite, incorporees dans des versions differentes de « l'equation de specification comportementale » (Cattell, 1983; Cattell, Boyle et Chant, 2002). Selon Kline (1986), le modele psychometrique cattellien comprend les facteurs de structure simple les plus importants qui aient ete de- converts, respectivement, dans les domaines de la personnalite, de 1'aptitude intellectuelle, de Ia dynamique motivationnelle et de l'humeur.

Se calcula que unos 650 millones de hombres y 120 millones de mujeres que viven en la actualidad sufrieron modificaciones genitales en su infancia (OMS, 2000). Durante el siglo veinte, los partidarios de la cirugía genital han considerado que realizar la circuncisión y el cambio de sexo sin consentimiento en niños y niñas prácticamente no tiene secuelas psicológicas negativas. En el siglo veintiuno, la creciente evidencia empírica muestra, en este momento, que dicha mutilación causa daño irreversible en el ambito físico, sexual y, muchas veces, psicológico a la víctima. Por ejemplo, de 313 hombres circuncidados cuando eran niños, el 75% manifestaban daño psicológico, el 60% indicaban resentimiento por la circuncisión, el 54% mostraban cólera, el 50% se sentían violados, el 47% se consideraban inferiores comparados con los otros varones y el 43% creían que la circuncisión perjudicaba sus relaciones sexuales (Hammond, 1997, 1999). En una investigación con hombres circuncidados cuando eran niños, Menage (1999) encontró que el PTSD estaba presente en el 75% de los casos. En otro estudio, 83 hombres circuncidados manifestaban sentirse significativamente más enfadados, heridos e incompletos y se sentían defraudados en comparación con los hombres no mutilados (Bensley, 1999). Asimismo, los efectos a largo plazo del PTSD son manifestados con frecuencia por las víctimas de la mutilación genital femenina (Elchalal et al., 1999). Además, la evidencia acumulada hasta ahora indica que la cirugía de cambio de sexo (e.g., la castración) realizada en los niños puede tener efectos devastadores y crónicos para la salud mental (Wilson & Reiner, 1999; Kipnis & Diamond, 1999). Las víctimas de circuncisión, o las sometidas a operaciones de cambio de sexo, cuando eran menores han descrito sus experiencias en términos de violación, tortura, mutilación y ataque sexual (Goldman, 1997, 1999). Dados los efectos adversos a largo plazo sobre la salud mental que causa la cirugía genital innecesaria en los menores, ha llegado el momento para que, de una vez por todas, se paren todas las formas de mutilación genital.
 

Sin lugar a dudas, Raymond B. Cattell y Hans J. Eysenck han sido los dos autores más importantes y prolíficos en el área de la evaluación de la personalidad y la inteligencia durante la segunda mitad del siglo veinte (véase Boyle, 2000; Boyle y Ortet, 1997, 1999). En el presente artículo se hace una revisión del trabajo de Cattell y sus colaboradores en el que se abordan algunas de las contribuciones de este autor al desarrollo del análisis factorial, así como a la evaluación de las aptitudes, de los rasgos de la personalidad normal y anormal, de los rasgos dinámicos (motivacionales) y de los estados de ánimo transitorios. Cattell se dedicó a la evaluación de los mencionados campos psicológicos de una manera global, aunque posiblemente un inconveniente de su sistema sea el excesivo número de factores primarios (al menos 66 factores sumando todos estos campos) cuando se tienen en cuenta simultáneamente. Se sugiere que a partir de un número menor de dimensiones (factores de segundo orden) dispondríamos de un modelo psicométrico más parsimonioso y útil desde un punto de vista práctico, pero que, al mismo tiempo, permitiría mantener la amplitud de la varianza psicológica intrapersonal y su evaluación multivariada, algo que se le reconoce a escuela cattelliana.

While rare in Scandinavia and Europe, male circumcision is still common in North America despite some reductions in frequency over recent decades. The United States rate has declined from 90 to 60 per cent in recent years and has fallen by 15 percent in five years.1 Canadian circumcision rates differ dramatically from province to province but the national average is around 25%.  It is revealing that the provincial rates have plummeted as each province discontinued coverage under the National Health Service.2  Currently, only Manitoba still pays for circumcisions.  Circumcision does not constitute genuine medical treatment.  It violates criminal law, the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, and also human rights. The health implications are graver than is generally realised, despite clear medical evidence of adverse effects from the pain, significant complications, psychological harm and inevitable prejudice to genital function. There are no clearly demonstrable medical benefits.  The law, the medical profession, and society in general seems to have turned two blind eyes to this serious form of violence against males.

Some 8059 healthy women (mean age 58 years) were studied in 1973 with the aim of establishing the presence or absence of a variety of physical and psychological risk factors for mammary cancer. Mortality was established in 1988,15 years later. Both physical and psychological risk-factor predictors were highly significant. Physical risk factors were more predictive than psychological ones, but both interacted synergistically to predict mortality. Alone, psychological (stress) factors had little effect, whilephysical factors did. However, psychological factors seemed to potentiate the effect of physical factors, particularly in the middle range. The causal relevance of psychological factors was established in a special intervention study using autonomy training as a method of prophylactic therapy and comparing outcome with the effects of no therapy (control).

Engvik (1998) has challenged our critique of (1) the ungrounded and excessive reliance on item-transparent, self-report personality measures (Q-data), and of (2) the naive appeal of five­factor models (FFM), in which personality is conceived as a set of static traits not influenced by social experience.  In addition, Engvik has attempted to disparage our call for greater emphasis on objective (non-fakeable) performance/test measures of personality (T-data).  Despite Engvik's assertion that our arguments are indefensible, there is a great body of empirical evidence and published literature that verifies our view that self-report methodology is seriously flawed, and that conclusions drawn from such measures may be dubious.

Russell's short form of the Booklet Category Test (BCT) was administered to 26 diagnosed schizophrenic patients and 14 normal individuals along with a test of pre­morbid intelligence.  IQ scores correlated significantly (inversely) with errors and in particular with Subtests 3, 4, and 6. Age related directly to errors, especially for Subtests 3, 4, and 5. The mean Cronbach coefficient alpha was .71, indicating moderate item homogeneit y across subtests.  In sum, the shortened form of the BCT appears to be an efficient and effective measure of concept formation among schizophrenic individuals.

Experimental psychology does require a multivariate perspective.  In a recent review of the revised Handbook of Multivariate Experimental Psychology, my chapter on the psychometric delineation of human motivation structure was singled out by Marshall B. Jones (CP, 1990, 35, 652-654) and very severely criticized.  Jones did not proffer even a single remark about the empirical content of my 50-page chapter.  Instead, he chose to focus selectively on a few peripheral statements in an apparent attempt to denigrate my experimental multivariate research work (covering more than a decade's empirical investigation). This criticism was largely misplaced, because Jones evidently misunderstood the meaning of my comments.

The Halstead Category Test of brain dysfunction is one of the most sensitive neuropsychological measures currently available. While the instrument has received widespread use, nevertheless, the exact nature of what it measures has been poorly delineated. The present brief report presents the results of separate factor analyses of the Category Test along with other neuropsychological measures from the Halstead-Reitan battery. Despite considerable differences in samples, as well as in the particular neuropsychological measures included in the separate analyses, the Category Test consistently lined-up with general intellectual and memory components, in each instance.

The Halstead-Reitan neuropsychological battery has received considerable attention in the literature in recent years (e.g., Gilandas, Touyz, Beaumont, & Greenberg, 1985; Logue & Schear, 1984; Reitan & Davison, 1974; Russell, Neuringer, & Goldstein, 1970). The Halstead-Reitan battery has been shown to compare favorably with the Luria-Nebraska neuropsychological battery in efficiently discriminating between brain-injured and normal individuals (cf. Golden, Kane, Sweet, Moses, Cardellino, Templeton, Vicente, & Graber, 1981; Kane, Sweet, & Moses, 1979; Spiers, 1982). According to Golden et al. (p. 410), "the Halstead-Reitan Neuropsychological Battery... has been recognized by many as the preeminent standardized neuropsychological battery." (Cf. Golden & Kuperman, 1980). A major difficulty with the Halstead-Reitan battery, however, is the excessive time required for its administration to patients with organic brain damage (cf. Erickson, Calsyn, & Scheupbach, 1978).

The present study investigated the psychological consequences of partial penile amputation, comparing both medical and ritual circumcision procedures in the Philippines. Boys aged from 11 to 16 years were recruited from five different schools of the Batangas province upon securing permission from appropriate authorities (e.g., Human Rights Chair, School Principal, Class Adviser and/or the children’s Parents/Guardian). The boys completed a detailed two-part self-report questionnaire. The preliminary part requested biographical information, including any history of other traumatic events, and their perception of the circumcision experience. The second part assessed the presence of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms. Some 1577 boys satisfied the required criteria (i.e., did not have any pre-existing PTSD) and were included in the study to ascertain whether their perceived psychological trauma from genital cutting resulted in the appearance of PTSD symptoms. Among these previously non-traumatized boys, 1072 boys were circumcised under medical procedures and 505 were subjected to ritual circumcision. Almost 70% of the boys subjected to ritual circumcision (Tuli), and 51% of those subjected to medical circumcision fulfilled the DSM-IV criteria for a diagnosis of PTSD.

Empathy is an essential component of social interactions and may be related to personality characteristics. However, this issue has not been extensively examined in a Chinese sample. Students at six universities in China (N = 257) completed the Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI), the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire-Revised (EPQ-R), and the Depression, Anxiety and Stress Scale (DASS-21). Using multiple regression analyses, and after accounting for demographic variables (sex and age), it was found that the affective empathy component Personal Distress positively predicted EPQ-R Neuroticism scores (β = .49), negatively predicted Extraversion (β = –.21) and Lie scale scores (β = –.22), and positively predicted DASS-21 Depression (β = .26), Anxiety (β = .34) and Stress scores (β = .39). Empathic Concern positively predicted Lie Scale scores (β = .21), and negatively predicted Psychoticism scores (β = –.24). Individuals with high scores in Empathic Concern were also found to score more highly on Fantasy, Personal Distress, Neuroticism, Stress and Anxiety. Thus, more empathic individuals are likely to experience elevations in negative affectivity when they perceive the emotional suffering of others.

The Halstead Category Test of brain dysfunction is one of the most
sensitive neuropsychological measures currently available. While the instrument has received widespread use, nevertheless, the exact nature of what it measures has been poorly delineated. The present brief report presents the results of separate factor analyses of the Category Test along with other neuropsychological measures from the Halstead-Reitan battery. Despite considerable differences in samples, as well as in the particular neuropsychological measures included in the separate analyses, the Category Test consistently lined-up with general intellectual
and memory components, in each instance.

Aunque la comunidad médica mundial está de acuerdo en la ausencia de justificación por la circuncisión neonatal rutinaria, y aunque aproximadamente 85% de los hombres en todo el mundo están genitalmente intactos, se calcula que unos 650 millones de hombres que están viviendo hoy no obstante se han circuncidado. Circuncisión no terapéutica (cirugía de reducción del pene) es realizado principalmente en los niños, sin anestesia o analgesia, y es muy dolorosa y traumática. La evidencia está aumentando ahora que el trauma temprano, como la circuncisión en menores causa un daño irreversible en el ámbito físico, sexual (Maimónides, 1963, p. 609), y muchas veces, psicológico de la víctima (Denniston, Hodges, & Milos, 2001). La circuncisión tiene los acontecimientos intensamente dolorosos que implican ser fuertemente refrenados, teniendo parte de los órganos genitales amputados-cuánto más joven es el niño a la hora del trauma, mayor es la probable psicopatología subsecuente (Green, 1983). Además, la evidencia acumulada hasta ahora indica que la cirugía genital realizada en los niños puede tener efectos devastadores y crónicos para la salud mental. La creciente evidencia empírica muestra que dicha mutilación causa emociones negativas y posiblemente el trastorno por estrés postraumático PTSD de larga duración (Bensley & Boyle, 2001; Gemmell & Boyle, 2001; Hammond, 1999; Menage, 1999; Ramos & Boyle, 2001). Un acontecimiento traumático se define en DSM-IV (APA, 1994) como más allá de la experiencia humana, tal como la agresión, el asalto sexual, o la tortura, que amenaza la integridad física de una persona. La circuncisión traumatiza obviamente a los menores (Eth & Pynoos, 1985; Terr, 1990). Las víctimas de circuncisión cuando eran menores han descrito sus experiencias en términos de violación, tortura, mutilación y ataque sexual (Goldman, 1997, 1999). Por ejemplo, de 313 hombres circuncidados cuando eran niños, el 75% manifestaban daño psicológico, el 60% indicaban resentimiento por la circuncisión, el 54% mostraban cólera, el 50% se sentían violados, el 47% se consideraban inferiores, comparados con los otros hombres y el 43% creían que la circuncisión perjudicaba sus relaciones sexuales (Hammond, 1997). La disociación de la experiencia traumática y del dolor emocional asociado con el conocimiento, es un mecanismo psicológico de defensa
(Chu & Dill, 1990; Noyes, 1977). El trauma doloroso en los menores puede causar cambios neurofisiológicos y neuroquímicos duraderos del cerebro (Ciaranello, 1983; van der Kolk & Saporta, 1991; Anand & Carr, 1989). Muchos hombres han sentido tanto daño por la circuncisión que ellos hasta han recurrido a los métodos de la restauración sustituta del prepucio, en una tentativa para recuperar la sensación y la función sexual perdida. Dados los efectos adversos a largo plazo sobre la salud mental que causa la circuncisión innecesaria en los menores, es tiempo para que la comunidad de salud mental profesional examine este problema estrechamente, dirijae más investigación, y participe en la discusión sobre la prudencia de esta cirugía no terapéutica de la reducción sexual que se impone en los niños indefensos.

The School Motivation Analysis Test (SMAT) is a 190-item, objective (T-data), multidimensional instrument for measuring factor analytically derived adolescent motivation dimensions. The SMAT was administered to 109 high school students (63 females, 46 males) enrolled in a Melbourne metropolitan foreign language school. Sten (standard ten) scores on the SMAT dynamic source traits (labelled: Assertiveness, Mating/Sex, Fear/ Escape, Narcism, Pugnacity, Protectiveness, Self-sentiment, Superego, School Orientation, and Home Orientation) were used to predict achievement (combined across Comprehension,
Grammar, Written Expression, and Oral Expression) via separate stepwise forward multiple regression analyses for each of five subgroups of SMAT variables (Integrated, Unintegrated, Total, Conflict, and Derivative components, respectively). SMAT dynamics accounted for up to 34 per cent of the achievement variance (males) and 26 per cent (females). Integrated Superego and Assertiveness sentiments were significant predictors of learning. However, only for the Total (U + I) stens, was Self-sentiment a significant predictor. The derivative stens
accounted for 15 per cent of the achievement variance (males), and 12 per cent (females). Results also showed that gender was a major determinant of achievement outcomes, with males and females exhibiting different patterns of motivational investment in second-language acquisition.

Separate  curiosity state ( C-State) and anxiety state ( A-State) measures  were administered before and after a learning task, to 300 secondary school  students. The students were randomly allocated to one of three curiosity treatment groups ; Curiosity Stimulating Instructions  (CSI);  Neutral Instructions (NI); and Boredom Inducing Instructions (BII), respectively. Correlations between C-State and  A-State scores for these treatment groups on the separate testing occasions could not be accounted for by the two­-factor optimal arousal  model. In contrast, the three-factor optimal arousal model provided a satisfactory explanation of the obtained  data.

The relationship of concept formation abilities to the presence or absence of delusions in schizophrenic disorders was investigated. Twenty-six schizophrenic patients and 14 normal individuals were administered a short form of the Booklet Category Test (BCT). Patients were grouped into those with and without delusions. It was hypothesized that the delusional group would perform significantly better on the BCT (obtain lower error scores) than the non-delusional group. Normal and delusional groups obtained significantly lower BCT error scores than the non-delusional group, even when differences in IQ scores were statistically partialled out. The two schizophrenic groups also differed significantly on BCT error scores with the delusional group performing better than the non-delusional group.
group.

Both canonical and multiple-regression redundancy analyses were computed on the 20 separate subscale change-scores for the Eight State Questionnaire (8SQ) and the Differential Emotions Scale (DES-IV), using a sample of 212 undergraduate students. In comparing measurement overlap of the two measures, it was important, since state-change dimensions were of interest, that across-occasions' difference scores be used rather than single-occasion absolute scores. Viability of this approach was demonstrated and only minor redundancy was evident for the 8SQ and DES-IV instruments. On the present evidence, it appears that both inventories are tapping essentially discrete psychological variance (allowing for trait contamination) and that probably neither instrument alone is an adequate measure of the total 'mood-state sphere'.

Previous studies of the higher-order state-change factors in the Eight State Questionnaire (8SQ) have suggested that at least three typological mood-state dimensions are measured in the instrument. Nevertheless, the appropriate dR factor-analytic methodology has not always been employed, and even when it has (e.g., Boyle, 1988a), the sample size has been sufficient to allow only preliminary conclusions. The present study explores more thoroughly this issue of typological mood-state factors in the 8SQ using a large sample of 470 subjects. A dR-factoring of the intercorrelations for the subscale difference scores (across two separate measurement occasions) clearly suggests the presence of four different
emotional/mood-type factors. These findings are compared with higher-order factors obtained previously for the Differential Emotions Scale (DES), an instrument purported to measure fundamental human emotions.

The present study investigated the effects of depressogenic statements on 154 normal young women, in relation to the late luteal phase of the female monthly cycle (paramenstruum). The women were allocated to a depressive-induction group or to either of two non-treatment groups. Multivariate ANOVAs indicated that paramenstrual women given the depressogenic statements reported more negative post-induction mood states than did other women. Four of the 12 mood states measured by the Differential Emotions Scale (DES-IV) were significantly elevated for the paramenstrual women in the depressive-induction group only (viz.
Sadness, Hostility, Fear and Shame subscales). It was concluded that
paramenstrual women appear to be more sensitive to depressive stimuli, and therefore, more prone to experience negative mood states than women at other stages in their monthly cycles.

The heterogeneity of schizotypal traits, suggested in previous research, was further investigated in a sample of subjects (N = 1095) administered a composite questionnaire consisting of a large number of published scales the majority of which were designed to measure psychotic characteristics. Factor analysis confirmed the four components previously indicated in our work with the same measurement instruments, namely, 'aberrant perceptions and beliefs', 'cognitive disorganisation', 'introvertive anhedonia ' and 'asocial behaviour'. This structure was maintained regardless of whether or not the analysis included scales from the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire, which might otherwise have been held to explain the variance. ' Aberrant perceptions and beliefs ' - reminiscent of the positive symptoms
of schizophrenia - was the strongest component; but, given the multidimensional nature of the data, together with the pattern of factor loadings and intercorrelations for the scales involved, it was concluded that the broader term 'psychosis proneness' or 'psychoticism' (in a non-Eysenckian sense) might be a better descriptor of the clinical and personality domain sampled.

A survey of experiments suggests that the U (unintegrated) component in  a dynamic motivation  structure (erg or sem) is more state-like (low  stability index) than the I (integrated) component. While subjects exposed to a horror film showed significant shifts both on the U-components measured in the Motivation Analysis Test (MAT) and on general emotional states measured in the Eight State Questionnaire(8SQ), nevertheless, only quite trivial correlations were obtained between the two. It is concluded that low negative correlations actually exist  between the general mood-state shifts and the U-component shifts, which fits no existing hypothesis. A  review of other manipulative experiments agrees, however, with the greater responsiveness of U-measures to internal and  external conditions.

Some 8059 healthy women (mean age 58 years) were studied in 1973 with the aim of establishing the presence or absence of a variety of physical and psychological risk factors for mammary cancer. Mortality was established in 1988, 15 years later. Both physical and psychological risk-factor predictors were highly significant. Physical risk factors were more predictive than psychological ones, but both interacted synergistically to predict mortality. Alone, psychological (stress) factors had little effect, while physical factors did. However, psychological factors seemed to potentiate the effect of physical factors, particularly in the middle range. The causal relevance of psychological factors was established in a special intervention study using autonomy training as a method of prophylactic therapy and comparing outcome with the effects of no therapy (control).

Boyle (Personality and Individual Differences, 10, 709-715, 1989b) conducted an iterative principal factoring and oblique rotation of the standardisation sample (n = 5,013) for the revised Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale (Fourth Edition). Nevertheless, because of the exploratory methodology employed, the results were problematic. Keith, Cool, Novak, White and Pottebaum (1988)-(Journal of School Psychology, 26, 253-274) had previously carried out a confirmatory factor analysis and had concluded that the results supported the four Area dimensions (Verbal Reasoning, Quantitative Reasoning, Abstract/Visual Reasoning, and Short-Term Memory) in the new instrument. As congeneric factor analysis via LISREL has not yet been performed, the present paper presents a LISREL reanalysis of the subtest
intercorrelations provided in the Stanford-Binet IV Technical Manual. In replicating the confirmatory analysis of Keith et al., it was found that some of the subtests were loaded differently from that previously reported, although each Area dimension was supported strongly by congeneric factor analysis. Even so, the magnitude of the intercorrelations between the four Area dimensions was quite high, suggesting that intellectual abilities are influenced strongly by general ability (g).

Given the frequent use of SPSSX and SPSS/PC+ exploratory factor
analysis in analyzing multivariate psychometric data, it is germane to examine the limitations of the Factor program as it currently exists. Over recent years, the routines in these packages generally have been developed and expanded considerably. In particular, the exploratory factor analysis procedures have been greatly extended and enhanced with inclusion of additional estimation methods such as minimum likelihood, unweighted least squares, generalized least squares, and so on. Likewise, availability of a Scree plot of the latent roots against factor
number has facilitated determination of the appropriate factor-extraction number. Provision of a chi-square goodness-of-fit test, as well as options for sorting and retaining factor loadings greater than a minimum level (usually ± .30), have added to the utility of the SPSSX and SPSS/PC+ statistical routines. These routines have undoubtedly facilitated and stimulated psychometric reports involving the use of factor analysis in the psychological literature.

This chapter concerns the scientific analysis of individual differences in human psychological functioning including personality structure, undertaken by the author over a 30-year period (Boyle, 2006b). A key aspect of this programmatic work has been the taxonomic delineation of psychological constructs relating to cognitive abilities, personality traits (both normal and abnormal), dynamic (motivation) traits, and transitory
(emotional/mood) states within the framework of the Cattellian Psychometric Model (e.g., see Cattell, 1973, 1979, 1980a,b, 1982a, 1983, 1984, 1988a,b,c, 1990a,b,c; 1995; Cattell & Child, 1975; Cattell & Horn, 1982; Cattell & Kline, 1977; Cattell & Nesselroade, 1984; Cattell et al., 2002). This extensive body of taxonomic psychometric research has been empirical and measurement oriented, using a combination of multivariate experimental and quasi-experimental designs (e.g., Boyle, 1988c; Boyle et al., 1995; Cattell, 1988b,c,e) although some critical reviews and integrative position papers have also been generated
(e.g., Boyle, 1985b; Boyle & Cattell, 1987; Boyle & Smári, 2002; Boyle et al., 1999).

The Halstead Category Test (HCI') is burdened by excessive length and time of administration (Kilpatrick, 1970). Since it is included in the Halstead-Reitan neuropsyschological test battery, and utilized by Russell, Neuringer & Goldstein (1970) in their 'key approach', a short-form would be useful. Split-half reliability studies on the HCT, for instance Kilpatrick (1970); Shaw (1966); and Walsh  (1970),  have  given  high values  (097, 098 and 0.98 respectively), which are encouraging for the development of a short-form. The  present  study  tests  the suggestion of Kilpatrick (1970) that a short-form is feasible. In his study of a short-form produced by splitting the HCT into two halves on the basis of the odd and even numbered items, he estimated a high parallel-forms reliability coefficient (0.94). Similarly, in the present study, a high reliability coefficient (0.93) for the short-form, was estimated from Kilpatrick's data, using the Spearman-Brown prophecy formula.

The central concern of this study was to explore the relationship between
sex-role identity (measured by a bi-dimensional scale of masculinity and
femininity) and field independence and scholastic intelligence. One hundred and forty Australian males and 181 females in grades 11 and 12 completed the Witkin Group Embedded Figures Test, the Otis Higher Test C of intelligence and a shortened version of the Bern Sex Role Identity Questionnaire. The correlation between performance on the Witkin and Otis was 0.53. Males performed significantly better on the Witkin and Otis than females. Males with lower masculinity scores scored better on the Otis than those with higher scores on masculinity. Females with low femininity scores performed higher on the Witkin
and Otis than females with high femininity scores. When subjects were allocated by sex into one of four sex-role identity groups (high masculine-high feminine, high masculine-low feminine, low masculine-high feminine, low masculine-low feminine) significant differences in intelligence (Otis) among sex-role groups were found for females. The most significant difference in intelligence was obtained between the high masculine-low feminine and low masculine-high feminine groups of females. Results are discussed in terms of previous findings.

This paper reports sex differences in cognitive task performance that emerged when 39 Australian university undergraduates (19 men; 20 women) were asked to solve verbal (lexical) and visual-spatial cognitive matching tasks which varied in difficulty and visual field of presentation. Sex significantly interacted with task type, task difficulty, laterality, and changes in performance across trials. The results revealed that the significant individual differences’ variable of sex does not always emerge as a significant main effect, but instead in terms of significant interactions with other variables manipulated experimentally. Our results show that sex differences must be taken into account when conducting experiments into human cognitive-task performance.

The Children's Motivation Analysis Test (CMAT), together with standardised achievement tests in mathematics and reading, was administered to a large sample of Australian elementary school children. Stepwise forward regression analyses were conducted on subsamples of 209 males and 179 females (cases with missing data previously excluded). Several of the CMAT dynamic traits significantly predicted achievement scores. The most useful predictors were conscientiousness
(Superego) and family (Home) orientation. These results, based on objective motivation measurement, represent the beginnings of a new approach for research into children's motivation structure.

It is generally agreed that females tend to assent more readily to negative mood states such as Anxiety or Depression, than do males. The present study explored this issue on a large sample of male and female Education undergraduate students, using the Eight State Questionnaire (8SQ) as the measure of mood states. Several studies had previously suggested that the 8SQ is a useful multidimensional instrument for quantifying a wide range of clinically important mood states. Results indicated that male and female students responded differentially to a
minority of the 8SQ items, and that the factor structure of reported moods differed only slightly across sex. Indeed, the similarities in reported mood states across sex were more striking than were the differences.

This study assesses the effects of severe traumatic brain injuries on family members and functioning-a topic of interest for those working with survivors and their families. This issue is receiving increased attention as recent findings suggest that family adjustment influences outcome for brain-injured persons. The Family Environment Scale and the Profile of Mood States were completed by 25 individuals who had a family member with a severe traumatic brain injury. These scales were also completed by a comparison group of 32 individuals who had no brain-injured family member. In terms of family functioning, the findings suggest that, when a family member suffers a severe traumatic brain injury, depression may be elevated, along with a decreased ability to
express feelings, decreased time and energy for social and recreation- al activities, and increased control in comparison to families without a brain-injured member. While this might contribute to family isolation which could last for many years, the overall finding of the present study was that caregiver families were coping adequately.

This paper examines some aspects of the psychometric adequacy of existing self-report depression measures, so that clinicians might better appreciate their reliability and validity. Issues addressed include the desirability of moderate rather than maximum test-retest and item homogeneity/internal consistency estimates; the distinction between measurement at the surface syndrome level vs. that at the fundamental source state/trait level; the importance of appropriate rather than arbitrary factor analytic procedures; and the need for multivariate measures instead of the single-scale instruments so often employed to measure depression in isolation from interacting emotions such as anxiety or stress. Apart from these more general issues, a number of specific criticisms is considered, along with recommendations for better self-report measures of depression.

The DES-IV (a 49-item version of the Differential Emotions Scale) was
administered to 212 undergraduate college students on two separate measurement occasions. The resulting subscale scores were inter-correlated and subjected to an iterative principal factoring procedure together with rotation to direct Oblimin simple structure, for each measurement occasion separately. Three emotional mood-type factors accounted for much of the variance in the DES-IV subscales, suggesting the feasibility of scoring the instrument for typological factors.
Comparisons with previous higher-order factorings of the instrument are made and results are discussed in terms of obtained coefficients of concordance across measurement occasions.

The ever increasing knowledge of human behavior emanating from psychological research and allied disciplines is matched by the need for reliable and valid measures to assess the constructs used in both the research laboratory and applied settings. Measures of personality and social psychological factors have been a major contribution from psychology since the early part of the last century and continue to proliferate to this day. There is no lack of interest in the assessment of the wide range of personal characteristics, both familiar and novel, but rather a demand for more and better measures. The ever-increasing array of specific scales/measures available to researchers and practitioners alike is a sign of the strength of psychology's contributions to our knowledge of human behavior. Concurrent with our descriptions and models of human psychology have been advances in the methods underlying scale construction and validation. In contrast to how 'tests' of 100 years ago were constructed, standardized, and evaluated, there has been a steady evolution in both the foundations and methods of psychological measurement and in the rigor demanded by both researchers and practitioners over time. Psychologists and all others impacted by the study and applications of psychology expect the precision, exactness, and accuracy in the measures used to assess what are often theory driven constructs (latent traits) such as extraver-sion, anxiety/neuroticism, self-concept, narcissism, empathy, and perfectionism. Like subatomic particles and gravity in physics we cannot directly see such hypothetical constructs as intelligence or empathy, but we can infer their 'existence' because of observed individual differences in behavior. Thus, we can create quantitative models to describe these latent traits and, in the process, also develop measures that reflect their theoretical and operational definitions. The rapid growth of psychological tests was readily observed from the early part of the 20th century onward (see Gregory, 2014). By the third decade, the Mental Measurements Yearbook founded by O.K. Buros in 1938 (now 19th MMY; see Carlson, Geisinger, & Jonson 2014), along with the Tests in Print series, both published by the Buros Institute for Mental Measurements (now the Buros Center for Testing), was created to both catalogue and provide critical reviews by experts on the ever increasing number of assessment instruments. Large test publishing houses, focusing on the development and marketing of psychological tests appeared early in the last century such as Houghton Mifflin (now Riverside Publishing), and The Psychological Corporation (now Pearson) founded by J. McKean Cattell in 1921. A growing journal literature on assessment including both the foundations and professional psychology applications, but especially new measures, began to appear. Studies of assessment now appear in peer-reviewed journals such as Assessment; Applied Psychological Measurement; Educational and Psychological

Work and organisational psychology is a branch of mainstream psychology which has truly global reach. This subject covers a broad array of aspects such as individual, team and organisational effectiveness, creativity and innovation, cross-cultural leadership and the organisation of health services, healthcare and employee well-being. In five thematic volumes, this collection brings together key papers on the topic, and together with the introductory chapters written by the Editor for each volume, is designed to serve the interests of psychology scholars, and also those involved in the social and behavioural sciences, more broadly.

Work and organizational psychology is a branch of mainstream psychology which has a truly global reach. This subject covers a broad array of aspects such as individual, team and organizational effectiveness, creativity and innovation, cross-cultural leadership and the organization of health services, health care and employee well-being. In five thematic volumes, this collection brings together key papers on the topic, and together with the introductory chapters written by the editors for each volume, is designed to serve the interests of psychology scholars, and also those involved in the social and behavioural sciences, more broadly.

This theoretical note describes an expansion of the behavioral prediction equation, in line with the greater complexity encountered in models of structured learning theory (R. B. Cattell, 1996a). This presents learning theory with a vector substitute for the simpler scalar quantities by which traditional Pavlovian-Skinnerian models have hitherto been represented. Structured learning can be demonstrated by vector changes across a range of intrapersonal psychological variables (ability, personality,
motivation, and state constructs). Its use with motivational dynamic trait measures (R. B. Cattell, 1985) should reveal new theoretical possibilities for scientifically monitoring change processes (dynamic calculus model; R. B. Cattell, 1996b), such as encountered within psychotherapeutic settings ( R. B. Cattell, 1987). The enhanced behavioral prediction equation suggests that static conceptualizations of personality
structure such as the Big Five model are less than optimal.